Quality management philosophies

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I. Contents of quality management philosophies

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W. Edwards Deming is best known for helping to lead the Japanese manufacturing sector out of
the ruins of World War II to becoming a major presence in the world market. The highest quality
award in Japan, The Deming Prize, is named in his honor. He is also known for his 14 points (a
new philosophy for competing on the basis of quality), for the Deming Chain Reaction, and for
the Theory of Profound Knowledge. Read more about Deming's Theory of Profound Knowledge
at the MAAW web site. He also modified the Shewart cycle (Plan, Do, Check, Act) to what is
now referred to as the Deming Cycle (Plan, Do, Study, Act). Beginning in the early 1980s he
finally came to prominence in the United States and played a major role in quality becoming a
major competitive issue in American industry. His book, Out of the Crisis (1986), is considered a
quality classic. Read more about Dr. Deming and his philosophy at the W. Edwards Deming
Institute Home Page.
Joseph Juran also assisted the Japanese in their reconstruction. Juran first became well known in
the quality field in the U.S. as the editor of the Quality Control Handbook (1951) and later for his
paper introducing the quality trilogy. While Deming's approach is revolutionary in nature (i.e.
throw out your old system and "adopt the new philosophy" of his 14 points), Juran's approach is
more evolutionary (i.e. we can work to improve your current system). Deming refers to statistics
as being the language of business while Juran says that money is the language of business and
quality efforts must be communicated to management in their language. Read more about Dr.
Juran and his philosophy at the Juran Institute web site.

Phillip Crosby came to national prominence with the publication of his book, Quality is Free. He
established the Absolutes of Quality Management which includes "the only performance
standard (that makes any sense) is Zero Defects," and the Basic Elements of Improvement.
Phillip Crosby Associates II, Inc. home page.
Armand Feigenbaum is credited with the creation of the idea of total quality control in his 1951
book, Quality Control--Principles, Practice, and Administration and in his 1956 article, "Total
Quality Control." The Japanese adopted this concept and renamed it Company-Wide Quality
Control, while it has evolved into Total Quality Management (TQM) in the U.S.
There are other major contributors to the quality field as we know it today. The list of major
contributors would include Walter Shewhart, Shigeo Shingo, Genichi Taguchi, Kaoru
Ishikawa,and David Garvin among others.
Six Sigma Quality is defined as "a programme aimed at the near-elimination of defects from
every product, process and transaction." Developed at Motorola, Six Sigma quality programs
have been adopted at many major corporations including GE, Dow Chemical, and AlliedSignal.
When used as a metric, Six Sigma means doing things right > 99.9996% of the time (3.4 defects
per million opportunities). A process performing at six sigma is classified by Harry ["Six Sigma:
A Breakthrough Strategy for Profitability," Quality Progress, v. 31, no. 5 (May 1998), pp. 60-64]
as "World Class." Harry defines the "Industry Average" as being at four sigma producing 6,210
defects per million opportunities (< 99.4% good parts).
Six Sigma is a disciplined approach for improvement of defined metrics through the application
of a process known as MAIC: Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control. Some (e.g. DuPont) add a
first step, Define, to the process so that it becomes DMAIC. Read more about the Six Sigma
approach to quality at the iSixSigma web site or at the Six Sigma Academy web site.
Don Linsenmann, DuPont Corp.'s Six Sigma Champion, describes Six Sigma as a triangle
[McCoy, M., "Six Sigma Gaining as Improvement Method," Chemical & Engineering News, v.
77, no. 45 (November 8, 1999), pp. 11-12.]. The triangle's base is the statistical and problemsolving tools for analyzing the root causes of defects. One side of the triangle is the DMAIC
methodology that helps companies use these tools in individual, sharply focused, defect-reducing
projects. The third side of the triangle is the management infrasturcture required to spread the
process throughout the company.
Six Sigma has been criticized by some as being "just a repackaging of long-cherished quality
techniques." [Franco, 2001]. But David Silverstein of Breakthrough Management Group
disagrees. He says [Franco, V. "Adopting Six Sigma," Quality Digest, v. 21, no. 6 (June 2001),
28-32] "What is special about Six Sigma is that it puts all of the elements together in a
comprehensive system that's structured and disciplined and includes many points of
accountability."
Six Sigma programs are credited with substantial improvements. GE claims that Six Sigma saved
it $750 million in 1998 and forecasts a $1.5 billion savings in 1999. Allied Signal reports savings

