CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURES

viii

LIST OF TABLES

xiii

NOMENCLATURE
CHAPTER-I

CHAPTER-II

xiv

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Tool Wear and its Forms

1.2 Significance of Cutting Fluids

1.3 Historical Development of Cutting Fluids

1.4 Types of Cutting Fluids

1.4.1 Straight Oils

1.4.2 Water Soluble Oils

1.4.3 Synthetic Fluids

1.4.4 Semi-Synthetic Fluids

1.5 Environmental Aspects of Cutting Fluids

1.6 Present Work

1.7 Thesis Layout

LITERATURE REVIEW

11

2.1 Introduction

11

2.2 Tool Wear

11

2.3 Cutting Forces

14

2.4 Cutting Temperatures

17

2.5 Influence of Cutting Fluids on Machining Processes

18

2.5.1 Influence on Cutting Temperatures

18

2.5.2 Influence on Cutting Forces

19

2.5.3 Influence on Product Quality and Tool Wear

20

2.6 Cutting Fluids as Quenchants

25

2.7 Tool Wear Prediction Models

25

2.7.1 Mathematical Models

25
iii

2.7.2 Neural Network Models

26

2.8 Environmental Aspects of Cutting Fluids

CHAPTER-III

27

2.8.1 Microbial Contamination

29

2.8.2 Identification of Bacterial Species

31

2.8.3 Use of Biocides

32

2.8.4 Mist Generation

33

2.8.5 Disposal of Used Cutting Fluid

34

2.9 Summary

36

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND EXPERIMENTATION

37

3.1 Introduction

37

3.2 Evaluation of Cutting Fluid Properties

37

3.2.1 Water Separability

37

3.2.2 Measurement of Kinematic Viscosity

38

3.2.3 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity

38

3.2.4 Measurement of Flash and Fire Points

39

3.2.5 Measurement of pH Value

39

3.3 Evaluation of Cutting Fluids Performance

3.3.1 Workpiece Material

39
40

3.3.2 PSG-124 Lathe

40

3.3.3 Supply of Cutting Fluid

41

3.3.4 Cutting Tool

41

3.3.4.1 Cemented Carbide Insert and Tool Holder

41

3.3.4.2 High Speed Steel Tool

42

3.3.5 Measurement of Cutting Forces

42

3.3.6 Measurement of Cutting Temperatures

42

3.3.7 Measurement of Tool Wear

42

3.3.8 Measurement of Surface Roughness

43

3.4 Assessment of Quenching Effects of Cutting Fluids

44

3.4.1 Measurement of Hardness of Samples

44

3.4.2 Metallographic Studies of Samples

44

iv

3.4.3 Jominy End Quench Test

44

3.5 Determination of Microbial Contamination

44

3.5.1 Arrangement for Simulation of Working Conditions

CHAPTER-IV

45

3.6 Summary

47

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

48

4.1 Introduction

48

4.2 Basic properties of Cutting Fluids

48

4.2.1 Water Separability

48

4.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity

48

4.2.3 Thermal Conductivity

50

4.2.4 Flash and Fire Points

51

4.2.5 pH value

52

4.3 Performance of Cutting Fluids in Machining

52

4.3.1 Tool Wear

52

4.3.2 Cutting Temperatures

54

4.3.3 Cutting Forces

58

4.3.4 Surface Roughness

59

4.3.5 Hardness

60

4.4 Microbial Contamination

CHAPTER-V

63

TOOL WEAR PREDICTION MODELS AND VALIDATION 67

5.1 Introduction

67

5.2 Mathematical Regression Model

67

5.3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

69

5.4 Artificial Neural Networks

71

5.4.1 Network Architecture Optimisation

CHAPTER-VI

71

5.5 Validation of Proposed Models

73

5.6 Summary

77

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF THE WORK

78

6.1 Conclusions

78

6.1.1 Basic Properties of Cutting Fluids

78

6.1.2 Performance of Cutting Fluids in Machining

78

6.1.3 Microbial Contamination of Cutting Fluids

79

6.2 Future Scope of the Work

80

REFERENCES

81

APPENDICES
APPENDIX-A

DETAILS OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS

A1

A.1 Estimation of Cutting Fluids Basic Properties

A1

A.1.1 Measurement of Kinematic Viscosity

A1

A.1.1.1 Redwood Viscometer-I

A1

A.1.1.2 Redwood Viscometer-II

A3

A.1.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement

Apparatus for Liquids

A6

A.1.3 Measurement of Flash and Fire Points

A8

A.1.4 Measurement of pH Value

A9

A.2 Evaluation of Cutting Fluids Performance

A10

A.2.1 Measurement of Cutting Forces

A10

A.2.2 Measurement of Cutting Temperatures

A11

A.2.3 Measurement of Tool Wear

A13

A.2.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness

A14

A.2.5 Assessment of Quenching Effects of Cutting Fluids A15

A.2.5.1 Polishing Equipment

A15

A.2.5.2 Micro Hardness Tester

A16

A.2.5.3 Metallurgical Microscope

A16

A.2.5.4 Muffle Furnace

A17

A.2.5.5 Jominy End Quench Test Apparatus

A18

A.3 Determination of Microbial Contamination

A.3.1 Petri Plates

