WHEN ONLINE AFFECTS THE OFFLINE: THE EFFECT OF

MISINTERPRETATION IN ONLINE CHATS ON THE

EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING OF STUDENTS
Van den Bos, Lars, University of Utrecht, Princetonplein 5, Buys Ballot Gebouw, 3584 CC,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, larsvdbos@gmail.com
Van den Heuvel, Joey, University of Utrecht, Princetonplein 5, Buys Ballot Gebouw, 3584
CC, Utrecht, The Netherlands, joeyhilll@hotmail.com
Molenaar, Sabine, University of Utrecht, Princetonplein 5, Buys Ballot Gebouw, 3584 CC,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, s.molenaar95@gmail.com
Robeer, Marcel, University of Utrecht, Princetonplein 5, Buys Ballot Gebouw, 3584 CC,
Utrecht, The Netherlands, m.j.robeer@students.uu.nl

Abstract
Online chats have grown to become more popular over the past few years and, needless to say, the way
they distance themselves from time and place are great, but are there any negative consequences
connected to computer-mediated communication (CMC)? To be more specific, can misinterpretations
in CMC affect the emotional well-being of a person in some way? Previously done research indicated
that social skills and interpretations are important aspects in communication and should be taken into
account to uncover the answer to this question. Through the means of an online questionnaire,
information was gathered from 108 Information Sciences students. The analyses of the answers show
that there was a severe lack of females (only seven) in the sample and that other results did not prove
to be significant enough to accept the alternative hypotheses. Only negligible correlations between the
variables have been found (at most) and there were no significant differences present. The research
provides no evidence that misinterpretations in online chats affect the emotional well-being of an
individual.
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication (CMC), Emotional well-being, Misinterpretation,
Social skills, Gender, Students.

Introduction

Since the upswing of modern Internet facilities around the world, people have the ability to chat to each
other via a digital medium. The textual form of this chatter is commonly referred to as computermediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel & Tomic, 2004). The use of CMC has changed the
way people interact in various ways. Chatting to one another leads to large conversations that might be
interpreted elsewise, since there are no nonverbal cues involved in CMC (Walther, 1992).
Misinterpretation and misperception are terms that clarify the situation, but will not explain why this
occurs.
With this research project, the impact of misinterpretation in CMC on Information Science students has
been examined. The research was limited to this sample frame, since misinterpretation is different
between all kinds of populations and contexts (Jones, 1995). It is interesting to consider the effects on
relatively young people that use computers relatively often, which leads to interesting data on several
aspects, such as their social skills, emotional well-being and how adept someone is at interpreting a
particular chat in a particular context. The person should, for example, be able to determine the real
meaning of a particular conversation or be sure that the receiver of a joke also conceives this as such. A
better view on this aspect would lead to information that gives a more contextualized layer to CMC in
terms of testing fellow students. These students are ought to distinguish different and manage
information flows (Borko 1968), but they should also be capable of doing the same in CMC-information,
because they should not be negatively affected by an incorrect interpretation of a chat. Therefore,
scientific research has been conducted, literature was consulted, and psychological processes that are all
informative for the scientific process were explained, so that several interesting conclusions can be
drawn about this sample.
The research itself is interesting from a societal point of view, because CMC is an integral part of both
personal and professional communication (Ku, Chu & Tseng, 2012). Additionally, since there is still a
lot of knowledge to gather about this topic, the study is interesting from a scientific point of view. The
research project is based on a research question, and is being accompanied by several literature papers
that support the reasoning that will be conducted throughout the entire paper. This helped to
contextualize and clarify the gathered, unknown statistics of this sample.
The main objective of the research is to determine the effects of misinterpretation on online chatting.
The CMC will be studied using students in a one-on-one chat scenario. With this, the following research
question was formulated:
Is there misinterpretation among students in one-on-one instant computer-mediated communication
that has a negative effect on the emotional well-being?

