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in

The word robotics is used to collectively define a

field in engineering that covers the mimicking of
various human characteristics
Sound concepts in many engineering disciplines is
needed for working in this particular field
It finds its uses in all aspects of our life

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An automatic industrial machine replacing the

human in hazardous work
An automatic mobile sweeper machine at a
modern home
An automatic toy car for a child to play with
A machine removing mines in a war field all by
itself and many more

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Here we are aiming at design and prototyping of

mobile robots capable of controlled locomotion.
It may be via human or automatic control.
Here we aim to make a bot capable of traversing a
white line on a black surface automatically.
It must be able to perform certain tasks we set for it.
The task must be achieved within some given
limitations.
Keeping this as the basic idea we will be able to
further widen our applications

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Locomotion system
Power supply system
Actuators
Sensory devices for feedback
Sensor Data processing unit
Control system

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As the name suggests a mobile robot must have a

system to make it move
This system gives our machine the ability to move
forward, backward and take turns
It may also provide for climbing up and down

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A simple equation: Power is the product of Torque

and Angular velocity
P=X
This implies that if we want more torque (pulling
capacity) from the same motor we may have to
sacrifice speed and vice versa

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The dc motors (tape motors) available have very

high speed of rotation which is generally not
needed. But what they lack is torque output
For reduction in speed and increase in pulling
capacity we use pulley or gear systems
These are governed by: 1 X r1 = 2 X r2
The above concept will be discussed shortly

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They convert the electrical energy into meaningful

mechanical work
Mechanical output can be rotational or linear
(straight line)
Motors provide rotational motion
Electromagnets provide linear motion

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AC Motors : Not used much in robotics

DC Motors : Finds extensive general use
Stepper Motors : For controlled rotation
Servo Motors : For controlled rotation

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As the name suggests, a motor which uses a

DC (Direct Current) power
Can run in both directions
Speed Controllable
Direction of rotation controlled by polarity of
current / voltage
Speed of rotation controlled by average
energy (power) fed to the motor

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The motors we use in making

differential drive are simple DC
motors.

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Direction of rotation controlled by polarity of

current / voltage
Speed of rotation controlled by average energy
(power) fed to the motor

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Operating Voltage : Recommended voltage for

powering the motor
Operating Current : Current drawn at a certain load
on the shaft
Stall Current : Maximum current drawn, when
motor not allowed to rotate
Stall Torque : Rotation force needed to hold the
motor in stall condition

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Free running torque & current are ideally zero

Increased load implies, increased torque, current
drawn & power consumption
Power supplied by a motor is the product of
output shafts rotational velocity & torque
DC Motors are highspeed, low-torque devices
Using gears, the high speed of the motor is
traded off into torque

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Zero speed at
maximum load (stall
torque)
Highest speed while
free running (zero
load)
Highest power at half
speed & half load

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This is the car type drive and the

most common in real world but
not in robot world as in
automobiles.
The translation and rotation are
independent of each other. But
translation and rotation are
interlinked hence this system faces
severe path planning problem

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A close relative of the differential drive system

It is mostly used in tracked machines e.g. tanks.
Also finds application in some four / six wheeled
robots
The left and right wheels are driven independently
Steering is accomplished by actuating each side at
a different rate or in a different direction, causing
the wheels or tracks to slip, or skid, on the ground

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In this mechanism the machine chassis (body) is

deformed to achieve rotation in contrast to the
steering wheels in car type drive

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It is made up of a system of motors. One set of

which drive the wheels and the other set turns the
wheels in a synchronous fashion

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The most unique type of Locomotion system

It is composed of a four wheeled chassis and a
platform that can be raised or lowered

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A differential drive is the most basic drive,

which consists of two sets of wheels that can
be driven independently.
By using different movements of
the right and left wheels it is
possible to make the robot
move forward, backwards,
right, left and even for zero degree turns.