A19
A19

vi

APPENDIX-B

A.3.2 Laminar Air Flow Cabinet

A20

A.3.3 B.O.D Incubator

A21

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

B1

B.1 Introduction

B1

B.2 Back Propagation Network

B1

B.2.1 Weight Structure

B2

B.2.2 Normalization

B2

B.2.3 Training

B3

B.2.4 Testing

B6

B.2.5 Denormalisation

B7

PUBLICATIONS FROM THE PRESENT WORK

CURRICULUM VITAE

LIST OF FIGURES

vii

Fig.No.

Description of Figure

Page No.

1.1

Various forms of tool wear

1.2

Growth of tool flank wear with machining time

1.3

Schematic representation of emulsifier molecule

2.1

Variation of shear and normal stresses on tool face

12

2.2

Variation of specific energy (u) with undeformed chip thickness (t)

when machining mild steel

13

2.3

Variation of specific wear parameter (Bw/PAL) with undeformed chip

thickness (t)

13

2.4

Variation of specific wear parameter with undeformed chip thickness

14

2.5

Force system in metal cutting

15

2.6

Colwells observations for a sharp tool

15

2.7

Estimated tool flank temperatures

17

2.8

Cooling curves of different fluids

19

2.9

Comparison of vegetable emulsion (V), synthetic oil (S) and mineral

oil emulsions (M)

21

2.10

Phases of growth in a bacterial culture

30

2.11

Comparison of dissolved oxygen () and plate count (+) for a semisynthetic fluid

31

3.1

Water separability in the samples (after 30 min)

37

3.2

Experimental set up on PSG-124 lathe

40

3.3

Tool holder with provision for thermocouple

41

3.4

Projected tool profile

43

3.5

Individual components of heating element

45

Fig.No.

Description of Figure

Page No.

viii

3.6

Assembled heating element

45

3.7

Arrangement of heating elements

46

3.8

Pumping of fluids on the heating elements

46

4.1

Progress of tool flank wear with machining time for HSS tool

53

4.2

Progress of tool flank wear with machining time for cemented

carbide tool

53

4.3

Variation of nodal temperatures with machining time while using

HSS tool

54

4.4

Variation of nodal temperatures with machining time while using

cemented carbide tool

55

4.5

Finite element model of HSS tool

55

4.6

Finite element model of cemented carbide tool

56

4.7

Estimation of tool tip temperatures for HSS tool

56

4.8

Estimation of tool tip temperatures for cemented carbide tool

57

4.9

Extrapolated tool tip temperatures under dry cutting while using HSS
and cemented carbide tools

57

4.10

Variation of cutting force with machining time while using HSS tool

58

4.11

Variation of cutting force with machining time while using

cemented carbide tool

59

4.12

Variation of surface roughness with machining time while using HSS

tool

60

4.13

Variation of surface roughness with machining time while using

cemented carbide tool

60

4.14

Hardness of samples machined with HSS tool

61

4.15

Hardness of samples machined with cemented carbide tool

61

Fig.No.

Description of Figure

Page No.

ix

4.16

Structure of Sample Machined with H.S.S. Tool

62

4.17

Structure of Sample Machined with Carbide Tool

62

4.18

Results from Jominy end quench test while employing different

quenchants

63

4.19

Colony growth in stored samples

63

4.20

Colony growth in working samples

64

4.21

Microbial growth in stored samples

64

5.1

Variation of hardness at quenched end with thermal conductivity

68

5.2

Variation of thermal conductivity with emulsifier content

68

5.3

Comparison of predicted and measured hardness values while using

HSS and cemented carbide tools

69

5.4

Optimisation of number of hidden layers in neural networks

72

5.5

Optimisation of number of iterations in neural networks

72

5.6

Comparison of predicted and experimental values while using HSS

tool and cutting fluid with 10% emulsifier content

73

5.7

Comparison of predicted and experimental values while using HSS

tool and cutting fluid with 20% emulsifier content

73

5.8

Percentage errors in regression model predictions for HSS tool

74

5.9

Percentage errors in neural network predictions for HSS tool

74

5.10

Comparison of predicted and experimental values while using

cemented carbide tool and cutting fluid with 10% emulsifier content

75

5.11

Comparison of predicted and experimental values while using

cemented carbide tool and cutting fluid with 20% emulsifier content

75

5.12

Percentage errors in regression model predictions for cemented

carbide tool

76

Fig.No.

Description of Figure

Page No.