Theory

To form a theoretical foundation for the research, various papers that were relevant were studied. Even
though these papers have a lot to say about various aspects of CMC, misinterpretation and emotional
well-being, there are differences that make this research still viable to do. Emotional adjustments during
chatting have been analyzed by a few researches already, for instance by Zhe & Boucouvalas (2002),
where the researches tried to extract emotions from texts by computers. What is missing in this paper,
is that the focus really lies on the emotions in texts themselves, and not on how these are being
interpreted. This is exactly the gap that this research attempts to fill. The goal of the research, as
previously stated, is to see what the effects are when these emotions are being misunderstood in textual
communication, and what the causes are for these misinterpretations. As a matter of fact, no literature
could be found that is really similar to the topic that was researched.
There are, in fact, other papers that might be interesting for some aspects of this research, such as the
types of chat conversations. According to Link & Wagner (2006) three different types of CMC can be
defined: one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many. Moreover, reasons behind the use of emotions in
chats, and reasons behind using texting or chatting in general, instead of just talking are also aspects that

have been previously researched. Fullwood & Martino (2007) state that the use of emotions (through
the use of emoticons, for example) can help participants of a chat to be able to perceive the personality
and emotions of their chat partner(s). These are all very interesting papers, and they are useful for this
research, but they simply do not cover the principle of misinterpretation, which therefore is a unique
part of the subject to perform research on. The most relative papers might be Vandergriff (2013) and
Taesler & Janneck (2010), where the expression of emotion and use of emoticons and other typographic
markers used in chats are analyzed in these papers. Once again, there was no further elaboration of how
these are being interpreted by the one that is supposed to understand the receiving emotions from the
other contact.
In conclusion, the link between misinterpretation, CMC and emotions is a subject that has not been
researched (enough), which makes this research full of meaning.

Hypotheses

This research consists of three abstract constructs: emotional well-being, Communication Interpretation
Quota (CIQ), and social skills. The only variable in the current research is gender. The conceptual model
(Figure 1) gives a representation of the abstract constructs and the variable, and the relationships
between them. The relationships are represented by arrows, meaning that the construct or concept which
is pointing at another construct or concept has an effect on it. In the conceptual model, the dependent
variable, explained by the independent variable gender and the mediating variable CIQ, is emotional
well-being. The two independent variables, namely social skills and gender, explain a students CIQ and
emotional well-being respectively. The CIQ is explained by social skills and it explains emotional wellbeing. Thus, this is a mediating variable. In the following subsections, the conceptual model and its used
terms are elaborated.

Figure 1.

3.1

Conceptual Model

Emotional well-being

First of all, emotional well-being is the main abstract construct in the conceptual model. It is the
construct that is affected by other parts in the conceptual model but does not affect other constructs or
variables by itself. Eventually, this construct is where the key focus in the research lies, and is therefore
seen as the main construct in this research.
Emotional well-being can be described in various ways. It can relate to the quality of someone's life,
having aspects like personal well-being, self-esteem, productivity and happiness. A good emotional
well-being will also reduce chances of stress, disorder and sleeping problems (Fredrickson & Joiner,
2002). This concept - since it is an abstract construct - is key in the research for a potential effect of
misinterpretation in chats on the emotional well-being. This is why all the arrows end up in this abstract
construct in the conceptual model, assuming that gender and the Communication Interpretation Quota
directly affect the emotional well-being.

To determine a students emotional well-being in the sample, a previously created scale by the World
Health Organization: Regional Office for Europe (1998) was used. This scale consists of five statements
which are used to measure the participants emotional well-being on a scale of 1-100. The questions in
this scale were implemented within the survey as a key part to gaining insight in the emotional wellbeing of the student.

3.2

Communication Interpretation Quota (CIQ)

To be able to measure the amount of misinterpretations, a self-constructed abstract construct was added,
the Communication Interpretation Quota, or CIQ for short. CIQ determines the frequency of
misinterpretation in small chat conversations that have been created for the research. If there is no case
of misinterpretation, the participants CIQ will increase by one point. The CIQ is then transformed to a
scale ranging from zero to one, with one being no misinterpretation at all, and zero meaning that all the
chats were misinterpreted. The right interpretation of a chat is determined by giving four multiple choice
answers, of which only one corresponds with an answer that the sender would (a) find appropriate to not
notice that there has been a case of misinterpretation, or (b) think that there has not been a
misinterpretation at all.
The Conflict Research Consortium (n.d.) suggests that ambiguous messages are likely to be
misinterpreted. People tend to clarify these messages by using their own expectations. This
misinterpretation can lead to social conflict, which in itself can lead to negative affect (Abbey, Abramis
& Caplan, 1985). Negative affectivity involves the experience of negative emotions and poor selfconcept (Watson & Clark, 1984). Even though not all the aspects of this relationships have been
researched, it shows that there is a possible negative effect of misinterpretation of messages on how
people perceive their own emotions. It is expected that students who had more cases of misinterpretation
in the CIQ questions, and therefore a lower CIQ, will have a significantly lower emotional well-being
after answering the CIQ questions than before answering them. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H1: A lower CIQ negatively affects the emotional well-being.