of more than $500 million in 1998 as a result of its Six Sigma program [McCoy, 1999].
Kathleen Bader, Dow Chemical's Corporate Vice President for Quality and Business Excellence,
is in charge of Dow's Six Sigma initiative. The Dow approach to Six Sigma attempts to "focus on
the determinants of customer satisfaction and drive them back to the businesses they touch."
[McCoy, 1999]. Dow is starting the process from the top, focusing on major projects and
breakthrough goals, and establishing those goals in Six Sigma metrics. Bader says that "Six
Sigma is a cultural change program that accelerates perfection," and expects the program to add
"a cumulative $1.5 billion to the company's earnings before interest and taxes by the end of
2003." [McCoy, 2001]. One project initiated by a Six Sigma black belt at Dow cost $75 for a
monitor to measure moisture and saved $713,000 in the first quarter of the year [McCoy, 2001].
Great Lakes Chemical's Mark Bulriss cautions that "change can't be imposed on a company that's
not ready for it." [McCoy, 1999]. Critics of Six Sigma suggest that it doesn't go far enough.
According to Thomas Pyzdek ["Why Six Sigma is Not Enough," Quality Digest, (November
1999), p. 26.] Six Sigma programs focus on nonconformances and defects which can only result
in a "not dissatisfied" customer. Six Sigma progams must be adapted (such as the Dow approach)
to focus on "critical to quality (CTQ)" characteristics which can create satisfied customers. But
Pyzdek claims that customer satisfaction is not enough. Perfection in the CTQ will not assure the
viability of the firm in the long run. He suggests that Six Sigma progams can result in a less
creative organization. To overcome this possible consequence of Six Sigma he suggests that
organizations should celebrate failure (i.e. value valient innovative efforts that fail), create
quality time (i.e. time for creative activity, not routine work--3M provides 15% of an employees
time for creative activity), reduce procedure protocols (overcontrol and rigid standardization can
inhibit experimentation and innovation), provide mass education in design of experiments, and
utilize undesigned experiments (while design of experiments (DOE) is the method of choice,
much can be learned from ad hoc changes to processes).
==================

III. Quality management tools

1. Check sheet

The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data

in real time at the location where the data is generated.
The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative.
When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is
sometimes called a tally sheet.
The defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data
are recorded by making marks ("checks") on it. A typical
check sheet is divided into regions, and marks made in
different regions have different significance. Data are
read by observing the location and number of marks on
the sheet.
Check sheets typically employ a heading that answers the
Five Ws:

Who filled out the check sheet

What was collected (what each check represents,
an identifying batch or lot number)
Where the collection took place (facility, room,
apparatus)
When the collection took place (hour, shift, day of
the week)
Why the data were collected

2. Control chart
Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts
(after Walter A. Shewhart) or process-behavior
charts, in statistical process control are tools used
to determine if a manufacturing or business
process is in a state of statistical control.
If analysis of the control chart indicates that the
process is currently under control (i.e., is stable,
with variation only coming from sources common
to the process), then no corrections or changes to
process control parameters are needed or desired.

In addition, data from the process can be used to

predict the future performance of the process. If
the chart indicates that the monitored process is
not in control, analysis of the chart can help
determine the sources of variation, as this will
result in degraded process performance.[1] A
process that is stable but operating outside of
desired (specification) limits (e.g., scrap rates
may be in statistical control but above desired
limits) needs to be improved through a deliberate
effort to understand the causes of current
performance and fundamentally improve the
process.
The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of
quality control.[3] Typically control charts are
used for time-series data, though they can be used
for data that have logical comparability (i.e. you
want to compare samples that were taken all at
the same time, or the performance of different
individuals), however the type of chart used to do
this requires consideration.

