Chapter 1

Natural Laws
o Concise statements, often in mathematical form, about
natural phenomena
Hypothesis
o A tentative explanation of a series of observations or of a
natural law
Theory
o A model or conceptual framework with which one is able to
explain and make further predictions about natural
phenomena
Scientific Method
o The general sequence of activities observation,
experimentation, and formulation of hypotheses, laws, and
theories that lead to the advancement in scientific
knowledge
Matter
o Anything that occupies space, has the property known as
mass, and displays inertia
Composition
o The components and their relative proportions in a sample
of matter
Properties
o Qualities or attributes which can be used to distinguish one
sample of matter from another
Chemical Change Chemical Reaction
o A process in which one set of substances (reactants) is
transformed into a new set of substances (products)
Chemical Property
o The ability of a sample of matter to undergo a particular
chemical reaction
Atom
o The basic building block of matter. The number of different
atoms currently known is 114. A chemical element consists
of a single type of atom, and a chemical compound
consists of two or more different atoms
Element
o A substance composed of a single type of atom. It cannot
be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
reactions
Compound
o A substance made up of two or more elements. It does not
change its identity in physical changes, but it can be

broken down into its constituent elements by chemical

changes
Molecule
o A group of bonded atoms held together by covalent bonds
and existing as a separate entity. A molecule is the
smallest entity having the characteristic proportions of the
constituent atoms present in a substance
Substance
o Has a constant composition and properties throughout a
given sample and from one sample to another. Al;
substances are either elements or compounds
Homogeneous Mixture
o A mixture of elements and/or compounds that has a
uniform composition and properties within a given sample.
However, the composition and properties may vary from
one sample to another
Heterogeneous Mixture
o Compounds separate into physically distinct regions of
differing properties and often differing composition
Solid
o Atoms or molecules are in close contact, often in a highly
organized arrangement. A solid has a definite shape and
occupies a definite volume
Liquid
o Atoms or molecules are in close proximity (although
generally not as close as a solid). A liquid occupies a
definite volume, but has the ability to flow and assume the
shape of its container
Gas
o Atoms or molecules are generally much more widely
separated than in liquids and solids. A gas assumes the
shape of its container and expands to fill the container, this
having neither definite shape or volume
Mass
o The quantity of matter in an object
Celsius
o A temperature scale based upon having 0C for the normal
melting point of ice and 100C for the normal boiling point
of water
Fahrenheit
o A temperature scale based upon having 32F for the
melting point of ice and 212F as the boiling point of water.
Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures are related through
the expression t(C)=5/9[t(F)-32]

Kelvin
o An absolute temperature. The lowest available
temperature is 0K=-273.15C (the temperature at which
molecular motion ceases). Kelvin and Celsius temperatures
are related through the expression
t(K)=t(C)
+273.15
Density
o A physical property obtained by dividing the mass of a
material or object by its volume
Extensive Property
o A property, like mass or volume, whose value depends on
the quantity of matter observed
Insensitive Property
o A property independent of the quantity of matter involved
in the observation. Density and temperature are examples
of insensitive properties
Systematic Errors
o An error that recurs regularly in a series of measurements
because of an inherent error in the measuring system
(faulty calibration, etc.)
Random Errors
o An error made by the experimenter in preforming an
experimental technique or measurement, such as the error
in estimating a temperature reading on a thermometer
Precision
o The degree of reproducibility of a measured quantity the
closeness of agreement among repeated measurements
Accuracy
o The closeness of a measured value to the true or accepted
value of a quantity
Significant Figures
o The digits in an experimentally measured quantity that
establish the precision with which the quantity is known
Chapter 8
Electromagnetic Radiation
o A form of energy propagated as mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields. It includes visible light,
infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray, and radio waves
Wave
o A disturbance that transmits energy through a medium
Amplitude
o The height of the crest of a wave above the center line of
the wave
Wavelength