3.3

Gender

The variable that affects the emotional well-being is gender. This is a variable that is based on the
characteristics of an individual, and can be measured precisely. Logically, the variable gender can only
have two possible values: male or female. Previous research by Simon (2014) states that females are
usually more negative about their own well-being than men. Men report more frequent positive, and less
frequent negative feelings than women. Men and women may react differently to misinterpretation and
that is why this aspect needs to be taken into account in this research. This leads to the second hypothesis:
H2: Men tend to have a higher overall emotional well-being in comparison to females.

3.4

Social Skills

The last abstract construct is social skills. The social skills of an individual is the ability to communicate
with other human beings, both verbally and non-verbally, and understanding them (SkillsYouNeed,
n.d.). In short, whether an individual is, or is not, sociable. In the conceptual model, it was expected that
social skills affect the CIQ.
A vital part of understanding others, and responding to them, is based on the ability of individuals to
effectively recognize and use nonverbal behavior (Feldman & Rim, 1991). Having developed social
skills will make people able to understand their conversation partner better. Being sensitive to the
thoughts and feelings of others is key to successfully establish and maintain social relationships (Pickett,
Gardner & Knowles, 2004). Socially skilled people will be better in interpreting conversations correctly,
have a better sense for what direction the chat is going in, and are more skilled in forming appropriate
reactions to the conversation partner. Therefore, social skills affect the chances of misinterpreting
conversations and, in doing so, affect the CIQ. This induces the third, and final, hypothesis:
H3: There is a positive correlation between social skills and CIQ.

Method

4.1

Participants

The questionnaire was filled in by 108 students following the course Scientific Research Methods at
the University of Utrecht. In general, students form a suitable and adequate sample for this research.
They are not just required to use the computer quite regularly for study-related activities, but a fair
amount of young Dutch people also suffer from negative emotions, such as anxiety and depression
(CBS, 2014). The only downside that could be foreseen was the low quantity of female students
following the course, which also reflected in the actual number of females filling in the questionnaire
(N = 7).

4.2

Materials

A questionnaire is a suitable method to answer the research question. Currently, there are some scales
that already exist, which could be used to determine ones mental condition or state. This was expanded
with short made-up chats, with some context added to them. Subsequently, the correct interpretation of
said chat (the feelings of both chatters involved, the meaning of the conversations and the purpose of
the conversation) was determined. This was used to see if the students in the sample were able to
interpret the chats correctly, or in other words, if there was a case of misinterpretation. Furthermore, the
questionnaire was an easy way to reach a lot of students, while making sure they got the exact same
questions. As a consequence, the differences in the answers were dependent on the individual itself, and
not due to the way the questions were asked.
The questions that were devised for the questionnaire have been categorized, and the answers to these
questions were related to a specific part of the research (the entire questionnaire can be found in the
Appendix A). All questions belong to a variable or abstract construct present in the conceptual model.
Putting aside the general questions, the first question that truly mattered to the research was question
two, determining the gender. Questions three through seven and 21 through 25 have been used to
ascertain the emotional well-being of the participants in the sample. Subsequently, questions eight
through 12 gave insight in a participants social skills, and to conclude, the remaining questions
(questions 13 through 20) determined the CIQ of a participant. There was a grand total of 25 questions.
Since the hypotheses were based on the conceptual model, the answers to the questions in the
questionnaire provided enough information for conclusions and determination of whether the alternative
hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. A further elaboration on the questions can be found below.
The questions will be described in order of appearance.
First of all, to measure the variable gender, a binary scale question was asked; simply What is your
sex?. The percentages of these amounts were calculated by dividing the amount of males by the sample
size, the same was done for females.
Secondly, a participants social skills were measured by asking them to determine how well five
statements about their social skills fitted to themselves. The social skills scale had to be accurately
measuring social skills and it should consist of fewer than seven questions. Since none of the social
skills scales could be found that met these requirements, a self-constructed scale was added. This scale
consists of one Likert scale for each of five statements that are closely related to social skills. Hall (1979)
divided social skills into two broad classes of sending and receiving. Riggio (1986) expands this by
subdividing social skills into basic dimensions, which involve skill in sending, receiving and controlling
information. Since the participants answering the questionnaire were taking the role of the receiver, the
five statements also focused on assessing the receiver class of social skills. Furthermore, the National
Research Council (2010) states that social skills means having skills in interpreting verbal and nonverbal
information to respond appropriately. According to the National Research Council, social skills are
equal to complex communication. By adding this information to the scale, the statements were used to
determine someones social skill by rating the awareness of reasons behind communication, awareness
of peoples means and intentions through chat, phone and real life conversations. In other words, if the
participants viewed themselves as being successful in the receiver role of both verbal and nonverbal

