Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Analogue
Contents
1 The Transistor 1
1.1 Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Simplified operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Comparison with vacuum tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.6 Part numbering standards / specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.9 Directory of external websites with datasheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Bipolar junction transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.3 Regions of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2.5 Theory and modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2.7 Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3 Field-effect transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
i
ii CONTENTS
1.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.2 Basic information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.3 More about terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.4 FET operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.5 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.6 Types of field-effect transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.7 Advantages of FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.8 Disadvantages of FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.9 Uses of FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.10 See also FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Semiconductor Materials 34
2.1 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.3 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.6 Biological role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Germanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.5 Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3 Gallium arsenide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
CONTENTS iii
3 Applications 63
3.1 Voltage-controlled oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.1 Types of VCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.2 Control of frequency in VCOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.3 Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.4 VCO design and circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.6 Voltage-controlled crystal oscillator as a clock generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 Frequency-shift keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.1 Implementations of FSK Modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.2 Other forms of FSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 Figures of merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.2 Amplifier types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.3 Classification of amplifier stages and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.4 Power amplifier classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.5 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
iv CONTENTS
4 Background Theory 89
4.1 Electron hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1.1 Solid-state physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1.2 Holes in quantum chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 P–n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.1 Properties of a p–n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.2 Equilibrium (zero bias) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.3 Forward bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.4 Reverse bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2.5 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.7 Non-rectifying junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3 Bipolar transistor biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.1 Bias circuit requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.2 Types of bias circuit for Class A amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.3 Class B and AB amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6 Sensors 151
6.1 Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.1 Basic operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.2 Steinhart–Hart equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.3 B or β parameter equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.1.4 Conduction model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.1.5 Self-heating effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.1.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.7 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2 Photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.1 Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.2.3 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.2.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2.5 Photodiode array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.3 Photoresistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.3.1 Design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
CONTENTS vii
8 Filters 187
8.1 Low-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.2 Ideal and real filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.1.3 Continuous-time low-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.1.4 Electronic low-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.2 High-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.2.1 First-order continuous-time implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.2.2 Discrete-time realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.2.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.2.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.3 Band-pass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
CONTENTS ix
The Transistor
1.1.1 History
1
2 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and produced in built in 2002 ... for [each] man, woman, and child on
1953 Earth.”[29]
The transistor’s low cost, flexibility, and reliability have
made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic
had previously worked at Bell Labs.[23] The first MOS
circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in con-
transistor actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at Bell
trolling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and
Labs in 1960.[24]
cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a
computer program to carry out a control function than
to design an equivalent mechanical control function.
1.1.2 Importance
The transistor is the key active component in practically 1.1.3 Simplified operation
all modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the
greatest inventions of the 20th century.[25] Its importance The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its
in today’s society rests on its ability to be mass-produced ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of
using a highly automated process (semiconductor device its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair
fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce
costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, that is pro-
was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[26] portional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as
Although several companies each produce over a billion an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to
individually packaged (known as discrete) transistors ev- turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically con-
ery year,[27] the vast majority of transistors are now pro- trolled switch, where the amount of current is determined
duced in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, mi- by other circuit elements.
crochips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, There are two types of transistors, which have slight dif-
capacitors and other electronic components, to produce ferences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar tran-
complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up sistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter.
to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced micro- A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing be-
processor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transis- tween the base and the emitter) can control or switch a
tors (MOSFETs).[28] “About 60 million transistors were much larger current between the collector and emitter
4 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
VCC
IBE +6V
VOUT 1k
collector
ICE
base
VIN
emitter
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred • High-power, high-frequency operation, such as that
watts are common and relatively inexpensive. used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better
achieved in vacuum tubes due to improved electron
mobility in a vacuum.
1.1.4 Comparison with vacuum tubes
• Solid-state devices are more vulnerable to
Prior to the development of transistors, vacuum (elec- electrostatic discharge in handling and opera-
tron) tubes (or in the UK “thermionic valves” or just tion
“valves”) were the main active components in electronic • A vacuum tube momentarily overloaded will just get
equipment. a little hotter; solid-state devices have less mass to
absorb the heat due to overloads, in proportion to
Advantages their rating
• Sensitivity to radiation and cosmic rays (special
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to re-
radiation-hardened chips are used for spacecraft de-
place their vacuum tube predecessors in most applica-
vices).
tions are
• Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-called tube
• No power consumption by a cathode heater; the sound, that some people find to be more tolerable to
characteristic orange glow of vacuum tubes is due the ear.[33]
6 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
a transparent window in the package and are called metal–semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs
phototransistors. (high-electron-mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which
a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mo-
bility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable
Field-effect transistor (FET) for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies;
several GHz).
Main articles: Field-effect transistor, MOSFET and
FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and
JFET
enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the
channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source volt-
The field-effect transistor, sometimes called a unipolar age. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero
transistor, uses either electrons (in n-channel FET) or bias, and a gate potential can “enhance” the conduction.
holes (in p-channel FET) for conduction. The four termi- For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and
nals of the FET are named source, gate, drain, and body a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can “deplete”
(substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a
source inside the package, and this will be assumed for more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current
the following description. for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel
In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conduct- devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because
ing channel that connects the source region to the drain the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if
region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are
is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate enhancement-mode types.
and source terminals; hence the current flowing between
the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied Usage of bipolar and field-effect transistors
between the gate and source. As the gate–source volt-
age (Vgs) is increased, the drain–source current (Ids) in- The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most com-
creases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at monly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after
a roughly quadratic rate ( Ids ∝ (Vgs −VT )2 ) (where VT MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained
is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)[36]the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as
in the extquotedblspace-charge-limited extquotedbl re- amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of
gion above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not ob- manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable prop-
served in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm tech- erties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all
nology node.[37] market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can
For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resis- be applied in transistor applications, including analog cir-
tance of the FET is advantageous. cuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters
and motor drivers.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET)
and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more
commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET Other transistor types
(MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from lay-
ers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semi- For early bipolar transistors, see Bipolar junction tran-
conductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n sistor#Bipolar transistors.
diode with the channel which lies between the source and
drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the
solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, • Bipolar junction transistor
similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode.
Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they --- Heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to sev-
both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct eral hundred GHz, common in modern ultra-
current under the control of an input voltage. fast and RF circuits
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in --- Schottky transistor
which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a --- Avalanche transistor
8 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
• Nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement standards; in each the alphanumeric prefix provides clues
of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled to type of the device.
channels.[41]
• Multigate devices
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
--- Tetrode transistor
--- Pentode transistor The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part numbers
--- Trigate transistors (Prototype by Intel) starts with “2S”,[43] e.g. 2SD965, but sometimes the “2S”
prefix is not marked on the package – a 2SD965 might
--- Dual-gate FETs have a single channel with
only be marked “D965 extquotedbl; a 2SC1815 might be
two gates in cascode; a configuration opti-
listed by a supplier as simply “C1815”. This series some-
mized for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers,
times has suffixes (such as “R”, “O”, “BL”... standing for
and oscillators.
“Red”, “Orange”, “Blue” etc.) to denote variants, such as
• Junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), developed tighter hFE (gain) groupings.
at Tyndall National Institute in Ireland, was the first
transistor successfully fabricated without junctions.
(Even MOSFETs have junctions, although its gate is
European Electronic Component Manufacturers As-
electrically insulated from the region the gate con-
sociation (EECA)
trols.) Junctions are difficult and expensive to fabri-
cate, and, because they are a significant source of
current leakage, they waste significant power and The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic
generate significant waste heat. Eliminating them Component Manufacturers Association part numbering
held the promise of cheaper and denser microchips. scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semi-
The JNT uses a simple nanowire of silicon sur- conductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C
rounded by an electrically isolated “wedding ring” for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the
that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose tran-
wire. This method has been described as akin to sistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter
squeezing a garden hose to gate the flow of wa- then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows. With early de-
ter through the hose. The nanowire is heavily n- vices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used,
doped, making it an excellent conductor. Crucially with a letter (e.g. “C” often means high hFE, such as in:
the gate, comprising silicon, is heavily p-doped; and BC549C[44] ) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g.
its presence depletes the underlying silicon nanowire BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A[45] ).
thereby preventing carrier flow past the gate. The more common prefixes are:
Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon
numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced
are second-sourced, a manufacturer’s prefix (like “MPF” microwave and high-performance versions now employ
in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide
FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium
device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and
of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a Si) is described as elemental.
(possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plas- Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor
tic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not
materials used to make transistors are given in the table to
a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 the right; these parameters will vary with increase in tem-
devices). perature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry
Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own other factors.
codes, such as the British Military CV Naming System. The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the
Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base
have them supplied with “house numbers”, identifying conduct a specified current. The current increases ex-
a particular purchasing specification and not necessar- ponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased.
ily a device with a standardized registered number. For The values given in the table are typical for a current of
example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes).
transistor[46][47] which is also assigned the CV number: The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this
CV7763[48] means that less power is required to “drive” the transis-
tor. The junction forward voltage for a given current de-
creases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon
junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.[49] In some circuits
Naming problems special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used
to compensate for such changes.
With so many independent naming schemes, and the ab- The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOS-
breviation of part numbers when printed on the devices, FET is a function of the electric field forming the chan-
ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example two different nel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity
devices may be marked “J176” (one the J176 low-power level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are
Junction FET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control
2SJ176). the MOSFET electrical behavior.
As older “through-hole” transistors are given surface- The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the
mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the
many different part numbers because manufacturers have semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per
their own systems to cope with the variety in pinout ar- meter applied across the material. In general, the higher
rangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n+p–n– the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate.
p devices in one pack. So even when the original device The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in
(such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a stan- this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings
dards authority, and well known by engineers over the compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:
years, the new versions are far from standardized in their
naming. • Its maximum temperature is limited;
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mo- through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known
bility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n– as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array
p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p– (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently
n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of only for large integrated circuits). It has solder “balls”
the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs on the underside in place of leads. Because they are
is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively re- smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have
cent FET development, the high-electron-mobility tran- better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rat-
sistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between ing.
different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gal- Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or
lium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and
has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger
junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced
HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequen- cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the
cies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride collector or drain physically connected to the metal en-
and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) closure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount mi-
provide a still higher electron mobility and are being de- crowave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
veloped for various applications.
Often a given transistor type is available in several pack-
Max. junction temperature values represent a cross ages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but
section taken from various manufacturers’ data sheets. the assignment of a transistor’s functions to the terminals
This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistoris not: other transistor types can assign other functions
may be damaged. to the package’s terminals. Even for the same transis-
Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum– tor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indi-
silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode, commonly cated by a suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L
known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the ta- and BC212K).
ble because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic
reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and
drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can Flexible transistors Researchers have made several
be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit. kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect
transistors.[50][51][52] Flexible transistors are useful in
some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible elec-
Packaging tronics.
• Band gap
• Digital electronics
• Moore’s law
• Transistor count
• Transistor model
Assorted discrete transistors
• Transresistance
tors. Transistors come in many different semiconductor
packages (see image). The two main categories are • Very-large-scale integration
12 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
• 2SC3281/2SA1302: Made by Toshiba, these BJTs [9] Bell Laboratories (1983). S. Millman, ed. A History of
have low-distortion characteristics and are used in Engineering and Science in the Bell System, Physical Sci-
high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely ence (1925-1980). AT&T Bell Laboratories. p. 102.
counterfeited .
[10] David Bodanis (2005). Electric Universe. Crown Publish-
• BU508: n–p–n, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for ers, New York. ISBN 0-7394-5670-9.
television horizontal deflection, its high voltage ca-
[11] “transistor”. American Heritage Dictionary (3rd ed.).
pability also makes it suitable for use in ignition sys- Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1992.
tems.
[12] “The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956”.
• MJ11012/MJ11015: 30 A, 120 V, 200 W, high
power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used [13] “1948 - The European Transistor Invention”. Computer
in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching. History Museum.
• 2N5457/2N5460: JFET (depletion mode), general [14] Proceeding of the IRE, Dec 1953, Author: W.E. Bradley
purpose, low power, complementary pair. - Philco Corp.,Research Division, Volume 41 issue 12,
pages 1702-1706
• BSP296/BSP171: IGFET (enhancement mode),
medium power, near complementary pair. Used for [15] Wall Street Journal, Dec 04 1953, page 4, Article “Philco
Claims Its Transistor Outperforms Others Now In Use”
logic level conversion and driving power transistors
in amplifiers. [16] Electronics magazine, January 1954, Article “Electro-
plated Transistors Announced”
• IRF3710/IRF5210: IGFET (enhancement mode),
40 A, 100 V, 200 W, near complementary pair. [17] Wall Street Journal, “Chrysler Promises Car Radio With
For high-power amplifiers and power switches, es- Transistors Instead of Tubes in '56”, April 28th 1955,
pecially in automobiles. page 1
1.1. TRANSISTOR 13
[18] Los Angeles Times, May 08, 1955, page A20, Article: [35] Streetman, Ben (1992). Solid State Electronic Devices.
“Chrysler Announces New Transistor Radio” Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. pp. 301–305. ISBN
0-13-822023-9.
[19] Philco TechRep Division Bulletin, May–June 1955, Vol-
ume 5 Number 3, page 28 [36] Horowitz, Paul; Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Elec-
tronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 115.
[20] Article” Some Recollections of the Philco Transac S- ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
2000”, Author: Saul Rosen - Purdue University Computer
[37] W. M. C. Sansen (2006). Analog design essentials. New
Science Dept., June 1991, page 2
York ; Berlin: Springer. p. §0152, p. 28. ISBN 0-387-
[21] IEEE Spectrum, The Lost History of the Transistor, Au- 25746-2.
thor: Michael Riordan, May 2004, pp 48-49 [38] “IGBT Module 5SNA 2400E170100” (PDF). Retrieved
2012-06-30.