o The distance between successive crests or troughs of a

wave motion
Diffraction
o The dispersion of light into its different components as a
result of the interference produced by the reflection of light
from a grooved surface.
Atomic (line) Spectra
o These are produced by dispersing light emitted by excited
gaseous atoms. Only a discrete set of wavelength
components (seen as coloured lines) is present in a line
spectrum
Quantum
o A discrete unit of energy that is the smallest quantity by
which the energy of a system can change
Photoelectric
o The emission of electrons by certain materials when their
surfaces are stuck by electromagnetic radiation of the
appropriate frequency
Photons
o A particle of light. The energy of a beam of light is
concentrated into these photons
Quantum Numbers
o Integral numbers whose values must be specified in order
to solve the equations of wave mechanics. Three different
quantum numbers are required: the principle quantum
number, n; the orbital angular quantum number, l; and the
magnetic quantum number, ml. The permitted values of
these numbers are interrelated.
Energy-Level Diagram
o A representation of the allowed energy states for the
electrons in atoms. The simplest energy-level diagram is of
the hydrogen atom
Ground State
o The lowest energy state of the electrons in an atom or
molecule
Excited State
o One or more electrons of an atom are promoted to a higher
energy level than in ground state
Wave-Particle Duality
o Postulated by de Broglie and states that at times particles
of matter have wave-like properties and vice versa. This
was demonstrated in the diffraction pattern observed when
electrons were directed at a nickel crystal
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

o States: when measuring the position and momentum of

fundamental particles of matter, uncertainties in
measurement are inevitable
Wave Mechanics (Wave Functions)
o A form of quantum theory based on the concepts of the
wave-particle duality; the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
and the treatment of electrons as matter waves.
Mathematical solutions of the equations of wave
mechanics are known as wave functions ()
Zero-Point Energy
o The lowest possible energy in a quantum mechanical
system, such as the particle-in-a-box energy
corresponding to n=1
Schrdinger Equation
o Describes the electron in a hydrogen atom as a matter
wave. Solutions to the Schrdinger equations are called
wave functions
Orbitals
o A mathematical function used to describe regions in an
atom where the electron charge density or the probability
of finding an electron is high. The several kinds of orbitals
(s, p, d, f, ) differ from one another in the shapes of the
regions of high electron charge density they describe
Radial Wave Function R(r)
o The part of a wave function that depends only on the
distance r when the Schrdinger wave equation is
expressed in spherical polar coordinates
Angular Wave Function
o A part of a wave function that depends on the angles theta
and when the Schrdinger wave equation is expressed in
spherical polar coordinates
Principal Electronic Shell (Level)
o The collection of all the orbitals having the same value of
the principle quantum number, n. For example, the 3s, 3p,
and 3d orbitals comprise of the third principle shell (n=3)
Subshell (Sublevel)
o The collection of orbitals of the same type. For example,
the three 2p orbitals constitute the 2p subshell
Degenerate Orbitals
o Orbitals that are at the same energy level
Electron Spin
o The characteristic of electrons giving rise to the magnetic
properties of atoms. The two possibilities for electron spin
are +1/2 or -1/2

Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff

o The positive charge acting on a particular electron in an
atom. Its value is the charge on the nucleus, reduced to
the extent that the other electrons screen the particular
electron from the nucleus
Electron Configuration
o A designation of how electrons are distributed among
various orbitals in an atom
spdf Notation
o A method of describing electron configurations in which the
numbers of electrons assigned to each orbital are denoted
as superscripts. For example, the electron configuration of
Cl is 1s22s22p63s23p5
Orbital Diagram
o A representation of an electron configuration in which the
most probable orbital designation and spin of each electron
in the atom are indicated
Aufbau Process
o A method of writing electron configurations. Each element
is described as differing from the preceding one in terms of
the orbital to which the one additional electron is assigned
Valence Electrons
o Electrons in the electronic shell of highest principle
quantum number, that is, electrons in the outermost shell