complex communication. The scores were then added up, creating one total score for each individual.
The total score was used for the hypotheses testing. This scale, consisting of five items, was found to be
reliable ( = .839).
Thirdly, to measure the abstract construct emotional well-being, five seven-point Likert scales were used
for the statements that relate to emotional well-being. Questions that measure the emotional well-being
were filled in before and after the test with the chat examples in the questionnaire. The scores of the
individuals were then applied to a previously created scale devised by the World Health Organization:
Regional Office for Europe (1998). This is a scale that could measure someones emotional well-being
with a limited amount of statements. The scores of the five questions were then added up, and
transformed into values ranging from zero to 100, as was also done by the World Health Organization.
The emotional well-being of a participant was determined twice in the questionnaire. This was done to
appropriately form an answer to the first hypothesis. To properly answer the first hypothesis, not the
effect of the CIQ on the overall emotional well-being is interesting, but whether the emotional wellbeing was negatively affected after there were potential cases of misinterpretation. For hypothesis one,
it was expected that more misinterpretations correlate with a bigger negative influence on emotional
well-being, and thus with a bigger negative difference between the emotional well-being after the
questions concerning misinterpretation and the questions before that. Both of the times that the scale
was used in the questionnaire, it was found that the five items forming the scale were internally consist
according to Cronbachs alpha, with alpha scores of .771 and .761 respectively.
Finally, the CIQ score was measured over eight multiple choice questions with one correct answer each,
meaning that the other multiple choice answers were false. The participants were informed of the chat
environment for every single chat, by adding a general context of the chat followed by a part of the
conversation up to the point the participant had to form an answer. In the context, information such as
the nature of the chat, a comprehensive description of the conversation partner, and the time of day the
chat takes place were given to the participant. By providing this context and the chat itself, the participant
should be sufficiently informed to choose the correct reply to the chat, in order to avoid
misinterpretation.
After gathering data from the questionnaire, the CIQ score was calculated by undertaking multiple steps.
Firstly, the given answers per question were compared to the correct answer as determined beforehand.
The correct answers to the CIQ questions are marked by the bold-type text in the questions themselves
(13 20) in Appendix A. Correct answers were given one point, incorrect answers were given zero
points. Secondly, the total of the score of an individual was calculated. Finally, this was then divided by
eight (due to the presence of eight chat examples). This resulted in scores varying from zero to one. The
scale was eventually used to test hypotheses about where one of the two variables was the CIQ score.
No internal consistency reliability, tested by Cronbachs alpha, was calculated for the CIQ questions,
because it is only an indicator if the both chat partners are interpreting the chat in the same way. As
aforementioned, the CIQ is merely an indicator for the frequency of misinterpretations by a student in
the eight chats combined. None of these eight questions are meant to be interrelated, and therefore no
internal correlations were expected to be present.