[22] J. Chelikowski, “Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms”,
Silicon: evolution and future of a technology (Editors: P. [39] Zhong Yuan Chang, Willy M. C. Sansen, Low-Noise
Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.1, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540- Wide-Band Amplifiers in Bipolar and CMOS Technologies,
40546-1. page 31, Springer, 1991 ISBN 0792390962.
[23] Grant McFarland, Microprocessor design: a practical [40] “Single Electron Transistors”. Snow.stanford.edu. Re-
guide from design planning to manufacturing, p.10, trieved 2012-06-30.
McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006 ISBN 0-07-145951-0.
[41] Sanders, Robert (2005-06-28). “Nanofluidic transistor,
[24] W. Heywang, K. H. Zaininger, “Silicon: The Semi- the basis of future chemical processors”. Berkeley.edu.
conductor Material”, Silicon: evolution and future of a Retrieved 2012-06-30.
technology (Editors: P. Siffert, E. F. Krimmel), p.36, [42] The return of the vacuum tube?
Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.
[43] “Clive TEC Transistors Japanese Industrial Standards”.
[25] Robert W. Price (2004). Roadmap to Entrepreneurial Suc- Clivetec.0catch.com. Retrieved 2012-06-30.
cess. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. p. 42.
ISBN 978-0-8144-7190-6. [44] “Datasheet for BC549, with A,B and C gain groupings”
(PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-30.
[26] extquotedblMilestones:Invention of the First Transistor at
[45] “Datasheet for BUK854-800A (800volt IGBT) extquot-
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947”. IEEE Global
edbl (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-30.
History Network. IEEE. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
[46] “Richard Freeman’s HP Part numbers Crossreference”.
[27] FETs/MOSFETs: Smaller apps push up surface-mount Hpmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-06-30.
supply
[47] Transistor–Diode Cross Reference – H.P. Part Numbers
[28] extquotedblATI and Nvidia face off.” Oct 7, 2009. Re- to JEDEC (pdf)
trieved on Feb 2, 2011.
[48] “CV Device Cross-reference by Andy Lake”. Qsl.net.
[29] Jim Turley. “The Two Percent Solution” 2002. Retrieved 2012-06-30.
[49] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic cir-
[30] Kaplan, Daniel (2003). Hands-On Electronics. New York:
cuits (Fifth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–54, 60–61. ISBN
397 and Figure 5.17. ISBN 0-19-514251-9.
978-0-511-07668-8.
[50] Jhonathan P. Rojas, Galo A. Torres Sevilla, and Muham-
[31] apart from a small value due to leakage currents mad M. Hussain. “Can We Build a Truly High Perfor-
mance Computer Which is Flexible and Transparent? ex-
[32] John Keane and Chris H. Kim, “Transistor Aging,” IEEE
tquotedbl.
Spectrum (web feature), April 25, 2011.
[51] Kan Zhang, Jung-Hun Seo1, Weidong Zhou and Zhen-
[33] van der Veen, M. (2005). “Universal system and output qiang Ma. “Fast flexible electronics using transferrable
transformer for valve amplifiers”. 118th AES Convention, silicon nanomembranes”. 2012.
Barcelona, Spain.
[52] Lisa Zyga. “Carbon nanotube transistors could lead to in-
[34] “Transistor Example”. 071003 bcae1.com expensive, flexible electronics”. 2011.
14 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
1.1.11 Further reading • BBC: Building the digital age photo history of tran-
sistors
• Amos S W & James M R (1999). Principles of
Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN • The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors
0-7506-4427-3.
• IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and
• Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). “The Transistor’s Portable Electronics. All about the history of tran-
20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A Bit of sistors and integrated circuits.
Wire Changed The World”. Bonnier Corp.: Popu-
lar Science, retrieved from Google Books 2009-03- • Transistorized. Historical and technical information
22 (Bonnier Corporation) 192 (6): 80–84. ISSN from the Public Broadcasting Service
0161-7370.
• This Month in Physics History: November 17 to De-
• Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of cember 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor.
Electronics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0- From the American Physical Society
521-37095-7.
• 50 Years of the Transistor. From Science Friday, De-
• Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). cember 12, 1997
Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited.
ISBN 0-393-31851-6. The invention of the tran- • Charts showing many characteristics and giving di-
sistor & the birth of the information age rect access to most datasheets for 2N, 2SA, 2SB.
2SC, 2SD, 2SH-K, and other numbers.
• Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Elec-
tronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 0-333-65820- • Common transistor pinouts
5.
• Large table of transistor characteristics
• “Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor
has his moment”. The New York Times. 24 Febru-
ary 2003. 1.2 Bipolar junction transistor
• Michael Riordan (2005). “How Europe Missed
the Transistor”. IEEE Spectrum 42 (11): 52–57. “Junction transistor” redirects here. For other uses, see
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906. Junction transistor (disambiguation).
BJT redirects here. For the Japanese language profi-
• C. D. Renmore (1980). Silicon Chips and You. ciency test, see Business Japanese Proficiency Test.
ISBN 0-8253-0022-3. Schematic symbols for
PNP- and NPN-type
• Wiley-IEEE Press. Complete Guide to Semiconduc- BJTs.
tor Devices, 2nd Edition.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar tran-
1.1.12 External links sistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the contact of
two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be
• The CK722 Museum. Website devoted to the “classic” used as amplifiers, switches, or in oscillators. BJTs can
hobbyist germanium transistor be found either as individual discrete components, or in
large numbers as parts of integrated circuits.
• Jerry Russell’s Transistor Cross Reference Database.
Bipolar transistors are so named because their opera-
• The DatasheetArchive. Searchable database of tran- tion involves both electrons and holes. These two kinds
sistor specifications and datasheets. of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds
of doped semiconductor material; electrons are majority
• The Transistor Educational content from Nobel- charge carriers in n-type semiconductors, whereas holes
prize.org are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In
1.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 15
contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect tran- The electrons in the base are called minority carriers be-
sistors have only one kind of charge carrier. cause the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the
Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge car- majority carrier in the base.
riers across a junction between two regions of different To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine
charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called before reaching the collector–base junction, the transis-
emitter, collector, and base.[note 1] A discrete transistor has tor’s base region must be thin enough that carriers can
three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconduc-
the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other tor’s minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness
two layers, whereas the majority charge carrier concen- of the base must be much less than the diffusion length
trations in base and collector layers are about the same. of the electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-
By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the
flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emit- collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through
ter into the base where there are minority carriers that the base towards the collector are swept into the col-
diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as lector by the electric field in the depletion region of the
minority-carrier devices. collector–base junction. The thin shared base and asym-
metric collector–emitter doping is what differentiates a
bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely bi-
1.2.1 Introduction ased diodes connected in series.
n++ p n+
E iEn electrons iC
C
Voltage, current, and charge control
iE
iEp
iE holes iC
recombination
iB1 iB2 The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being
controlled by the base–emitter current (current control),
B
vBE vCB
or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These
iB
views are related by the current–voltage relation of the
base–emitter junction, which is just the usual exponen-
tial current–voltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).[1]
NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased
B–C junction
The physical explanation for collector current is the
amount of minority carriers in the base region.[1][2][3]
BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP Due to low level injection (in which there are much
and NPN based on the doping types of the three main fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the
ambipolar transport rates (in which the excess majority
terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two
semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect
determined by the excess minority carriers.
region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconduc-
tor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region. Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as
In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward the Gummel–Poon model, account for the distribution
biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junc- of this charge[4]explicitly to explain transistor behaviour
tion is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles
and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. In an phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base re-
NPN transistor, when positive bias is applied to the base– gion are created by the absorption of photons, and han-
emitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between dles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which
the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric depends on charge in the base region recombining. How-
field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows ever, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at
thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are
the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base generally used in circuit design and analysis.
from the region of high concentration near the emitter to- In analog circuit design, the current-control view is some-
wards the region of low concentration near the collector. times used because it is approximately linear. That is, the
16 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
collector current is approximately βF times the base cur- than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they
rent. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming cross the base region. Alpha and beta are more precisely
that the emitter–base voltage is approximately constant, related by the following identities (NPN transistor):
and that collector current is beta times the base current.
However, to accurately and reliably design production
BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, Ebers– IC
αF =
Moll) model is required.[1] The voltage-control model re- IE
quires an exponential function to be taken into account, IC
but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be βF =
IB
modelled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll αF βF
model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers βF = ⇐⇒ αF =
1 − αF βF + 1
again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-
control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in
which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, 1.2.2 Structure
the transistors are usually modelled as voltage controlled
with transconductance proportional to collector current.
In general, transistor level circuit design is performed us- E B C
ing SPICE or a comparable analog circuit simulator, so
model complexity is usually not of much concern to the
designer. n
p
Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay
reverse mode. Because the transistor’s internal structure for very high speed applications (see HBT, below).
is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, inter-
changing the collector and the emitter makes the values
of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those
in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode
NPN
is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily
due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collec-
tor. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is
lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be
C
applied before the collector–base junction breaks down.
The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal
operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to
increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of car-
B
riers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base.
For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into
the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter.
E
The symbol of an NPN BJT. The symbol is extquotedblnot
pointing in.”
Δφn ΔφG
E n
p
B Δφp
n
C
ers indicated for electrons to move from emitter to base, and for
holes to be injected backward from base to emitter; Also, grad-
ing of bandgap in base assists electron transport in base region;
Light colors indicate depleted regions
The symbol of a PNP BJT. The symbol extquotedblpoints in rier for holes to inject backward from the base into the
proudly.”
emitter, denoted in the figure as Δφ , to be made large,
while the barrier for electrons to inject into the base Δφ
PNP is made low. This barrier arrangement helps reduce mi-
nority carrier injection from the base when the emitter-
base junction is under forward bias, and thus reduces base
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of
current and increases emitter injection efficiency.
N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped
material. A small current leaving the base is amplified The improved injection of carriers into the base allows
in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is “on” the base to have a higher doping level, resulting in lower
when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. resistance to access the base electrode. In the more tra-
ditional BJT, also referred to as homojunction BJT, the
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are
efficiency of carrier injection from the emitter to the base
on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the
is primarily determined by the doping ratio between the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward
emitter and base, which means the base must be lightly
active mode.
doped to obtain high injection efficiency, making its re-
A mnemonic device for the PNP transistor symbol is ex- sistance relatively high. In addition, higher doping in the
tquotedblpointing in (proudly/permanently) extquotedbl, base can improve figures of merit like the Early voltage
based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the by lessening base narrowing.
name.[6]
The grading of composition in the base, for example,
by progressively increasing the amount of germanium in
Heterojunction bipolar transistor a SiGe transistor, causes a gradient in bandgap in the
neutral base, denoted in the figure by ΔφG, providing a
The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an im- “built-in” field that assists electron transport across the
provement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high base. That drift component of transport aids the normal
frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in diffusive transport, increasing the frequency response of
modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.[7][8] Het- the transistor by shortening the transit time across the
erojunction transistors have different semiconductors for base.
the elements of the transistor. Usually the emitter is com- Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and
posed of a larger bandgap material than the base. The fig- aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of
ure shows that this difference in bandgap allows the bar- semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT
1.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 19
structures are usually grown by epitaxy techniques like charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector).
MOCVD and MBE. This mode corresponds to a logical “on”, or a closed
switch.
transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage causes the Germanium transistors
upper P-N junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of holes
from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the elec- The germanium transistor was more common in the
tric field existing between the emitter and the collector 1950s and 1960s, and while it exhibits a lower “cut off”
(caused by VCE ) causes the majority of these holes to voltage, typically around 0.2 V, making it more suitable
cross the lower p-n junction into the collector to form for some applications, it also has a greater tendency to
the collector current IC . The remainder of the holes re- exhibit thermal runaway.
combine with electrons, the majority carriers in the base,
making a current through the base connection to form the
Early manufacturing techniques
base current, IB . As shown in the diagram, the emitter
current, IE , is the total transistor current, which is the
Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors
sum of the other terminal currents (i.e., IE = IB + IC).
were developed.[10]
In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in
the direction of conventional current – the flow of holes
is in the same direction of the arrows because holes carry Bipolar transistors
positive electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the
collector current to the base current is called the DC cur- • Point-contact transistor – first transistor ever con-
rent gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust structed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, lim-
circuit designs do not depend on the exact value. The ited commercial use due to high cost and noise.
value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as hFE , --- Tetrode point-contact transistor – Point-
and the value of this gain for AC signals is referred to contact transistor having two emitters. It be-
as hfe . However, when there is no particular frequency came obsolete in the middle 1950s.
range of interest, the symbol β is used.
• Junction transistors
It should also be noted that the emitter current is related
to VEB exponentially. At room temperature, an increase --- Grown-junction transistor – first bipolar junc-
in VEB by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter cur- tion transistor made.[11] Invented by William
rent by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approx- Shockley at Bell Labs. Invented on June 23,
imately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, 1948.[12] Patent filed on June 26, 1948.
they vary in the same way. --- Alloy-junction transistor – emitter and collec-
tor alloy beads fused to base. Developed at
General Electric and RCA[13] in 1951.
∗ Micro-alloy transistor (MAT) – high
speed type of alloy junction transistor.
1.2.4 History Developed at Philco.[14]
∗ Micro-alloy diffused transistor (MADT)
– high speed type of alloy junction tran-
The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in De- sistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-
cember 1947 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories by base transistor. Developed at Philco.