5.13

Percentage errors in neural network predictions for cemented carbide

tool

76

A.1

Redwood viscometer-I

A1

A.2

Comparison of actual and measured kinematic viscosity of water

A2

A.3

Error in measurement of kinematic viscosity of water

A2

A.4

Comparison of actual and measured kinematic viscosity of SAE 20

oil

A3

A.5

Error in measurement of kinematic viscosity of SAE 20 oil

A3

A.6

Redwood viscometer-II

A4

A.7

Comparison of actual and measured kinematic viscosity of glycerin

A4

A.8

Error in measurement of kinematic viscosity of glycerin

A5

A.9

Comparison of actual and measured kinematic viscosity of engine oil

A5

A.10

Error in measurement of kinematic viscosity of engine oil

A6

A.11

Thermal conductivity measurement apparatus

A6

A.12

Comparison of actual and measured thermal conductivity of water

A7

A.13

Error in measurement of thermal conductivity of water

A7

A.14

Comparison of actual and measured thermal conductivity of glycerin

A8

A.15

Error in measurement of thermal conductivity of glycerin

A8

A.16

Cleveland open cup tester

A9

A.17

pH meter

A9

A.18

Lathe tool dynamometer

A10

A.19

Comparison of applied and measured load on lathe tool

dynamometer

A11

A.20
Error in measurement on lathe tool dynamometer
Fig.No.
Description of Figure

A11
Page No.

xi

A.21

Digital temperature indicator

A12

A.22

Comparison of actual and measured temperatures in thermocouple

A12

A.23

Error in measurement of temperatures

A13

A.24

Optical projector

A13

A.25

Surface roughness tester

A14

A.26

Standard specimen for calibrating surface roughness tester

A14

A.27

Single disc polishing machine

A15

A.28

Microhardness tester

A16

A.29

Metallurgical microscope

A17

A.30

Muffle furnace

A17

A.31

Jominy end quench apparatus

A18

A.32

Schematic representation of sample in Jominy end quench test

A18

A.33

Petri plate

A19

A.34

Laminar air flow cabinet

A20

A.35

B.O.D. Incubator

A21

B.1

Back propagation neural network training phase

B2

B.2

Training in back propagation neural network

B4

B.3

Global and local minima

B5

B.4

Testing in back propagation neural network

B6

LIST OF TABLES
xii

Table.No.

Description of Table

Page No.

4.1

Water separability of fluids

49

4.2

Kinematic viscosity of concentrated mixtures, 10-4 m2/s

50

4.3

Kinematic viscosity of cutting fluids (95% water), 10-4 m2/s

50

4.4

51

4.5

Thermal conductivity of the fluids with varying content of SPS,

W/m-K
Variation of flash and fire points with percentage of SPS

4.6

Variation of pH value with percentage of SPS

52

4.7

Identification of bacterial species

65

5.1

Prediction model from regression analysis

70

51

NOMENCLATURE
xiii

ENGLISH ALPHABETS
Symbol

Description

Activation of neuron

A, B

Constants for Redwood viscometers

Bw

Volume of material worn, mm3

CBN content in tool, percentage volume

Edge radius of CBN tool, mm

Emulsifier content, %

E(Italics)

Error in neural network

Feed, mm/min

FC

Resultant cutting force, N

F-statistic (variance ratio)

Fx

Feed force, N

Fy

Radial force, N

Fz

Main cutting force, N

Hardness, MPa

Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-K

Input to neuron layer

Thermal conductivity, W/m-K

Mathematical constant

k (Italics)

Number of the present iteration of neural network

Sliding distance, cm

LC

Cutting length in axial direction, mm

LHT

Average length of the diagonals of indentation, mm

Nw

Wear number

Output of neuron

p-value in ANOVA

PA

Applied load, N

Coefficient of regression

Ra

Surface Roughness, m

xiv

Undeformed chip thickness, m

t-value in ANOVA

TC

Cutting temperature, 0C

tm

Machining time, min

Tr

Time required for collection of 60 ml, s

Specific energy, N/cm2

Cutting speed, m/min

VB

Flank wear, mm

W (Italics)

Weight structure

GREEK ALPHABETS
Symbol

Description

HT

Angle between the opposite faces of the diamond, degrees

(Italics)

Bias of neuron

(Italics)

Learning rate of neural network

(Italics)

Momentum of neural network

Difference

Coefficient of friction

Normal Stress, N/mm2

Shear Stress, N/mm2

Kinematic viscosity, m2/s

ABBREVIATIONS
AISI

American Iron and Steel Institute

ANN

Artificial Neural Network

ANOVA

Analysis of Variance

ASME

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM

American Society for Testing and Materials

CBN

Cubical Boron Nitride

DF

Degrees of Freedom

EP

Extreme Pressure
xv

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

HP

Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

HPLC

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

HRC

Rockwell C Hardness

HSS

High Speed Steel

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

PCB

Polychlorinated Biphenyls

SPS

Sodium Petroleum Sulphonate

SS

Sum of Squares

v/v

volume/volume (ratio)

SUBSCRIPTS
Symbol

Description

HT

Related to Micro Hardness Tester

i, j

Successive Neuron layers

Related to tool wear

X,Y,Z

Axes

1, 2, 3

Number of the parameter under consideration

xvi