3. Pareto chart

A Pareto chart, named after Vilfredo Pareto, is a type

of chart that contains both bars and a line graph, where
individual values are represented in descending order
by bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the
line.
The left vertical axis is the frequency of occurrence,
but it can alternatively represent cost or another
important unit of measure. The right vertical axis is
the cumulative percentage of the total number of
occurrences, total cost, or total of the particular unit of
measure. Because the reasons are in decreasing order,
the cumulative function is a concave function. To take
the example above, in order to lower the amount of
late arrivals by 78%, it is sufficient to solve the first
three issues.
The purpose of the Pareto chart is to highlight the
most important among a (typically large) set of
factors. In quality control, it often represents the most
common sources of defects, the highest occurring type
of defect, or the most frequent reasons for customer
complaints, and so on. Wilkinson (2006) devised an
algorithm for producing statistically based acceptance
limits (similar to confidence intervals) for each bar in
the Pareto chart.

4. Scatter plot Method

A scatter plot, scatterplot, or scattergraph is a type of

mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to
display values for two variables for a set of data.
The data is displayed as a collection of points, each
having the value of one variable determining the position
on the horizontal axis and the value of the other variable
determining the position on the vertical axis.[2] This kind
of plot is also called a scatter chart, scattergram, scatter
diagram,[3] or scatter graph.
A scatter plot is used when a variable exists that is under
the control of the experimenter. If a parameter exists that
is systematically incremented and/or decremented by the
other, it is called the control parameter or independent
variable and is customarily plotted along the horizontal
axis. The measured or dependent variable is customarily
plotted along the vertical axis. If no dependent variable
exists, either type of variable can be plotted on either axis
and a scatter plot will illustrate only the degree of
correlation (not causation) between two variables.
A scatter plot can suggest various kinds of correlations
between variables with a certain confidence interval. For
example, weight and height, weight would be on x axis
and height would be on the y axis. Correlations may be
positive (rising), negative (falling), or null (uncorrelated).
If the pattern of dots slopes from lower left to upper right,
it suggests a positive correlation between the variables
being studied. If the pattern of dots slopes from upper left
to lower right, it suggests a negative correlation. A line of
best fit (alternatively called 'trendline') can be drawn in
order to study the correlation between the variables. An
equation for the correlation between the variables can be
determined by established best-fit procedures. For a linear
correlation, the best-fit procedure is known as linear
regression and is guaranteed to generate a correct solution
in a finite time. No universal best-fit procedure is
guaranteed to generate a correct solution for arbitrary
relationships. A scatter plot is also very useful when we
wish to see how two comparable data sets agree with each

other. In this case, an identity line, i.e., a y=x line, or an

1:1 line, is often drawn as a reference. The more the two
data sets agree, the more the scatters tend to concentrate in
the vicinity of the identity line; if the two data sets are
numerically identical, the scatters fall on the identity line
exactly.

5.Ishikawa diagram
Ishikawa diagrams (also called fishbone diagrams,
herringbone diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams, or
Fishikawa) are causal diagrams created by Kaoru
Ishikawa (1968) that show the causes of a specific event.
[1][2] Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product
design and quality defect prevention, to identify potential
factors causing an overall effect. Each cause or reason for
imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually
grouped into major categories to identify these sources of
variation. The categories typically include
People: Anyone involved with the process
Methods: How the process is performed and the
specific requirements for doing it, such as policies,
procedures, rules, regulations and laws
Machines: Any equipment, computers, tools, etc.
required to accomplish the job
Materials: Raw materials, parts, pens, paper, etc.
used to produce the final product
Measurements: Data generated from the process
that are used to evaluate its quality
Environment: The conditions, such as location,
time, temperature, and culture in which the process
operates

6. Histogram method

A histogram is a graphical representation of the

distribution of data. It is an estimate of the probability
distribution of a continuous variable (quantitative
variable) and was first introduced by Karl Pearson.[1] To
construct a histogram, the first step is to "bin" the range of
values -- that is, divide the entire range of values into a
series of small intervals -- and then count how many
values fall into each interval. A rectangle is drawn with
height proportional to the count and width equal to the bin
size, so that rectangles abut each other. A histogram may
also be normalized displaying relative frequencies. It then
shows the proportion of cases that fall into each of several
categories, with the sum of the heights equaling 1. The
bins are usually specified as consecutive, non-overlapping
intervals of a variable. The bins (intervals) must be
adjacent, and usually equal size.[2] The rectangles of a
histogram are drawn so that they touch each other to
indicate that the original variable is continuous.[3]

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