John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of
∗ Post-alloy diffused transistor (PADT) –
William Shockley. The junction version known as the
high speed type of alloy junction transis-
bipolar junction transistor, invented by Shockley in 1948,
tor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base
enjoyed three decades as the device of choice in the de-
transistor. Developed at Philips.
sign of discrete and integrated circuits. Nowadays, the
use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology --- Tetrode transistor – high speed variant of
in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental grown-junction transistor[15] or alloy junction
low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however, transistor[16] with two connections to base.
are often utilized as bandgap voltage reference, silicon --- Surface-barrier transistor – high speed metal
bandgap temperature sensor and to handle electrostatic barrier junction transistor. Developed at
discharge. Philco[17] in 1953.[18]
22 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
Large-signal models
Ev
In 1954 Jewell James Ebers and John L. Moll introduced
their mathematical model of transistor currents:[23]
Band diagram for NPN transistor at equilibrium.
Ebers–Moll model The DC emitter and collector cur-
Transistors can be thought of as two diodes (P–N junc- rents in active mode are well modeled by an approxima-
tions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can tion to the Ebers–Moll model:
move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes
that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like
two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting ( VBE )
two diodes with wires will not make a transistor, since IE = IES e VT − 1
minority carriers will not be able to get from one P–N
junction to the other through the wire. IC = α F IE
1.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 23
IE IC IE IC
E C E C
IED ICD IED ICD
IB IB
B B
Ebers–Moll Model for an NPN transistor.[24] * IB, IC, IE: base, Approximated Ebers–Moll Model for an NPN transistor in the
collector and emitter currents * ICD, IED: collector and emit- forward active mode. The collector diode is reverse-biased so
ter diode currents * αF, αR: forward and reverse common-base ICD is virtually zero. Most of the emitter diode current (αF is
current gains nearly 1) is drawn from the collector, providing the amplification
of the base current.
αR ICD αF IED
• αF is the common base forward short circuit current
gain (0.98 to 0.998)
The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to de-
Fick’s law) and scribe the three currents in any operating region are given
below. These equations are based on the transport model
for a bipolar junction transistor.[25]
qDn nbo VVEB
Jn (base) = e T
W ( VBE VBC ) IS ( VVBC )
iC = IS e VT − e VT − e T −1
where βR
IS ( VVBE ) IS ( VVBC )
• VT is the thermal voltage kT /q (approximately 26 iB = e T −1 + e T −1
mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature). βF βR
( VBE VBC ) IS ( VVBE )
• IE is the emitter current iE = IS e VT − e VT + e T −1
βF
• IC is the collector current where
24 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
• IS is the reverse saturation current (on the order of Narrowing of the base width has two consequences:
10−15 to 10−12 amperes)
• There is a lesser chance for recombination within
• VT is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at the “smaller” base region.
300 K ≈ room temperature).
• The charge gradient is increased across the base,
• VBE is the base–emitter voltage and consequently, the current of minority carriers
injected across the emitter junction increases.
• VBC is the base–collector voltage
B
current gain ( βF ) as given by:
VBE
( )
n p n VCE
vBE
iC = IS e VT 1+
VA
E C ( )
Weff βF = βF 0 1+
VCB
VA
ΔWeff
VA
E C ro =
IC
n p n where:
Top: NPN base width for low collector-base reverse bias; Bottom: • ro is the output impedance
narrower NPN base width for large collector-base reverse bias.
Hashed regions are depleted regions. • IC is the collector current
1.2. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 25
The hybrid-pi model is a popular circuit model used for • Vₒ = Collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE)
analyzing the small signal behavior of bipolar junction
and field effect transistors. Sometimes it is also called and the h-parameters are given by:
Giacoletto model because it was introduced by L.J. Gia-
coletto in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low- • hᵢₓ = hᵢₑ – The input impedance of the transistor
frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher (corresponding to the base resistance r ᵢ).
frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter-
electrode capacitances and other parasitic elements. • hᵣₓ = hᵣₑ – Represents the dependence of the tran-
sistor’s IB–VBE curve on the value of VCE. It is
usually very small and is often neglected (assumed
h-parameter model Another model commonly used to be zero).
to analyze BJT circuits is the extquotedblh-parameter ex-
tquotedbl model, closely related to the hybrid-pi model • h ₓ = h ₑ – The current-gain of the transistor. This
and the y-parameter two-port, but using input current and parameter is often specified as hFE or the DC
output voltage as independent variables, rather than input current-gain (βDC) in datasheets.
26 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
period of time, the current gain of the BJT will be per- [10] Third case study – the solid state advent (PDF)
manently degraded.
[11] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
Bell Labs Type M1752
1.2.8 See also
[12] Morris, Peter Robin (1990). “4.2”. A History of the World
Semiconductor Industry. IEE History of Technology Se-
• Bipolar transistor biasing
ries 12. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. p. 29. ISBN
• Gummel plot 0-86341-227-0.
• Technology CAD (TCAD) [13] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
RCA TA153
1.2.9 References [14] High Speed Switching Transistor Handbook (2nd ed.).
Motorola. 1963. p. 17.
[1] See point-contact transistor for the historical origin of
[15] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
these names.
Western Electric 3N22
[1] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Elec- [16] The Tetrode Power Transistor PDF
tronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-37095-0. [17] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
Philco A01
[2] Juin Jei Liou and Jiann S. Yuan (1998). Semiconductor
Device Physics and Simulation. Springer. ISBN 0-306- [18] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
45724-5. Surface Barrier Transistor
[3] General Electric (1962). Transistor Manual (6th ed.). p. [19] Herb’s Bipolar Transistors IEEE Transactions on Electron
12. “If the principle of space charge neutrality is used in Devices, vol. 48, no. 11, November 2001 PDF
the analysis of the transistor, it is evident that the collector
current is controlled by means of the positive charge (hole [20] Influence of Mobility and Lifetime Variations on Drift-
concentration) in the base region. ... When a transistor Field Effects in Silicon-Junction Devices PDF
is used at higher frequencies, the fundamental limitation
is the time it takes the carriers to diffuse across the base [21] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
region...” (same in 4th and 5th editions) Bell Labs Prototype Diffused Base Triode
[4] Paolo Antognetti and Giuseppe Massobrio (1993). [22] Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery,
Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice. McGraw–Hill Fairchild 2N1613
Professional. ISBN 0-07-134955-3.
[23] J.J. Ebers and J.L Moll (1954) “Large-signal behavior of
[5] Alphonse J. Sistino (1996). Essentials of electronic cir- junction transistors”, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
cuitry. CRC Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-8247-9693-8. Engineers, 42 (12) : 1761–1772.
[6] Alphonse J. Sistino (1996). Essentials of electronic cir-
[24] Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (1987). Microelec-
cuitry. CRC Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8247-9693-8.
tronic Circuits, second ed. p. 903. ISBN 0-03-007328-6.
[7] D.V. Morgan, Robin H. Williams (Editors) (1991).
Physics and Technology of Heterojunction Devices. Lon- [25] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Cir-
don: Institution of Electrical Engineers (Peter Peregrinus cuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford. Eqs. 4.103–4.110, p.
Ltd.). ISBN 0-86341-204-1. 305. ISBN 0-19-514251-9.
[8] Peter Ashburn (2003). SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Tran- [26] H. K. Gummel and R. C. Poon, “An integral charge con-
sistors. New York: Wiley. Chapter 10. ISBN 0-470- trol model of bipolar transistors,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol.
84838-3. 49, pp. 827–852, May–June 1970
[9] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Elec- [27] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Cir-
tronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 62– cuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford. p. 509. ISBN 0-19-
66. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0. 514251-9.
28 CHAPTER 1. THE TRANSISTOR
• Characteristic curves
• BJT Operation description for undergraduate and The field-effect transistor was first patented by Julius
first year graduate students to describe the basic Edgar Lilienfeld in 1926 and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but
principles of operation of Bipolar Junction Transis- practical semiconducting devices (the JFET) were devel-
tor. oped only much later after the transistor effect was ob-
served and explained by the team of William Shockley at
Bell Labs in 1947, immediately after the 20-year patent
1.3 Field-effect transistor period eventually expired. The MOSFET, which largely
superseded the JFET and had a more profound effect on
electronic development, was invented by Dawon Kahng
“FET” redirects here. For other uses, see FET (disam-
and Martin Atalla in 1960.[1]
biguation).
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that
uses an electric field to control the shape and hence the 1.3.2 Basic information
conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in
a semiconductor material. FETs are unipolar transistors
See also: Charge carrier § Majority and minority carriers
as they involve single-carrier-type operation. The concept
of the FET predates the bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs FETs can be majority-charge-carrier devices, in which
due to the limitations of semiconductor materials and the the current is carried predominantly by majority carriers,
relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs or minority-charge-carrier devices, in which the current
at the time. is mainly due to a flow of minority carriers.[2] The device
consists of an active channel through which charge carri-
ers, electrons or holes, flow from the source to the drain.
1.3.1 History Source and drain terminal conductors are connected to
the semiconductor through ohmic contacts. The conduc-
Main article: History of the transistor tivity of the channel is a function of the potential applied
across the gate and source terminals.
1.3. FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR 29
The FET’s three terminals are:[3] or eliminating a channel between the source and drain.
Electrons flow from the source terminal towards the drain
• Source (S), through which the carriers enter the terminal is influenced by an applied voltage. The body
channel. Conventionally, current entering the chan- simply refers to the bulk of the semiconductor in which
nel at S is designated by IS. the gate, source and drain lie. Usually the body terminal
is connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the
• Drain (D), through which the carriers leave the circuit, depending on the type of the FET. The body ter-
channel. Conventionally, current entering the chan- minal and the source terminal are sometimes connected
nel at D is designated by ID. Drain-to-source voltage together since the source is often connected to the high-
is VDS. est or lowest voltage within the circuit, although there are
several uses of FETs which do not have such a configu-
• Gate (G), the terminal that modulates the channel ration, such as transmission gates and cascode circuits.
conductivity. By applying voltage to G, one can con-
trol ID.
1.3.4 FET operation
1.3.3 More about terminals See also: Field effect (semiconductor)
The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes)
Gate
Oxide I DS I DS
Source Drain VDS VGS - VP
=
SAT
n+ x n+ Saturation
VGS2 < VGS1
region
VGS3 < VGS2
p L Channel
VGS off
VP
Linear
region Channel off VDS
VGS4 < VVp
creases the channel size and allows electrons to flow eas- to be part of the ohmic or linear region, even where drain
ily. current is not approximately linear with drain voltage.
In an n-channel enhancement-mode device, a conductive Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-
channel does not exist naturally within the transistor, and source voltage no longer connects source to drain during
a positive gate-to-source voltage is necessary to create saturation mode, carriers are not blocked from flowing.
one. The positive voltage attracts free-floating electrons Considering again an n-channel enhancement-mode de-
within the body towards the gate, forming a conductive vice, a depletion region exists in the p-type body, sur-
channel. But first, enough electrons must be attracted rounding the conductive channel and drain and source re-
near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body gions. The electrons which comprise the channel are free
of the FET; this forms a region with no mobile carriers to move out of the channel through the depletion region
called a depletion region, and the voltage at which this if attracted to the drain by drain-to-source voltage. The
occurs is referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET. depletion region is free of carriers and has a resistance
Further gate-to-source voltage increase will attract even similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source
more electrons towards the gate which are able to create voltage will increase the distance from drain to the pinch-
a conductive channel from source to drain; this process is off point, increasing the resistance of the depletion re-
called inversion. gion in proportion to the drain-to-source voltage applied.
This proportional change causes the drain-to-source cur-
rent to remain relatively fixed, independent of changes
p-channel to the drain-to-source voltage, quite unlike its ohmic be-
havior in the linear mode of operation. Thus, in satura-
In a p-channel depletion-mode device, a positive volt-
tion mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current source
age from gate to body creates a depletion layer by rather than as a resistor, and can effectively be used as
forcing the positively charged holes away from the
a voltage amplifier. In this case, the gate-to-source volt-
gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed age determines the level of constant current through the
a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged ac-
channel.
ceptor ions..
Operation
[14] http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~{}spieler/physics_198_
notes/PDF/VIII-5-noise.pdf
1.3.11 References
[15] Allen Mottershead (2004). Electronic devices and circuits.
[1] http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/ New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India. ISBN 81-203-0124-
timeline/1960-MOS.html 2.
[9] http://www.physorg.com/news/
2011-06-ibm-graphene-based-circuit.html
Semiconductor Materials
2.1 Silicon combined with silica sand and gravel, to make concrete.
Silicates are also in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain,
and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass and many
This article is about the chemical element. For other other specialty glasses. More modern silicon compounds
uses, see Silicon (disambiguation). such as silicon carbide form abrasives and high-strength
“Element 14” redirects here. For other uses, see Element ceramics. Silicon is the basis of the widely-used synthetic
14 (disambiguation). polymers called silicones.