4.3

Procedure

The questionnaire started by generally informing the students about the research and the questionnaire,
itself. This was done in form of a general story about and behind this research and the questionnaire. On
purpose, the word misinterpretation in the title was changed into interpretation. This was done to
ensure that participants would fill in the CIQ questions in the questionnaire according to their own
thought, instead of actively searching for an obscure answer. The actual content started off with a general
theoretical basis about misperception and misinterpretation in computer-mediated communication, to
give the participants an idea of what the questionnaire is about. Secondly, the participants were shown
gave a short introduction about the abstract construct emotional well-being, and related that to the
research. The participants were then shown the research question for some extra information. Thirdly,
the participants were given a short overview of how the components of the questionnaire were ordered
and what kind of questions could be expected. Finally, the introduction ended by giving a time indication

to fill in the questionnaire (five to ten minutes) and thanking the participants in advance. The actual
introduction given to the students can be found in Appendix A.
The participants who filled in the questionnaire were not treated any differently across certain
conditions. Male or female, and which team the participant was from, did not make any difference in
the way participants had to fill in the questionnaire.
After finishing the questionnaire, the participants were thanked for filling in the survey, thereby
informing the participants the questionnaire was done.

Results

Data from one participant were dropped because the data was found to be corrupt.
The first hypothesis, A higher recognition of CIQs in chats leads to a higher emotional well-being,
was tested using a Pearsons correlation test. For the test, the Communication Interpretation Quota of
students (M = .36, SD = .14) were compared to the difference in their score of emotional well-being
before and after the CIQ questions (M = -1.14, SD = 9.60). Analysis showed an insignificant and
negligible negative correlation, r(107) = -.12, p = .103, one-tailed.
Hypothesis two, which states that men tend to have a higher overall emotional well-being in comparison
to females, was tested using the independent sample T-test. In this case, the differences between gender
in their emotional well-being, both before and after, were tested. The low number of female students (N
= 7), compared to the number of male students (N = 101) that filled in the study, means that no
conclusions based on gender can be drawn from this data. Analysis showed no significant difference
between males (M = .58, SD = .14) and females (M = .60, SD = .11) on the emotional well-being
measured before the CIQ-test, t(106) = -.31, p = .381, one-tailed. Additionally, analysis also did not
show a significant difference between males (M = .57, SD = .14) and females (M = .56, SD = .11) in
their emotional well-being (after), t(106) = .22, p = .413, one-tailed.

Figure 2.

Scatter plot for the correlation of a students Communication Interpretation Quota

and their social skills

For the third hypothesis, the correlation between a students social skills and their CIQ was measured
using Pearsons correlation. As can be seen in Figure 2, the spread of the dots on the scatter plot provide
no clear linear trend between the two variables. Even though there seems to be a positive association
with constant scatter, this relationship is too weak to show any clear relationship. The coefficient of
determination (R2) confirms this, with only 1.6% common variance between the two variables. The lack
of a correlation as suggested in the scatter plot is also shown in Pearsons correlation test, where no
significant correlation was found between social skills (M = 28.22, SD = 4.16) and Communication
Interpretation Quota (M = .36, SD = .14), r(107) = .13, p = .098, one-tailed.

Conclusion

In an effort to find a negative effect of misinterpretation on the emotional well-being of students in oneon-one computer mediated communications, data gathered from a self-constructed questionnaire, filled
in by 108 students following the course Scientific Research Methods, were collected. A few conclusions
can be drawn in relation to the alternative hypotheses, based on the gathered data. Results from the
questionnaire regarding the first alternative hypothesis, H1 A lower CIQ negatively affects the
emotional well-being, produced no statistically significant correlation. Abbey, Ambramis & Caplan
(1985) implied that misinterpretation could lead to negative affect. This negative affect involves
negative emotion and poor self-concept (Watson & Clark, 1984). Hence, a significant negative
correlation was expected between the CIQ and the difference in emotional well-being. Even though the
correlation was not significant, it demonstrated a negative correlation.
The questionnaire displayed no evidence that the second alternative hypothesis, H2 Men tend to have
a higher overall emotional well-being in comparison to females, is true. Results were inconclusive, due

to the lack of females in the sample. Therefore, this null hypothesis cannot be disproven and the
alternative hypothesis that has been devised should not be accepted. This conclusion is not in line with
previous research, because Simon (2014) suggested that men are generally more positive about their
own emotional well-being than women.
Likewise, the results revealed no indication that higher social skills lead to a higher CIQ. Consequently,
the last alternative hypothesis, There is a positive correlation between social skills and CIQ, should
also be rejected. The only evidence that was found regarding this aspect of the questionnaire is that there
might be an extremely weak positive correlation between social skills and CIQ, which should be
neglected altogether. The absence of a significant correlation is in disagreement with Pickett, Gardner
and Knowles (2004). They see being sensitive to thoughts and feelings as key to social skills.
To conclude, misinterpretation among students in one-on-one computer-mediated communication does
not have a negative effect on the emotional well-being of said students. According to the theory
described earlier, online chats can have a certain emotional weight to them and can be interpreted
incorrectly. Apparently though, no evidence has been found in this research to prove that this
misinterpretation does in fact negatively affect the emotional well-being.