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Simplicity and ease of use makes it the most

preferred system by beginners
Independent drives makes it difficult for straight
line motion. The differences in motors and
frictional profile of the two wheels cause them to
move with slight turning effect
The above drawback must be countered with
appropriate feedback system. Suitable for human
controlled remote robots

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Our power supply consists of the rectifier circuit

and the transformer.
The transformer is used to step down voltage
from
220 volt AC to 12 volt AC( or any other desired
value).
Further the rectifier converts 12v AC to 12v DC
supply.
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A transformer is a device that transfers electrical

energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors.
To make a simple differential drive, a simple
transformer with following specifications can be
used:
1 Amp, C.T. 12 V.( it steps down a 220V AC to 12 V
AC.
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12V
AC

-12V
AC

220 V AC
supply

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A rectifier is an electrical device that

converts alternating current (AC), current that
periodically reverses direction, to direct
current (DC), current that flows in only one
direction.

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Electrolytic Capacitor
Integrated circuit (IC 78XX)

+
-

1N4001 pn junction diode

p
side
n
side
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Most electrolytic capacitors are polarized, i.e., they

have a positive and negative terminal. Connecting
them to wrong terminals of power supply can
destroy it. Adding to this, these capacitors are used
only for DC voltages.

Fig: A blown capacitor

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These ICs are voltage regulator integrated circuits.

The voltage regulator IC maintains the output
voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx
indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to
provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power
supply. Similarly there are several other ICs
available in this category like 7806, 7809, 7812,
7815.

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Another fact to note about this series of ICs is that

they have a voltage range in which they work. For
any voltage above that range the IC goes into a
thermal shutdown and will give you a very low
arbitrary voltage value. For example, the 7805 IC
has a range between 5V and 16V.

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These are current amplifying circuits

A low current control signal is converted into a
proportionally higher current signal that can
drive the motor
Power Transistors can switch high currents. The
ICmax is usually of the order of Amps as
compared to small signal transistors which have
ICmax in mA

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H Bridge Circuit Diagram

VCC

S1
S3

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S2
1

S4

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L293D Pin Diagram

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It is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to

be applied across a load in either direction.
It allows a circuit full control over a standard
electric DC motor. That is, with an H-bridge, a
microcontroller, logic chip, or remote control can
electronically command the motor to go forward,
reverse, brake, and coast.

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H-bridges are available as integrated circuits, or

can be built from discrete components.
The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical
graphical representation of such a circuit, which is
built with four switches, either solid-state (eg,
L293/ L298) or mechanical (eg, relays).

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The current provided by the MCU is of the order of

5mA and that required by a motor is ~500mA.
Hence, motor cant be controlled directly by MCU
and we need an interface between the MCU and the
motor.
A Motor Driver IC like L293D or L298 is used for this
purpose which has two H-bridge drivers. Hence,
each IC can drive two motors

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Note that a motor driver does not amplify the

current; it only acts as a switch (An H bridge is
nothing but 4 switches).

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Analogous to human sensory organs

Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin
Sensors help the robot knowing its
surroundings better
Improves its actions and decision making
ability
Provides feedback control

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Made of cadmium
sulphide
Resistance between two
terminals vary
depending on the
intensity of light
Can be used to
differentiate contrast
colours

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LM339, LM393 and LM311

They consist of more than one comparator.
LM311 consists of single comparator

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Light Sensing Module using LED-LDR combination

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A line follower is a robot

capable of tracking a line
drawn on a surface
Optical sensors capture
the line position at the
front end of the robot
The robot is steered to
keep it always over the
line

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All the sensors are assigned

some weight such as
Sensor 1 = a1 = 3
Sensor 2 = a2 = 2
Sensor 3 = a3 = 1
Sensor 4 = a4 = -1
Sensor 5 = a5 = -2
Sensor 6 = a6 = -3
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Robosoccer is the in house event of Robotix where

teams of three make differential drive robots and
participate in a one-on-one football match.

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The chassis (and the wheels) can simply be cut out

from the toycars easily available in the market by
separating the lower part of the car from the upper
one and removing the gear box from it.
For more details, please refer to the link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFoGBIqIqoM
HAPPY BOT MAKING!!!
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THANK YOU