Not to be confused with the silicon-containing synthetic
Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern
polymer silicone.
world economy. Although most free silicon is used in the
steel refining, aluminium-casting, and fine chemical in-
Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic dustries (often to make fumed silica), the relatively small
number 14. It is a tetravalent metalloid, less reactive than portion of very highly purified silicon that is used in semi-
its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it conductor electronics (< 10%) is perhaps even more crit-
in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, ical. Because of wide use of silicon in integrated circuits,
the metalloid directly below it in the table. Controversy the basis of most computers, a great deal of modern tech-
about silicon’s character dates to its discovery; it was first nology depends on it.
prepared and characterized in pure form in 1823. In
Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only
1808, it was given the name silicium (from Latin: silex,
tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals.[8] How-
hard stone or flint), with an -ium word-ending to suggest
ever, various sea sponges as well as microorganisms like
a metal, a name which the element retains in several non-
diatoms and radiolaria secrete skeletal structures made
English languages. However, its final English name, first
of silica. Silica is often deposited in plant tissues, such
suggested in 1817, reflects the more physically similar el-
as in the bark and wood of Chrysobalanaceae and the
ements carbon and boron.
silica cells and silicified trichomes of Cannabis sativa,
Silicon is the eighth most common element in the uni- horsetails and many grasses.[9]
verse by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure free el-
ement in nature. It is most widely distributed in dusts,
sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon 2.1.1 Characteristics
dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth’s
crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the Physical
second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust (about
28% by mass) after oxygen.[7] Further information: Monocrystalline silicon
Most silicon is used commercially without being sepa-
rated, and indeed often with little processing of com- Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with relatively high
pounds from nature. These include direct industrial melting and boiling points of 1414 and 3265 °C, respec-
building-use of clays, silica sand and stone. Silicate goes tively. It has a greater density in a liquid state than a solid
into Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and when state. It does not contract when it freezes like most sub-
34
2.1. SILICON 35
Silicon powder
Silicon crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure
isotope, silicon-28, is β+, primarily forming aluminium supernova dust which formed the protoplanetary disk in
isotopes (13 protons) as decay products.[12] The most the formation and evolution of the Solar System, they
common decay mode(s) for 16 isotopes with mass num- formed many complex silicates which accreted into larger
bers higher than silicon-28 is β−, primarily forming phos- rocky planetesimals that formed the terrestrial planets.
phorus isotopes (15 protons) as decay products.[12] Here, the reduced silicate mineral matrix entrapped the
metals reactive enough to be oxidized (aluminium, cal-
cium, sodium, potassium and magnesium). After loss of
Occurrence volatile gases, as well as carbon and sulfur via reaction
with hydrogen, this silicate mixture of elements formed
most of the Earth’s crust. These silicates were of rela-
tively low density with respect to iron, nickel, and other
metals non-reactive to oxygen and thus a residuum of un-
combined iron and nickel sank to the planet’s core, leav-
ing a thick mantle consisting mostly of magnesium and
iron silicates. These are thought to be mostly silicate per-
ovskites, followed in abundance by the magnesium/iron
oxide ferropericlase.[15]
Examples of silicate minerals in the crust include those
in the pyroxene, amphibole, mica, and feldspar groups.
These minerals occur in clay and various types of rock
such as granite and sandstone.
Silica occurs in minerals consisting of very pure sili-
con dioxide in different crystalline forms, quartz, agate
amethyst, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and
opal. The crystals have the empirical formula of sili-
con dioxide, but do not consist of separate silicon dioxide
molecules in the manner of solid carbon dioxide. Rather,
Quartz crystal cluster from Tibet. The naturally occurring min- silica is structurally a network-solid consisting of silicon
eral is a network solid with the formula SiO2 . and oxygen in three-dimensional crystals, like diamond.
Less pure silica forms the natural glass obsidian. Biogenic
See also: Silicate minerals silica occurs in the structure of diatoms, radiolaria and
siliceous sponges.
Measured by mass, silicon makes up 27.7% of the Earth’s Silicon is also a principal component of many meteorites,
crust and is the second most abundant element in the and is a component of tektites, a silicate mineral of pos-
crust, with only oxygen having a greater abundance.[14] sibly lunar origin, or (if Earth-derived) which has been
Silicon is usually found in the form of complex silicate subjected to unusual temperatures and pressures, possi-
minerals, and less often as silicon dioxide (silica, a ma- bly from meteorite strike.
jor component of common sand). Pure silicon crystals
are very rarely found in nature.
2.1.2 Production
The silicate minerals—various minerals containing sili-
con, oxygen and reactive metals—account for 90% of Alloys
the mass of the Earth’s crust. This is due to the fact
that at the high temperatures characteristic of the forma- Ferrosilicon, an iron-silicon alloy that contains varying
tion of the inner solar system, silicon and oxygen have a ratios of elemental silicon and iron, accounts for about
great affinity for each other, forming networks of silicon 80% of the world’s production of elemental silicon, with
and oxygen in chemical compounds of very low volatil- China, the leading supplier of elemental silicon, provid-
ity. Since oxygen and silicon were the most common ing 4.6 million tonnes (or 2/3 of the world output) of
non-gaseous and non-metallic elements in the debris from silicon, most of which is in the form of ferrosilicon. It
2.1. SILICON 37
cal grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon lizes tribromosilane in place of trichlorosilane and fluid
powder in an acid. When crushed, the silicon cracked bed technology. It requires lower deposition tempera-
so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the out- tures, lower capital costs to build facilities and operate,
side of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the no hazardous polymers nor explosive material, and pro-
impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when duces no amorphous silicon dust waste, all of which are
treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product. drawbacks of the Siemens process.[29] However, there are
In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon yet to be any major factories built using this process.
purification method to be widely used industrially, rods
of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one
end. Then, the heater is slowly moved down the length of
2.1.3 Compounds
the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the
• Silicon forms binary compounds called silicides
silicon cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most im-
with many metallic elements whose properties range
purities tend to remain in the molten region rather than
from reactive compounds, e.g. magnesium silicide,
re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the im-
Mg2 Si through high melting refractory compounds
purities in the rod will have been moved into the end that
such as molybdenum disilicide, MoSi2 .[30]
was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and dis-
carded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is • Silicon carbide, SiC (carborundum) is a hard, high
desired.[24] melting solid and a well known abrasive. It may also
At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by re- be sintered into a type of high-strength ceramic used
acting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity zinc vapors in armor.
at 950 °C, producing silicon by SiCl4 + 2 Zn → Si + 2
ZnCl2 . However, this technique was plagued with prac- • Silane, SiH4 , is a pyrophoric gas with a simi-
tical problems (such as the zinc chloride byproduct solid- lar tetrahedral structure to methane, CH4 . When
ifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned pure, it does not react with pure water or dilute
in favor of the Siemens process. In the Siemens process, acids; however, even small amounts of alkali im-
high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at purities from the laboratory glass can result in a
1150 °C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and de- rapid hydrolysis.[31] There is a range of catenated
posits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them be- silicon hydrides that form a homologous series of
cause 2 HSiCl3 → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl4 . Silicon produced compounds, Si
from this and similar processes is called polycrystalline nH
silicon. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity lev- 2n+2 where n = 2–8 (analogous to the alkanes).
els of less than one part per billion.[25][26][27] These are all readily hydrolyzed and are thermally
unstable, particularly the heavier members.[32][33]
In 2006 REC announced construction of a plant based on
fluidized bed (FB) technology using silane: 3 SiCl4 + Si • Disilenes contain a silicon-silicon double bond
+ 2 H2 → 4 HSiCl3 , 4 HSiCl3 → 3 SiCl4 + SiH4 , SiH4 (analogous to the alkenes) and are generally highly
→ Si + 2 H2 .[28] The advantage of fluid bed technology reactive requiring large substituent groups to stabi-
is that processes can be run continuously, yielding higher lize them.[34] A disilyne with a silicon-silicon triple
yields than Siemens Process, which is a batch process. bond was first isolated in 2004; although as the com-
pound is non-linear, the bonding is dissimilar to that
Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon
in alkynes.[35]
compound that can be more easily purified by distillation
than in its original state, and then converting that silicon • Tetrahalides, SiX4 , are formed with all the
compound back into pure silicon. Trichlorosilane is the halogens.[36] Silicon tetrachloride, for example, re-
silicon compound most commonly used as the interme- acts with water, unlike its carbon analogue, carbon
diate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also tetrachloride.[37] Silicon dihalides are formed by the
used. When these gases are blown over silicon at high high temperature reaction of tetrahalides and sili-
temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon. con; with a structure analogous to a carbene they are
In addition, there is the Schumacher process, which uti- reactive compounds. Silicon difluoride condenses to
form a polymeric compound, (SiF
2.1. SILICON 39
Other geographic locations with connections to the in- of the inner planets of the solar system make planetary
dustry have since been named after silicon as well. Ex- silicon compounds found there mostly silicates and sil-
amples include Silicon Forest in Oregon, Silicon Hills in ica. Free silicon, or compounds of silicon in which the
Austin, Texas, Silicon Saxony in Germany, Silicon Valley element is covalently attached to hydrogen, boron, or ele-
in India, Silicon Border in Mexicali, Mexico, Silicon Fen ments other than oxygen, are mostly artificially produced.
in Cambridge, England, Silicon Roundabout in London, They are described below.
Silicon Glen in Scotland, and Silicon Gorge in Bristol, Silicon compounds of more modern origin function as
England. high-technology abrasives and new high-strength ceram-
ics based upon silicon carbide. Silicon is a component of
some superalloys.
2.1.5 Applications
Alternating silicon-oxygen chains with hydrogen attached
Compounds to the remaining silicon bonds form the ubiquitous
silicon-based polymeric materials known as silicones.
Building materials. Most silicon is used industrially These compounds containing silicon-oxygen and oc-
without being separated into the element, and indeed of- casionally silicon-carbon bonds have the capability to
ten with comparatively little processing from natural oc- act as bonding intermediates between glass and or-
currence. Over 90% of the Earth’s crust is composed ganic compounds, and to form polymers with useful
of silicate minerals, which are compounds of silicon and properties such as impermeability to water, flexibility
oxygen, often with metallic ions when charged silicate and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are often
anions require cations to balance charge. Many of these used in waterproofing treatments, molding compounds,
have direct commercial uses, such as clays, silica sand and mold-release agents, mechanical seals, high temperature
most kinds of building stone. Thus, the vast majority of greases and waxes, and caulking compounds. Silicone is
uses for silicon are as structural compounds, either as the also sometimes used in breast implants, contact lenses,
silicate minerals or silica (crude silicon dioxide). Sili- explosives and pyrotechnics.[56] Silly Putty was originally
cates are used in making Portland cement (made mostly made by adding boric acid to silicone oil.[57]
of calcium silicates) which is used in building mortar and
modern stucco, but more importantly, combined with sil- Alloys
ica sand, and gravel (usually containing silicate minerals
like granite), to make the concrete that is the basis of most Elemental silicon is added to molten cast iron as
of the very largest industrial building projects of the mod- ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve perfor-
ern world. [55] mance in casting thin sections and to prevent the forma-
Ceramics and glass. Silica is used to make fire brick, a tion of cementite where exposed to outside air. The pres-
type of ceramic. Silicate minerals are also in whiteware ence of elemental silicon in molten iron acts as a sink for
ceramics, an important class of products usually con- oxygen, so that the steel carbon content, which must be
taining various types of fired clay minerals (natural alu- kept within narrow limits for each type of steel, can be
minium phyllosilicates). An example is porcelain which more closely controlled. Ferrosilicon production and use
is based on the silicate mineral kaolinite. Ceramics in- is a monitor of the steel industry, and although this form
clude art objects, and domestic, industrial and building of elemental silicon is grossly impure, it accounts for 80%
products. Traditional glass (silica-based soda-lime glass) of the world’s use of free silicon. Silicon is an important
also functions in many of the same ways, and is also used constituent of electrical steel, modifying its resistivity and
for windows and containers. In addition, specialty silica ferromagnetic properties.
based glass fibers are used for optical fiber, as well as The properties of silicon can be used to modify alloys
fiberglass used for structural support and insulation. with metals other than iron. “Metallurgical grade” sili-
Artificial silicon compounds. Very occasional elemen- con is silicon of 95–99% purity. About 55% of the world
tal silicon is found in nature, and also naturally-occurring consumption of metallurgical purity silicon goes for pro-
compounds of silicon and carbon (silicon carbide) or ni- duction of aluminium-silicon alloys (silumin alloys) for
trogen (silicon nitride) are found in stardust samples or aluminium part casts, mainly for use in the automotive
meteorites in presolar grains, but the oxidizing conditions industry. Silicon’s importance in aluminium casting is
2.1. SILICON 41
that a significantly high amount (12%) of silicon in alu- der the proper conditions. Silicon has become the most
minium forms a eutectic mixture which solidifies with popular material to build both high power semiconduc-
very little thermal contraction. This greatly reduces tear- tors and integrated circuits. The reason is that silicon is
ing and cracks formed from stress as casting alloys cool to the semiconductor that can withstand the highest temper-
solidity. Silicon also significantly improves the hardness atures and electrical powers without becoming dysfunc-
and thus wear-resistance of aluminium.[17][18] tional due to avalanche breakdown (a process in which an
electron avalanche is created by a chain reaction process
whereby heat produces free electrons and holes, which in
Electronics turn produce more current which produces more heat). In
addition, the insulating oxide of silicon is not soluble in
Main article: Semiconductor device fabrication water, which gives it an advantage over germanium (an
Since most elemental silicon produced remains as fer- element with similar properties which can also be used
rosilicon alloy, only a relatively small amount (20%) of in semiconductor devices) in certain type of fabrication
[58]
the elemental silicon produced is refined to metallurgical techniques.
grade purity (a total of 1.3–1.5 million metric tons/year). Monocrystalline silicon is expensive to produce, and is
The fraction of silicon metal which is further refined to usually only justified in production of integrated circuits,
semiconductor purity is estimated at only 15% of the where tiny crystal imperfections can interfere with tiny
world production of metallurgical grade silicon.[18] How- circuit paths. For other uses, other types of pure silicon
ever, the economic importance of this small very high- which do not exist as single crystals may be employed.
purity fraction (especially the ~ 5% which is processed to These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon and up-
monocrystalline silicon for use in integrated circuits) is graded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si) which are
disproportionately large. used in the production of low-cost, large-area electron-
Pure monocrystalline silicon is used to produce silicon ics in applications such as liquid crystal displays, and of
wafers used in the semiconductor industry, in electron- large-area, low-cost, thin-film solar cells. Such semi-
ics and in some high-cost and high-efficiency photovoltaic conductor grades of silicon which are either slightly less
applications. In terms of charge conduction, pure sili- pure than those used in integrated circuits, or which are
con is an intrinsic semiconductor which means that unlike produced in polycrystalline rather than monocrystalline
metals it conducts electron holes and electrons that may form, make up roughly similar amount of silicon as are
be released from atoms within the crystal by heat, and produced for the monocrystalline silicon semiconduc-
thus increase silicon’s electrical conductivity with higher tor industry, or 75,000 to 150,000 metric tons per year.