Discussion

There are several limitations to this research that have a potential effect on either the quality of the
findings, or the ability to effectively answer the hypotheses. Firstly, there was a lack of show-up females
in the sample. The sample size contained 108 participants, of which only 6.48% were women. Even
though the difference between genders may be present in the general population, the difference between
the two genders in this sample had to be very large to be statistically significant.
Additionally, this gender problem is part of the second limitation in the research. The sample that filled
in the questionnaire is difficult to generalize. This difficulty has two main reasons. First and foremost,
because the actual percentage of females in universities in the Netherlands is 52% (CBS, 2012),
compared to the 6.48% females in the sample. Secondly, because it is questionable if Information
Sciences students are a homogeneous representation of the overall student population.
The third limitation of the research became evident in the two self-constructed abstract constructs.
Although the first of these two, social skills, exhibited a high internal consistency reliability, the
statements making up social skills rest on a frequency of time. This frequency of time was distributed
over seven possible Likert scale answers, ranging from none of the time to all of time, that could be
interpreted differently by each individual. This different interpretation of frequencies could mean that
the answers on this Likert scale are incomparable. Two participants intending to give the same frequency
of time could choose two different Likert scale answers, and likewise, two participants choosing the
same answer could have a different frequency of time in mind.
Besides social skills, there were several problems encountered with the Communication Interpretation
Quota, the second self-constructed abstract construct. Firstly, students were not given an indicator
whether the chosen answer lead to misinterpretation or not, which could explain the lack of a significant
effect on the emotional well-being. As was apparent in the theory, the emotional well-being of a person
is only affected if there is a known misinterpretation between both conversation partners. Not giving an
indication of the occurrence of this misinterpretation made a theoretical effect on a persons emotions
improbable. Secondly, since the answers to the CIQ questions were limited to multiple choice, students
could not form their own reaction to the chat, as is done in a real conversation. This imposes a potential
misinterpretation of the four given answers students could choose from. Even though one of the four
answers is the correct answer that is expected by the sender, and is therefore the answer that is correct
to avoid misinterpretation, it does not mean that the receiver could not have formed an answer that would
keep up the conversation, without the sender even knowing that his sent message was misinterpreted.
For instance, chats could change topics, or reactions themselves could be ambiguous. This shows that
for the creation of a new abstract construct, a whole process is needed to ensure that it is both reliable
and valid in all possible ways. For example, it is currently unknown if the CIQ gives a good indication

of misinterpretation. Unfortunately, since the main focus of the research was on providing an answer to
the main question, there was no room for forming good and solid abstract constructs.
Finally, the method chosen to gather data for the hypothesis, a questionnaire, posed four main problems
itself. Firstly, by establishing an individuals emotional well-being within just one survey, the timespan
between the two measurements was really short. Chat sessions themselves could even outlast the length
of the survey. Even though a students emotional well-being might be negatively affected by
misinterpretation, no indications were found for when this would occur. This might be directly after the
chat, or there might be a delay before this takes place. Secondly, the usage of Likert scales in the
questionnaire introduced a central tendency bias. Students filling in the questionnaire tend to avoid the
most extreme answers, such as I feel no commitment at all in the emotional well-being questions,
because the occurrence of these is very scarce in the minds perception. Thirdly, in a survey people have
to review themselves, which adds a social desirability bias. There is a possibility that students will put
themselves in the best possible light, instead of giving an objective answer. Lastly, the multiple choice
questions to measure ones CIQ are subject to the probability of guessing a correct answer.
Future research should ensure that the two newly introduced abstract constructs are highly reliable and
valid. Especially, it should form a good abstract construct for measuring misinterpretation in chats.
Furthermore, future research should focus on experimental research to minimize potential effects of
bias, control extraneous variables, and compensate the shortcomings the questionnaire brings along.

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