temperatures. Pure silicon has too low a conductivity However, production of such materials is growing more
(i.e., too high a resistivity) to be used as a circuit element quickly than silicon for the integrated circuit market. By
in electronics. In practice, pure silicon is doped with 2013 polycrystalline silicon production, used mostly in
small concentrations of certain other elements, a pro- solar cells, is projected to reach 200,000 metric tons per
cess that greatly increases its conductivity and adjusts its year, while monocrystalline semiconductor silicon pro-
electrical response by controlling the number and charge duction (used in computer microchips) remains below
[18]
(positive or negative) of activated carriers. Such control 50,000 tons/year.
is necessary for transistors, solar cells, semiconductor de-
tectors and other semiconductor devices, which are used
in the computer industry and other technical applications. 2.1.6 Biological role
For example, in silicon photonics, silicon can be used as
a continuous wave Raman laser medium to produce co- Although silicon is readily available in the form of
herent light, though it is ineffective as an everyday light silicates, very few organisms have a use for it. Diatoms,
source. radiolaria and siliceous sponges use biogenic silica as
In common integrated circuits, a wafer of monocrys- a structural material to construct skeletons. In more
talline silicon serves as a mechanical support for the cir- advanced plants, the silica phytoliths (opal phytoliths)
cuits, which are created by doping, and insulated from are rigid microscopic bodies occurring in the cell;
each other by thin layers of silicon oxide, an insulator that some plants, for example rice, need silicon for their
is easily produced by exposing the element to oxygen un- growth.[59][60][61] The possible biological potential of sili-
42 CHAPTER 2. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
con as bioavailable orthosilicic acid and the potential ben- [2] Physical Properties of Silicon. New Semiconductor Ma-
eficial effects on human health has been reviewed.[62] terials. Characteristics and Properties. Ioffe Institute
Silicon is needed for synthesis of elastin and collagen; [3] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic
the aorta contains the highest quantity of elastin and compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook
silicon.[63] Silicon is currently under consideration for el- of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL):
evation to the status of a “plant beneficial substance by CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
the Association of American Plant Food Control Offi-
[4] Hopcroft, Matthew A.; Nix, William D.; Kenny, Thomas
cials (AAPFCO).”[64][65] Silicon has been shown in uni-
W. (2010). “What is the Young’s Modulus of Silicon?
versity and field studies to improve plant cell wall strength extquotedbl. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems
and structural integrity,[66] improve drought and frost re- 19 (2): 229. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2009.2039697.
sistance, decrease lodging potential and boost the plant’s
natural pest and disease fighting systems.[67] Silicon has [5] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). “The discovery of the
also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid
improving root mass and density, and increasing above of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, sili-
ground plant biomass and crop yields.[66] con, and aluminum”. Journal of Chemical Education
9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W.
Hypothetical silicon-based lifeforms are the subject of doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.
silicon biochemistry, by analogy with carbon-based life-
forms. Silicon, being below carbon in the periodic table, [6] Voronkov, M. G. (2007). “Silicon era”. Rus-
is thought to have similar enough properties that would sian Journal of Applied Chemistry 80 (12): 2190.
doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.
make silicon-based life possible, but much different from
life as we know it. [7] Nave, R. Abundances of the Elements in the Earth’s Crust,
Georgia State University
[1] Ram, R. S. et al. (1998). “Fourier Transform Emis- [15] Anderson, Don L. (2007) New Theory of the Earth.
sion Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84959-3,
SiD”. J. Mol. Spectr. 190: 341–352. PMID 9668026. ISBN 0-521-84959-4
2.1. SILICON 43
[16] “Silicon Commodities Report 2011”. USGS. Retrieved [32] Greenwood 1997, p. 337.
2011-10-20.
[33] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Nils (2007). Lehrbuch
[17] Apelian, D. (2009) Aluminum Cast Alloys: Enabling der anorganischen Chemie (102 ed.). Berlin: de Gruyter.
Tools for Improved Performance. North American Die ISBN 3-11-017770-6.
Casting Association, Wheeling, Illinois.
[34] Stone, F. G.; West, Robert (1996) Multiply Bonded Main
[18] Corathers, Lisa A. 2009 Minerals Yearbook. USGS Group Metals and Metalloids, Academic Press, ISBN 0-
12-031139-9, p. 255
[19] “Metallurgical silicon could become a rare commodity –
just how quickly that happens depends to a certain extent [35] Sekiguchi, A; Kinjo, R; Ichinohe, M (2004). “A stable
on the current financial crisis”. Photon International. Re- compound containing a silicon-silicon triple bond”. Sci-
trieved 2009-03-04. ence 305 (5691): 1755–7. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1755S.
doi:10.1126/science.1102209. PMID 15375262.
[20] “Silicon”. usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
[36] Greenwood 1997, pp. 340–341.
[21] Rao, Gopalakrishna M. (1980). “Electrowinning of Sil-
icon from K2 SiF6 -Molten Fluoride Systems”. Jour- [37] Greenwood 1997, p. 342.
nal of the Electrochemical Society 127 (9): 1940.
[38] Greenwood 1997, p. 346.
doi:10.1149/1.2130041.
[39] Greenwood 1997, p. 344.
[22] De Mattei, Robert C. (1981). “Electrodeposition of Sil-
icon at Temperatures above Its Melting Point”. Jour- [40] Greenwood 1997, pp. 359–360.
nal of the Electrochemical Society 128 (8): 1712.
doi:10.1149/1.2127716. [41] Greenwood 1997, p. 360.
[23] Deville, H. St. C. (1854). “Recherches sur les métaux, et [42] Lickiss, Paul D. (1994). Inorganic Compounds of Silicon,
en particulier sur l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme in Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley &
du silicium”. Ann. Chim. Phys. 43: 31. Sons. pp. 3770–3805. ISBN 0-471-93620-0.
[46] Davy, Humphry (1808) “Electro chemical researches, on • Reprinted in English in: Berzelius (1825) “On the
the decomposition of the earths; with observations on mode of obtaining silicium, and on the charac-
the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the ters and properties of that substance,” Philosophical
amalgam procured from ammonia,” Philosophical Trans- Magazine, 65 (324) : 254–267.
actions of the Royal Society [of London], 98 : 333–370.
On page 353 Davy coins the name “silicium” : “Had I [50] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). “The discovery of the
been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evi- elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid
dences on this subject, and to have procured the metal- of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, sili-
lic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed con, and aluminum”. Journal of Chemical Education
for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [alu- 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W.
minium], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium].” doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.
of organometallic compounds, such as tetraethylgermane, con” confirmed that it belonged in this place on the peri-
which are useful in organometallic chemistry. odic table.[6][13] With further material from 500 kg of ore
Germanium is not thought to be an essential element from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemi-
for any living organism. Some complexed organic ger- cal properties of the new element in 1887.[5][6][14] He also
manium compounds are being investigated as possible determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure
pharmaceuticals, though none have yet proven success- germanium tetrachloride (GeCl
ful. Similar to silicon and aluminum, natural germa- 4), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a
nium compounds tend to be insoluble in water, and comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the
[15]
thus have little oral toxicity. However, synthetic soluble element.
germanium salts are nephrotoxic, and synthetic chemi- Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds
cally reactive germanium compounds with halogens and of germanium, including its fluorides, chlorides,
hydrogen are irritants and toxins. sulfides, germanium dioxide, and tetraethylgermane
(Ge(C2 H5 )4 ), the first organogermane.[5] The physical
data from these compounds — which corresponded well
2.2.1 History with Mendeleev’s predictions — made the discovery an
important confirmation of Mendeleev’s idea of element
See also: History of the transistor periodicity. Here is a comparison between the prediction
and Winkler’s data:[5]
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical El- Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a
ements, in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich poorly conducting metal.[16] Germanium did not become
Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown economically significant until after 1945, when its prop-
chemical elements, including one that would fill a gap in erties as a semiconductor were recognized as being use-
the carbon family in his Periodic Table of the Elements, ful in electronics. During World War II, small amounts
located between silicon and tin.[3] Because of its position of germanium had begun to be used in some special
in his Periodic Table, Mendeleev called it ekasilicon (Es), electronic devices, mostly diodes.[17][18] Its first major
and he estimated its atomic weight as about 72.0. use was the point-contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse
detection during the War.[16] The first silicon-germanium
In mid-1885, at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new alloys were obtained in 1955.[19] Before 1945, only a
mineral was discovered and named argyrodite, because of few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced
its high silver content.[n 1] The chemist Clemens Winkler in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s,
analyzed this new mineral, which proved to be a com- the annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric
bination of silver, sulfur, and a new element. Winkler tons.[20]
was able to isolate this new element and found it some-
what similar to antimony, in 1886.[5][6] Before Winkler The development of the germanium transistor in 1948[21]
published his results on the new element, he decided that opened the door to countless applications of solid state
he would name his element neptunium, since the recent electronics.[22] From 1950 through the early 1970s, this
discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded area provided an increasing market for germanium,
by mathematical predictions of its existence.[n 2] How- but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium
ever, the name “neptunium” had already been given to in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers.[23] For example,
another proposed chemical element (though not the el- the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was
ement that today bears the name neptunium, which was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of produc-
discovered in 1940),[n 3] so instead, Winkler named the ing silicon transistors. Silicon has superior electrical
new element germanium (from the Latin word, Germa- properties, but it requires much greater purity, which
nia, for Germany) in honor of his homeland.[6] Argy- could not be commercially achieved in the early years of
rodite proved empirically to be Ag8 GeS6 . semiconductor electronics.[24]
Because this new element showed some similarities with Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for use in
the elements arsenic and antimony, its proper place in the fiber optics communication networks, infrared night vi-
periodic table was under consideration, but its similari- sion systems, and polymerization catalysts increased
ties with Dmitri Mendeleev’s predicted element “ekasili- dramatically.[20] These end uses represented 85% of
2.2. GERMANIUM 47
worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.[23] The US though many compounds are known with the oxidation
government even designated germanium as a strategic state of +2.[31] Other oxidation states are rare, such as +3
and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 t) supply found in compounds such as Ge2 Cl6 , and +3 and +1 ob-
in the national defense stockpile in 1987.[20] served on the surface of oxides,[32] or negative oxidation
Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply for states in germanes, such as −4 in GeH
germanium is limited by the availability of exploitable 4. Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as
sources, while the supply of silicon is only limited by pro- Ge4 2− , Ge9 4− , Ge9 2− , [(Ge9 )2 ]6− have been prepared
duction capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand by the extraction from alloys containing alkali met-
or quartz. As a result, while silicon could be bought in als and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence
1998 for less than $10 per kg,[20] the price of 1 kg of of ethylenediamine or a cryptand.[31][33] The oxidation
germanium was then almost $800.[20] states of the element in these ions are not integers—
similar to the ozonides O3 − .
Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium diox-
2.2.2 Characteristics ide (GeO
2, germania) and germanium monoxide, (GeO).[26] The
Under standard conditions germanium is a brittle, silvery- dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium
white, semi-metallic element.[25] This form constitutes an disulfide (GeS
allotrope technically known as α-germanium, which has 2), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in
a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure, water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates.[26] The
the same as diamond.[23] At pressures above 120 kbar, a monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high
different allotrope known as β-germanium forms, which temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal.[26] The
has the same structure as β-tin.[26] Along with silicon, dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits
gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, it is one of the the unusual property of having a high refractive index
few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. freezes) for visible light, but transparency to infrared light.[34][35]
from its molten state.[26] Bismuth germanate, Bi4 Ge3 O12 , (BGO) is used as a
Germanium is a semiconductor. Zone refining tech- scintillator.[36]
niques have led to the production of crystalline germa- Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known,
nium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only such as the disulfide (GeS
one part in 1010 ,[27] making it one of the purest materials 2), diselenide (GeSe
ever obtained.[28] The first metallic material discovered 2), and the monosulfide (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and
(in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of telluride (GeTe).[31] GeS2 forms as a white precipitate
an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid
germanium with uranium and rhodium.[29] solutions containing Ge(IV).[31] The disulfide is appre-
Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very ciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic al-
long screw dislocations. They are one of the primary kalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not solu-
reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors ble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover
made from germanium; depending on what they even- the element.[37] By heating the disulfide in a current of
tually touch, they may lead to an electrical short. hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sub-
limes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster,
and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.[26] Upon
Chemistry melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium
compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.[38]
Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250 Four tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions
°C.[30] Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liq-
but dissolves slowly in concentrated sulfuric acid and re- uids. For example, germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4 ,
acts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1
([GeO °C by heating the metal with chlorine.[26] All the tetra-
3]2− halides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium
). Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state +4 al-
48 CHAPTER 2. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a cious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it
diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environ- has been found to reduce firescale, increase tarnish resis-
mental rough treatment.[61][62] tance, and increase the alloy’s response to precipitation
hardening. A tarnish-proof sterling silver alloy, trade-
marked Argentium, contains 1.2% germanium.[23]
Electronics
High purity germanium single crystal detectors can pre-
Silicon-germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an im- cisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport
[69]
portant semiconductor material, for use in high-speed security. Germanium is useful for monochromators
integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering
Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity has
silicon alone.[63] Silicon-germanium is beginning to re- advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-
[70]
place gallium arsenide (GaAs) in wireless communica- ray applications. Crystals of high purity germanium
tions devices. The SiGe chips, with high-speed prop- are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the
[23]
[71]
erties, can be made with low-cost, well-established pro- search for dark matter. The slightly radioactive Ger-
duction techniques of the silicon chip industry. [23] manium 76, which decays only through double-beta de-
cay, is used to study that process (for example, in the on-
The recent rise in energy cost has improved the eco- going MAJORANA demonstrator experiment).
nomics of solar panels, a potential major new use of
germanium.[23] Germanium is the substrate of the wafers
for high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for Inorganic germanium and health hazard
space applications.
Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very sim- Inorganic germanium and organic germanium are differ-
ilar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used ent chemical compounds of germanium and their proper-
to make gallium arsenide solar cells.[64] The Mars Ex- ties are different. Inorganic germanium will accumulate
ploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction inside the body and will impose health hazards after con-
gallium arsenide on germanium cells.[65] sumed. Organic germanium is reported to be potentially
beneficial for health.[72]
Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a poten-
tial replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips.[23] Germanium is not thought to be essential to the health
Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent of plants or animals. Germanium in the environment
lamps,[27] and germanium-base solid-state light-emitting has little or no health impact. This is primarily be-
diodes (LEDs).[23] Germanium transistors are still used in cause it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores
some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce and carbonaceous materials, and is used in very small
the distinctive tonal character of the “fuzz extquotedbl- quantities that are not likely to be ingested, [23]
in its vari-
tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the ous industrial and electronic applications. For similar
Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face. [66] reasons, germanium in end-uses has little impact on the
environment as a biohazard. Some reactive intermedi-
ate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see precau-
Other uses tions, below).[73]
As early as 1922, doctors in the United States used
Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for the inorganic form of germanium to treat patients with
polymerization in the production of polyethylene tereph- anemia.[73] It was used in other forms of treatments,
thalate (PET).[67] The high brilliance of the produced such as a purported immune system booster, but its
polyester is especially used for PET bottles marketed in efficiency has been dubious. Its role in cancer treat-
Japan.[67] However, in the United States, no germanium is ments has been debated, with the American Cancer So-
used for polymerization catalysts.[23] Due to the similarity
ciety contending that no anticancer effects have been
between silica (SiO2 ) and germanium dioxide (GeO2 ), demonstrated.[74][75] U.S. Food and Drug Administration
the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when
columns can be replaced by GeO2 .[68] used as a nutritional supplement, “presents potential hu-
In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in pre- man health hazard extquotedbl.[42]
2.2. GERMANIUM 51
Certain germanium compounds are available in low dose [3] R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a
in the U.S. as nonprescription dietary “supplements” in new element beneath tantalum in the periodic table, which
oral capsules or tablets. Other germanium compounds he named neptunium, after the Greek god of the oceans
have been administered by alternative medical practi- and seas.[9][10] However this metal was later recognized to
tioners as non-FDA-allowed injectable solutions. Solu- be an alloy of the elements niobium and tantalum.[11] The
name extquotedblneptunium extquotedbl was much later
ble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably
given to the synthetic element one step past uranium in the
the citrate-lactate salt, led to a number of cases of renal Periodic Table, which was discovered by nuclear physics
dysfunction, hepatic steatosis and peripheral neuropathy researchers in 1940.[12]
in individuals using them on a chronic basis. Plasma
and urine germanium concentrations in these individu-
als, several of whom died, were several orders of mag- 2.2.8 References
nitude greater than endogenous levels. A more recent
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2.2.5 Precautions for chemically reactive
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8GeS
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[67] Thiele, Ulrich K. (2001). “The Current Status of Catal- 2.2.9 External links
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of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Polycondensation”. Inter- • Germanium at The Periodic Table of Videos (Uni-
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2.3.1 Preparation and chemistry Oxidation of GaAs occurs in air and degrades perfor-
mance of the semiconductor. The surface can be passi-
In the compound, gallium has a +3 oxidation state. Gal- vated by depositing a cubic gallium(II) sulfide layer using
lium arsenide single crystals can be prepared by three in- a tert-butyl gallium sulfide compound such as (t
dustrial processes:[2] BuGaS)
7.[5]
• The vertical gradient freeze (VGF) process. Most
GaAs wafers are produced using this process.[3] Semi-insulating crystals
• Crystal growth using a horizontal zone furnace in the
If a GaAs boule is grown with excess arsenic present, it
Bridgman-Stockbarger technique, in which gallium
gets certain defects, in particular arsenic antisite defects
and arsenic vapors react, and free molecules deposit
(an arsenic atom at a gallium atom site within the crystal
on a seed crystal at the cooler end of the furnace.
lattice). The electronic properties of these defects (inter-
• Liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) growth is acting with others) cause the Fermi level to be pinned to
used for producing high-purity single crystals that near the center of the bandgap, so that this GaAs crystal
can exhibit semi-insulating characteristics (see be- has very low concentration of electrons and holes. This
low). low carrier concentration is similar to an intrinsic (per-
fectly undoped) crystal, but much easier to achieve in
practice. These crystals are called “semi-insulating”, re-
Alternative methods for producing films of GaAs flecting their high resistivity of 107 –109 Ω·cm (which is
include:[2][4] quite high for a semiconductor, but still much lower than
a true insulator like glass).[6]
• VPE reaction of gaseous gallium metal and arsenic
trichloride:
Etching
velocity and higher electron mobility, allowing gallium (MOVPE). Because GaAs and AlAs have almost the
arsenide transistors to function at frequencies in excess of same lattice constant, the layers have very little induced
250 GHz. Unlike silicon junctions, GaAs devices are rel- strain, which allows them to be grown almost arbitrarily
atively insensitive to heat owing to their wider bandgap. thick. This allows for extremely high performance high
Also, GaAs devices tend to have less noise than silicon electron mobility, HEMT transistors and other quantum
devices, especially at high frequencies. This is a result well devices.
of higher carrier mobilities and lower resistive device
parasitics. These properties recommend GaAs circuitry
in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave
Silicon advantages
point-to-point links and higher frequency radar systems.
It is used in the manufacture of Gunn diodes for genera-
tion of microwaves. Silicon has three major advantages over GaAs for inte-
grated circuit manufacture. First, silicon is abundant and
Another advantage of GaAs is that it has a direct band cheap to process. Si is highly abundant in the Earth’s
gap, which means that it can be used to absorb and emit crust, in the form of silicate minerals. The economy of
light efficiently. Silicon has an indirect bandgap and so scale available to the silicon industry has also reduced the
is relatively poor at emitting light. Nonetheless, advances adoption of GaAs.
silicon LEDs and lasers may be possible.
In addition, a Si crystal has an extremely stable structure
As a wide direct band gap material with resulting resis- mechanically and it can be grown to very large diameter
tance to radiation damage, GaAs is an excellent material boules and can be processed with very high yields. It is
for space electronics and optical windows in high power also a decent thermal conductor, thus enabling very dense
applications. packing of transistors that need to get rid of their heat of
Because of its wide bandgap, pure GaAs is highly resis- operation, all very desirable for design and manufacturing
tive. Combined with the high dielectric constant, this of very large ICs. Such good mechanical characteristics
property makes GaAs a very good electrical substrate and also makes it a suitable material for the rapidly developing
unlike Si provides natural isolation between devices and field of nanoelectronics.
circuits. This has made it an ideal material for microwave The second major advantage of Si is the existence of a
and millimeter wave integrated circuits, MMICs, where native oxide (silicon dioxide, SiO ), which is used as an
2
active and essential passive components can readily be insulator in electronic devices. Silicon dioxide can eas-
produced on a single slice of GaAs. ily be incorporated onto silicon circuits, and such lay-
One of the first GaAs microprocessors was developed in ers are adherent to the underlying Si. SiO2 is not only
the early 1980s by the RCA corporation and was con- a good insulator (with a band gap of 8.9 eV), but the Si-
sidered for the Star Wars program of the United States SiO2 interface can be easily engineered to have excellent
Department of Defense. Those processors were sev- electrical properties, most importantly low density of in-
eral times faster and several orders of magnitude more terface states. GaAs does not have a native oxide and
radiation hard than silicon counterparts, but they were does not easily support a stable adherent insulating layer.
rather expensive.[9] Other GaAs processors were im- Aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ) has been extensively studied
plemented by the supercomputer vendors Cray Com- as a possible gate oxide for GaAs (and InGaAs). How-
puter Corporation, Convex, and Alliant in an attempt to ever, at this point the electrical properties of the inter-
stay ahead of the ever-improving CMOS microproces- faces aren't comparable to those of the Si-SiO2 interface.
sor. Cray eventually built one GaAs-based machine in The third, advantage of silicon is that it possesses a
the early 1990s, the Cray-3, but the effort was not ade- higher hole mobility compared to GaAs (500 versus 400
quately capitalized, and the company filed for bankruptcy cm2 V−1 s−1 ).[10] This high mobility allows the fabrica-
in 1995. tion of higher-speed P-channel field effect transistors,
Complex layered structures of gallium arsenide in com- which are required for CMOS logic. Because they lack a
bination with aluminium arsenide (AlAs) or the alloy fast CMOS structure, GaAs circuits must use logic styles
AlₓGa₁-ₓAs can be grown using molecular beam epi- which have much higher power consumption; this has
taxy (MBE) or using metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy made GaAs circuits less able to compete with silicon logic
circuits.
2.3. GALLIUM ARSENIDE 57
For manufacturing solar cells, silicon has relatively low sensitive to infrared radiation (QWIP).
absorptivity for the sunlight meaning about 100 microm- GaAs diodes can be used for the detection of X-rays.[19]
eters of Si is needed to absorb most sunlight. Such a layer
is relatively robust and easy to handle. In contrast, the ab-
sorptivity of GaAs is so high that only a few micrometers Light-emission devices
of thickness are needed to absorb all of the light. Conse-
quently GaAs thin films must be supported on a substrate GaAs has been used to produce (near-infrared) laser
material.[11] diodes since 1962.[20]
Silicon is a pure element, avoiding the problems of stoi-
chiometric imbalance and thermal unmixing of GaAs.
2.3.4 Safety
Silicon has a nearly perfect lattice, impurity density is
very low and allows very small structures to be built (cur- The environment, health and safety aspects of gallium
rently down to 16 nm[12] ). GaAs in contrast has a very arsenide sources (such as trimethylgallium and arsine)
high impurity density, which makes it difficult to build and industrial hygiene monitoring studies of metalorganic
integrated circuits with small structures, so the 500 nm precursors have been reported.[21] California lists gallium
process is a common process for GaAs. arsenide as a carcinogen.[22] However, there is no evi-
dence for a primary carcinogenic effect of GaAs.[23]
[13] Alferov, Zh. I., V. M. Andreev, M. B. Kagan, I. I. Pro- 2.3.7 External links
tasov and V. G. Trofim, 1970, ‘‘Solar-energy convert-
ers based on p-n AlₓGa₁-ₓAs-GaAs heterojunctions,’’ Fiz. • Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic
Tekh. Poluprovodn. 4, 2378 (Sov. Phys. Semicond. 4, Toxicity
2047 (1971))
• Physical properties of gallium arsenide (Ioffe Insti-
[14] Nanotechnology in energy applications. im.isu.edu.tw. 16 tute)
November 2005 (in Chinese) p. 24
• Facts and figures on processing gallium arsenide
[15] Nobel Lecture by Zhores Alferov at nobelprize.org, p. 6
2.3. GALLIUM ARSENIDE 59
Renierite
2.3. GALLIUM ARSENIDE 61
A PET bottle
2
Energy (eV)
0.29 eV 0.38 eV
1
E g= 1.42 eV
-1
Valence band
L[111] Γ X[100]
Wave vector k
Band structure of GaAs. The direct gap of GaAs results in effi-
cient emission of infrared light at 1.424 eV (~870 nm).
Applications
3.1 Voltage-controlled oscillator input controls the resonant frequency. A varactor diode’s
capacitance is controlled by the voltage across the diode.
A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic Consequently, a varactor can be used to change the ca-
oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by pacitance (and hence the frequency) of an LC tank. A
a voltage input. The applied input voltage determines varactor can also change (“pull”) the resonant frequency
the instantaneous oscillation frequency. Consequently, of a crystal resonator.
modulating signals applied to control input may cause Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or tri-
frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM). angular waveform. They are commonly used in mono-
A VCO may also be part of a phase-locked loop. lithic integrated circuits (ICs). They can provide a wide
range of operational frequencies with a minimal number
of external components. Relaxation oscillator VCOs can
have three topologies: 1) grounded-capacitor VCOs, 2)
emitter-coupled VCOs, and 3) delay-based ring VCOs.
The first two of these types operate similarly. The time
spent in each state depends on the rate of charge or dis-
charge of a capacitor. The delay-based ring VCO op-
erates somewhat differently however. For this type, the
gain stages are connected in a ring. The output frequency
is then a function of the delay in each stage.
A microwave (12-18 GHz) Voltage Controlled Oscillator Harmonic oscillator VCOs have these advantages over re-
laxation oscillators.
63
64 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS
3.1.2 Control of frequency in VCOs • Where the oscillator drives equipment that may gen-
erate radio-frequency interference, adding a varying
voltage to its control input can disperse the interfer-
ence spectrum to make it less objectionable. See
spread spectrum clock.
ticated designs may also adjust the control voltage over VCO freq-domain equations
time to compensate for crystal aging.
Boltzmann’s constant, T is absolute tempera- range, linearity, and distortion are often most important
ture in Kelvins, and P is the oscillator output specs. Audio-frequency VCOs for use in musical con-
power. texts were largely superseded in the 1980s by their digital
counterparts, DCOs, due to their output stability in the
Commonly used VCO circuits are the Clapp and Colpitts face of temperature changes during operation. From the
oscillators. The more widely used oscillator of the two is 1990s on, pure software is the primary sound-generating
Colpitts and these oscillators are very similar in configu- method, but VCOs have become popular again often
ration. thanks to their imperfections.
3.1.8 Notes
[1] A voltage-controlled inductor would be in principle as
useful, but such devices are unsatisfactory at the frequen-
cies usually desired.
Data
3.1.9 References
[1] For example, an HP/Agilent 10811 reference oscillator
[4] FSK Modulation and Demodulation With the MSP430 shape but with a larger amplitude. In this sense, an am-
Microcontroller (TI) http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slaa037/ plifier modulates the output of the power supply to make
slaa037.pdf the output signal stronger than the input signal.
[5] Morse 1925, p. 44; Morse cites British patent 2,617/11. The four basic types of electronic amplifiers are voltage
amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance ampli-
[6] Bureau of Standards 1922, pp. 415–416 fiers, and transresistance amplifiers. A further distinction
is whether the output is a linear or nonlinear representa-
[7] Little 1921, p. 125 tion of the input. Amplifiers can also be categorized by
their physical placement in the signal chain.[1]
[8] Kennedy & Davis 1992, pp. 549–550
• Morse, A. H. (1925), Radio: Beam and Broadcast, • Gain, the ratio between the magnitude of output and
London: Ernest Benn Limited input signals
Q3
• Rise time, settling time, ringing and overshoot
Q4
that characterize the step response
Input
D1
Output
C1 Q1 Q2 D2
• Stability, the ability to avoid self-oscillation
Q5
R7 R8 C2
R2 R5
R6
3.3.2 Amplifier types
0V (ground)
combination of current, voltage, and power. In many and other instrument amplifiers. The essential compo-
cases, with input and output in the same unit, gain is unit- nents include active devices, such as vacuum tubes or
less (though often expressed in decibels (dB)). transistors. A brief introduction to the many types of
The four basic types of amplifiers are as follows:[1] electronic amplifiers follows.
audiophile equipment)
Transistor amplifiers
Input and output variables One set of classifications for amplifiers is based on which
device terminal is common to both the input and the out-
Electronic amplifiers use one variable presented as either put circuit. In the case of bipolar junction transistors,
a current and voltage. Either current or voltage can be the three classes are common emitter, common base, and
used as input and either as output, leading to four types common collector. For field-effect transistors, the cor-
of amplifiers. In idealized form they are represented by responding configurations are common source, common
each of the four types of dependent source used in linear gate, and common drain; for triode vacuum devices, com-
analysis, as shown in the figure, namely: mon cathode, common grid, and common plate. The com-
74 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS
Function
Unilateral or bilateral
Other amplifiers may be classified by their function or
output characteristics. These functional descriptions usu-
When an amplifier has an output that exhibits no feed- ally apply to complete amplifier systems or sub-systems
back to its input side, it is called 'unilateral'. The input and rarely to individual stages.
impedance of a unilateral amplifier is independent of the
load, and the output impedance is independent of the sig-
nal source impedance. • A servo amplifier indicates an integrated feedback
loop to actively control the output at some desired
If feedback connects part of the output back to the input level. A DC servo indicates use at frequencies down
of the amplifier it is called a 'bilateral' amplifier. The in- to DC levels, where the rapid fluctuations of an audio
put impedance of a bilateral amplifier is dependent upon or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in
the load, and the output impedance is dependent upon the mechanical actuators, or devices such as DC motors
signal source impedance. that must maintain a constant speed or torque. An
All amplifiers are bilateral to some degree; however they AC servo amp can do this for some ac motors.
may often be modeled as unilateral under operating con-
ditions where feedback is small enough to neglect for • A linear amplifier responds to different frequency
most purposes, simplifying analysis (see the common components independently, and does not generate
base article for an example). harmonic distortion or Intermodulation distortion.
No amplifier can provide perfect linearity (even
Negative feedback is often applied deliberately to tailor
the most linear amplifier has some nonlinearities,
amplifier behavior. Some feedback, which may be posi-
since the amplifying devices—transistors or vacuum
tive or negative, is unavoidable and often undesirable, in-
tubes—follow nonlinear power laws such as square-
troduced, for example, by parasitic elements such as the
laws and rely on circuitry techniques to reduce those
inherent capacitance between input and output of a de-
effects).
vice such as a transistor and capacitative coupling due to
external wiring. Excessive frequency-dependent positive • A nonlinear amplifier generates significant distor-
feedback may cause what is intended/expected to be an tion and so changes the harmonic content; there are
amplifier to become an oscillator. situations where this is useful. Amplifier circuits in-
Linear unilateral and bilateral amplifiers can be repre- tentionally providing a non-linear transfer function
sented as two-port networks. include:
3.3. AMPLIFIER 75
--- a device like a Silicon Controlled Rectifier or is often used to increase the sensitivity of a receiver
a transistor used as a switch may be employed or the output power of a transmitter.[7]
to turn either fully ON or OFF a load such as
a lamp based on a threshold in a continuously • An audio amplifier amplifies audio frequencies.
variable input. This category subdivides into small signal amplifica-
--- a non-linear amplifier in an analog computer tion, and power amps that are optimised to driving
or true RMS converter for example can pro- speakers, sometimes with multiple amps grouped
vide a special transfer function, such as loga- together as separate or bridgeable channels to ac-
rithmic or square-law. commodate different audio reproduction require-
ments. Frequently used terms within audio ampli-
--- a Class C RF amplifier may be chosen be-
fiers include:
cause it can be very efficient, but will be
non-linear; following such an amplifier with a --- Preamplifier (preamp), which may include a
extquotedbltank extquotedbl tuned circuit can phono preamp with RIAA equalization, or
reduce unwanted harmonics (distortion) suf- tape head preamps with CCIR equalisation fil-
ficiently to be useful in transmitters, or some ters. They may include filters or tone control
desired harmonic may be selected by setting circuitry.
the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit to a
higher frequency rather than fundamental fre- --- Power amplifier (normally drives
quency in frequency multiplier circuits. loudspeakers), headphone amplifiers, and
public address amplifiers.
--- Automatic gain control circuits require an
amplifier’s gain be controlled by the time- --- Stereo amplifiers imply two channels of out-
averaged amplitude so that the output ampli- put (left and right), though the term sim-
tude varies little when weak stations are be- ply means “solid” sound (referring to three-
ing received. The non-linearities are assumed dimensional)—so quadraphonic stereo was
to be arranged so the relatively small signal used for amplifiers with four channels. 5.1
amplitude suffers from little distortion (cross- and 7.1 systems refer to Home theatre systems
channel interference or intermodulation) yet with 5 or 7 normal spacial channels, plus a
is still modulated by the relatively large gain- subwoofer channel.
control DC voltage.
• Buffer amplifiers, which may include emitter follow-
--- AM detector circuits that use amplification
ers, provide a high impedance input for a device
such as Anode-bend detectors, Precision rec-
(perhaps another amplifier, or perhaps an energy-
tifiers and Infinite impedance detectors (so ex-
hungry load such as lights) that would otherwise
cluding unamplified detectors such as Cat’s-
draw too much current from the source. Line drivers
whisker detectors), as well as peak detector
are a type of buffer that feeds long or interference-
circuits, rely on changes in amplification based
prone interconnect cables, possibly with differential
on the signal's instantaneous amplitude to de-
outputs through twisted pair cables.
rive a direct current from an alternating cur-
rent input. • A special type of amplifier - originally used in analog
--- Operational amplifier comparator and detec- computers - is widely used in measuring instruments
tor circuits. for signal processing, and many other uses. These
are called operational amplifiers or op-amps. The
• A wideband amplifier has a precise amplification
“operational” name is because this type of amplifier
factor over a wide frequency range, and is often used
can be used in circuits that perform mathematical
to boost signals for relay in communications sys-
algorithmic functions, or “operations” on input sig-
tems. A narrowband amp amplifies a specific nar-
nals to obtain specific types of output signals. Mod-
row range of frequencies, to the exclusion of other
ern op-amps are usually provided as integrated cir-
frequencies.
cuits, rather than constructed from discrete compo-
• An RF amplifier amplifies signals in the radio fre- nents. A typical modern op-amp has differential in-
quency range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and puts (one “inverting”, one “non-inverting”) and one
76 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS
output. An idealised op-amp has the following char- vacuum tube days when the anode (output) voltage
acteristics: was at greater than several hundred volts and the
grid (input) voltage at a few volts minus. So they
--- Infinite input impedance (so it does not load were only used if the gain was specified down to
the circuitry at its input) DC (e.g., in an oscilloscope). In the context of
--- Zero output impedance modern electronics developers are encouraged to
use directly coupled amplifiers whenever possible.
--- Infinite gain
--- Zero propagation delay
Frequency range
The performance of an op-amp with these characteristics
Depending on the frequency range and other properties
is entirely defined by the (usually passive) components
amplifiers are designed according to different principles.
that form a negative feedback loop around it. The ampli-
fier itself does not effect the output. All real-world op-
• Frequency ranges down to DC are only used when
amps fall short of the idealised specification above—but
this property is needed. DC amplification leads to
some modern components have remarkable performance
specific complications that are avoided if possible;
and come close in some respects.
DC-blocking capacitors are added to remove DC
and sub-sonic frequencies from audio amplifiers.
Interstage coupling method • Depending on the frequency range specified differ-
ent design principles must be used. Up to the MHz
See also: multistage amplifiers range only “discrete” properties need be considered;
e.g., a terminal has an input impedance.
Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling
• As soon as any connection within the circuit gets
method of the signal at the input, output, or between
longer than perhaps 1% of the wavelength of the
stages. Different types of these include:
highest specified frequency (e.g., at 100 MHz the
wavelength is 3 m, so the critical connection length
Resistive-capacitive (RC) coupled amplifier, using a is approx. 3 cm) design properties radically change.
network of resistors and capacitors For example, a specified length and width of a
By design these amplifiers cannot amplify DC sig-
PCB trace can be used as a selective or impedance-
nals as the capacitors block the DC component of
matching entity.
the input signal. RC-coupled amplifiers were used
very often in circuits with vacuum tubes or discrete • Above a few hundred MHz, it gets difficult to use
transistors. In the days of the integrated circuit a discrete elements, especially inductors. In most
few more transistors on a chip are much cheaper cases, PCB traces of very closely defined shapes are
and smaller than a capacitor. used instead.
Inductive-capacitive (LC) coupled amplifier, using a
The frequency range handled by an amplifier might be
network of inductors and capacitors
This kind of amplifier is most often used in selective specified in terms of bandwidth (normally implying a re-
radio-frequency circuits. sponse that is 3 dB down when the frequency reaches the
specified bandwidth), or by specifying a frequency re-
Transformer coupled amplifier, using a transformer sponse that is within a certain number of decibels be-
to match impedances or to decouple parts of the cir- tween a lower and an upper frequency (e.g. “20 Hz to 20
cuits kHz plus or minus 1 dB”).
Quite often LC-coupled and transformer-coupled
amplifiers cannot be distinguished as a transformer
is some kind of inductor. 3.3.4 Power amplifier classes
Direct coupled amplifier, using no impedance and
bias matching components Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as
This class of amplifier was very uncommon in the A, B, AB and C for analog designs, and class D and E for
3.3. AMPLIFIER 77
switching designs based on the proportion of each input are mainly used for specialized applications, such
cycle (conduction angle), during which an amplifying de- as very high-power units. Also, class-E and class-F
vice is passing current. The image of the conduction an- amplifiers are commonly described in literature for
gle is derived from amplifying a sinusoidal signal. If the radio-frequency applications where efficiency of the
device is always on, the conducting angle is 360°. If it is traditional classes is important, yet several aspects
on for only half of each cycle, the angle is 180°. The angle deviate substantially from their ideal values. These
of flow is closely related to the amplifier power efficiency. classes use harmonic tuning of their output networks
The various classes are introduced below, followed by a to achieve higher efficiency and can be considered a
more detailed discussion under their individual headings subset of class C due to their conduction-angle char-
further down. acteristics.
In the illustrations below, a bipolar junction transistor is
shown as the amplifying device. However the same at- Class A
tributes are found with MOSFETs or vacuum tubes.
to the most linear portion of its transconductance • Single-ended output stages have an asymmetrical
curve. transfer function, meaning that even order harmon-
ics in the created distortion tend not to be canceled
• Because the device is never 'off' there is no “turn (as they are in push–pull output stages); for tubes,
on” time, no problems with charge storage, and gen- or FETs, most of the distortion is second-order har-
erally better high frequency performance and feed- monics, from the square law transfer characteristic,
back loop stability (and usually fewer high-order which to some produces a “warmer” and more pleas-
harmonics). ant sound.[11][12]
• The point at which the device comes closest to be- • For those who prefer low distortion figures, the use
ing 'off' is not at 'zero signal', so the problems of of tubes with class A (generating little odd-harmonic
crossover distortion associated with class-AB and - distortion, as mentioned above) together with sym-
B designs is avoided. metrical circuits (such as push–pull output stages, or
• Best for low signal levels of radio receivers due to balanced low-level stages) results in the cancellation
low distortion. of most of the even distortion harmonics, hence the
removal of most of the distortion.
Class AB
L1
L L0 C0
Class F In push–pull amplifiers and in CMOS, the
even harmonics of both transistors just cancel. Experi-
T1 C R L ment shows that a square wave can be generated by those
amplifiers. Theoretically square waves consist of odd
harmonics only. In a class-D amplifier, the output fil-
ter blocks all harmonics; i.e., the harmonics see an open
load. So even small currents in the harmonics suffice to
Class-E amplifier generate a voltage square wave. The current is in phase
with the voltage applied to the filter, but the voltage across
the transistors is out of phase. Therefore, there is a min-
imal overlap between current through the transistors and
adjusted so that some time later the energy from the Ls voltage across the transistors. The sharper the edges, the
is gone into the load, but the energy in both C0 peaks at lower the overlap.
the original value to in turn restore the original voltage so
that the voltage across the transistor is zero again and it While in class D, transistors and the load exist as two sep-
can be switched on. arate modules, class F admits imperfections like the par-
asitics of the transistor and tries to optimise the global
With load, frequency, and duty cycle (0.5) as given pa- system to have a high impedance at the harmonics. Of
rameters and the constraint that the voltage is not only course there has to be a finite voltage across the tran-
restored, but peaks at the original voltage, the four pa- sistor to push the current across the on-state resistance.
rameters (L, L0 , C and C0 ) are determined. The class-E Because the combined current through both transistors is
amplifier takes the finite on resistance into account and mostly in the first harmonic, it looks like a sine. That
tries to make the current touch the bottom at zero. This means that in the middle of the square the maximum of
means that the voltage and the current at the transistor current has to flow, so it may make sense to have a dip
are symmetric with respect to time. The Fourier trans- in the square or in other words to allow some overswing
form allows an elegant formulation to generate the com- of the voltage square wave. A class-F load network by
plicated LC networks and says that the first harmonic is definition has to transmit below a cutoff frequency and
passed into the load, all even harmonics are shorted and reflect above.
all higher odd harmonics are open.
Any frequency lying below the cutoff and having its sec-
Class E uses a significant amount of second-harmonic
ond harmonic above the cutoff can be amplified, that is
voltage. The second harmonic can be used to reduce the an octave bandwidth. On the other hand, an inductive-
overlap with edges with finite sharpness. For this to work,
capacitive series circuit with a large inductance and a tun-
energy on the second harmonic has to flow from the load able capacitance may be simpler to implement. By reduc-
into the transistor, and no source for this is visible in the
ing the duty cycle below 0.5, the output amplitude can
circuit diagram. In reality, the impedance is mostly re- be modulated. The voltage square waveform degrades,
active and the only reason for it is that class E is a class
but any overheating is compensated by the lower overall
F (see below) amplifier with a much simplified load net- power flowing. Any load mismatch behind the filter can
work and thus has to deal with imperfections. only act on the first harmonic current waveform, clearly
In many amateur simulations of class-E amplifiers, sharp only a purely resistive load makes sense, then the lower
current edges are assumed nullifying the very motivation the resistance, the higher the current.
for class E and measurements near the transit frequency Class F can be driven by sine or by a square wave, for
of the transistors show very symmetric curves, which look a sine the input can be tuned by an inductor to increase
much similar to class-F simulations. gain. If class F is implemented with a single transistor,
The class-E amplifier was invented in 1972 by Nathan O. the filter is complicated to short the even harmonics. All
Sokal and Alan D. Sokal, and details were first published previous designs use sharp edges to minimise the overlap.
3.3. AMPLIFIER 83
+ Vss
+ Vs
0
t
- Vs
- Vss
+ Vss
+ Vs
0
t
- Vs
- Vss
Class-H amplifiers take the idea of class G one step fur- During periods of high signal level, the class-B amplifier
ther creating an infinitely variable supply rail. This is delivers its maximum power and the class-C amplifier de-
done by modulating the supply rails so that the rails are livers up to its maximum power. The efficiency of previ-
only a few volts larger than the output signal at any given ous AM transmitter designs was proportional to modula-
time. The output stage operates at its maximum effi- tion but, with average modulation typically around 20%,
ciency all the time. Switched-mode power supplies can transmitters were limited to less than 50% efficiency. In
be used to create the tracking rails. Significant effi- Doherty’s design, even with zero modulation, a transmit-
ciency gains can be achieved but with the drawback of ter could achieve at least 60% efficiency.[16]
more complicated supply design and reduced THD per- As a successor to Western Electric for broadcast trans-
formance. In common designs, a voltage drop of about mitters, the Doherty concept was considerably refined by
10V is maintained over the output transistors in Class H Continental Electronics Manufacturing Company of Dal-
circuits. The picture above shows positive supply voltage las, TX. Perhaps, the ultimate refinement was the screen-
of the output stage and the voltage at the speaker output. grid modulation scheme invented by Joseph B. Sainton.
The boost of the supply voltage is shown for a real music The Sainton amplifier consists of a class-C primary or
signal. carrier stage in parallel with a class-C auxiliary or peak
The voltage signal shown is thus a larger version of the stage. The stages are split and combined through 90-
input, but has been changed in sign (inverted) by the degree phase shifting networks as in the Doherty ampli-
amplification. Other arrangements of amplifying device fier. The unmodulated radio frequency carrier is applied
are possible, but that given (that is, common emitter, to the control grids of both tubes. Carrier modulation is
common source or common cathode) is the easiest to un- applied to the screen grids of both tubes. The bias point
derstand and employ in practice. If the amplifying el- of the carrier and peak tubes is different, and is estab-
ement is linear, the output is a faithful copy of the in- lished such that the peak tube is cutoff when modulation
put, only larger and inverted. In practice, transistors are is absent (and the amplifier is producing rated unmodu-
not linear, and the output only approximates the input. lated carrier power) whereas both tubes contribute twice
nonlinearity from any of several sources is the origin of the rated carrier power during 100% modulation (as four
distortion within an amplifier. The class of amplifier (A, times the carrier power is required to achieve 100% mod-
B, AB or C) depends on how the amplifying device is ulation). As both tubes operate in class C, a significant
biased. The diagrams omit the bias circuits for clarity. improvement in efficiency is thereby achieved in the final
Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal stage. In addition, as the tetrode carrier and peak tubes
amplifier. An important limitation of a real amplifier is require very little drive power, a significant improvement
that the output it generates is ultimately limited by the in efficiency within the driver stage is achieved as well
power available from the power supply. An amplifier sat- (317C, et al.).[17] The released version of the Sainton
urates and clips the output if the input signal becomes amplifier employs a cathode-follower modulator, not a
too large for the amplifier to reproduce or exceeds oper- push–pull modulator. Previous Continental Electronics
ational limits for the device. designs, by James O. Weldon and others, retained most
of the characteristics of the Doherty amplifier but added
screen-grid modulation of the driver (317B, et al.).
Doherty amplifiers The Doherty, a hybrid configura- The Doherty amplifier remains in use in very-high-power
tion, is currently receiving renewed attention. It was in- AM transmitters, but for lower-power AM transmitters,
vented in 1934 by William H. Doherty for Bell Laborato- vacuum-tube amplifiers in general were eclipsed in the
ries—whose sister company, Western Electric, manufac- 1980s by arrays of solid-state amplifiers, which could be
tured radio transmitters. The Doherty amplifier consists switched on and off with much finer granularity in re-
of a class-B primary or carrier stages in parallel with a sponse to the requirements of the input audio. However,
class-C auxiliary or peak stage. The input signal splits to interest in the Doherty configuration has been revived
drive the two amplifiers, and a combining network sums by cellular-telephone and wireless-Internet applications
the two output signals. Phase shifting networks are used where the sum of several constant envelope users creates
in inputs and outputs. During periods of low signal level, an aggregate AM result. The main challenge of the Do-
the class-B amplifier efficiently operates on the signal and herty amplifier for digital transmission modes is in align-
the class-C amplifier is cutoff and consumes little power. ing the two stages and getting the class-C amplifier to turn
3.3. AMPLIFIER 85
R2 R5
3.3.5 Implementation R6
0V (ground)
This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical de- output needed - e.g. short-time or continuous, and
sign because it automatically stabilises its operating point, dynamic range required - e.g. recorded program or
since feedback internally operates from DC up through live
the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements
would probably be found in a real design that would roll • In the case of high-powered audio applications re-
off the frequency response above the needed range to pre- quiring long cables to the load - e.g. cinemas and
vent the possibility of unwanted oscillation. Also, the use shipping centres - instead of using heavy gauge ca-
of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if bles it may be more efficient to connect to the load
the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched at line output voltage with matching transformers at
to the output transistors – if the output transistors turn source and loads.
on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy them-
• To prevent instability and/or overheating, care is
selves, as the full current from the power supply is not
need to ensure solid state amplifiers are ade-
limited at this stage.
quately loaded. Most have a rated minimum load
A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is impedance.
to include some emitter resistors, typically an ohm or so.
Calculating the values of the circuit’s resistors and capac- • All amplifiers generate heat through electrical
itors is done based on the components employed and the losses. This heat must be dissipated via natural or
intended use of the amp. forced air cooling. Heat can damage or reduce ser-
vice life of electronic components. Consideration
For the basics of radio frequency amplifiers using valves,
should be given to the heating effects of or upon ad-
see Valved RF amplifiers.
jacent equipment.
• Guitar amplifier [10] Jerry Del Colliano (20 February 2012), Pass Labs
XA30.5 Class-A Stereo Amp Reviewed, Home Theater
• Instrument amplifier Review, Luxury Publishing Group Inc.
• Instrumentation amplifier [11] Ask the Doctors: Tube vs. Solid-State Harmonics
• Low noise amplifier [12] Volume cranked up in amp debate
• Negative feedback amplifier
[13] A.P. Malvino, Electronic Principles (2nd Ed.1979. ISBN
• Operational amplifier 0-07-039867-4) p.299.
Background Theory
-
4.1 Electron hole Electrons: 1
Protons: 2
An electron hole is the conceptual and mathematical Neutrons: 2
Electron Hole
opposite of an electron, useful in the study of physics,
-
chemistry, and electronic engineering. The concept de-
scribes the lack of an electron at a position where one
could exist in an atom or atomic lattice. It is differ-
ent from the positron, which is an actual particle of Charge: +1
antimatter. He +
The electron hole was introduced into calculations for the
following situations:
89
90 CHAPTER 4. BACKGROUND THEORY
moves towards the edge of the row. Once the empty seat The analogy above is quite simplified, and cannot explain
reaches the edge, the new person can sit down. why holes create an opposite effect to electrons in the Hall
In the process everyone in the row has moved along. effect and Seebeck effect. A more precise and detailed
If those people were negatively charged (like electrons), explanation follows.[3]
this movement would constitute conduction. If the seats
themselves were positively charged, then only the vacant • The dispersion relation determines how electrons re-
seat would be positive. This is a very simple model of spond to forces (via the concept of effective mass).[3]
how hole conduction works.
In reality, due to the crystal structure properties, the hole A dispersion relation is the relationship between
is not localized to a single position as described in the wavevector (k-vector) and energy in a band, part of the
previous example. Rather, the hole spans an area in the electronic band structure. In quantum mechanics, the
crystal lattice covering many hundreds of unit cells. This electrons are waves, and energy is the wave frequency.
is equivalent to being unable to tell which broken bond A localized electron is a wavepacket, and the motion of
corresponds to the “missing” electron. an electron is given by the formula for the group veloc-
ity of a wave. An electric field affects an electron by
Instead of analyzing the movement of an empty state gradually shifting all the wavevectors in the wavepacket,
in the valence band as the movement of many separate and the electron moves because its wave group velocity
electrons, a single equivalent imaginary particle called a changes. Therefore, again, the way an electron responds
“hole” is considered. In an applied electric field, the elec- to forces is entirely determined by its dispersion relation.
trons move in one direction, corresponding to the hole An electron floating in space has the dispersion relation
moving in the other. If a hole associates itself with a neu- E=ℏ2 k2 /(2m), where m is the (real) electron mass and
tral atom, that atom loses an electron and becomes posi- ℏ is reduced Planck constant. In the conduction band
tive. Therefore the hole is taken to have positive charge of a semiconductor, the dispersion relation is instead
of +e, precisely the opposite of the electron charge. E=ℏ2 k2 /(2m* ) (m* is the effective mass), so a conduction-
band electron responds to forces as if it had the mass m* .
so the net motion is exactly zero. If an otherwise-almost- mobility for holes under the influence of an electric field
full valence band has a state without an electron in it, we and this may slow down the speed of the electronic de-
say that this state is occupied by a hole. There is a math- vice made of that semiconductor. This is one major rea-
ematical shortcut for calculating the current due to every son for adopting electrons as the primary charge carriers,
electron in the whole valence band: Start with zero cur- whenever possible in semiconductor devices, rather than
rent (the total if the band were full), and subtract the cur- holes.
rent due to the electrons that would be in each hole state That said, in many semiconductor devices, both electrons
if it wasn't a hole. Since subtracting the current caused and holes play an essential role. Examples include p–n
by a negative charge in motion is the same as adding the diodes and bipolar transistors.
current caused by a positive charge moving on the same
path, the mathematical shortcut is to pretend that each
hole state is carrying a positive charge, while ignoring ev- 4.1.2 Holes in quantum chemistry
ery other electron state in the valence band.
An alternate meaning for the term electron hole is used
• A hole near the top of the valence band moves the in computational chemistry. In coupled cluster methods,
same way as an electron near the top of the valence the ground (or lowest energy) state of a molecule is inter-
band would move.[3] preted as the “vacuum state”—conceptually, in this state
there are no electrons. In this scheme, the absence of an
This fact follows from the discussion and definition electron from a normally-filled state is called a “hole” and
above. This is an example where the auditorium anal- is treated as a particle, and the presence of an electron in a
ogy above is misleading. When a person moves left in a normally-empty state is simply called an “electron”. This
full auditorium, an empty seat moves right. But in this terminology is almost identical to that used in solid-state
section we are imagining how electrons move through k- physics.
space, not real space, and the effect of a force is to move
all the electrons through k-space in the same direction at
the same time. So a better analogy is a bubble underwa- 4.1.3 See also
ter in a river: The bubble moves the same direction as the
water, not opposite. • Band gap
In most semiconductors, the effective mass of a hole is [3] Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics 8th edition, page
much larger than that of an electron. This results in lower 194-196
92 CHAPTER 4. BACKGROUND THEORY
4.2 P–n junction in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.
This property is explained in terms of forward bias and
reverse bias, where the term bias refers to an application
of electric voltage to the p–n junction.
space, because any variation would cause charge buildup does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage.
over time (this is Kirchhoff’s current law). The flow of This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resis-
holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is tance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing min-
exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P imal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The in-
(electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all cur- crease in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junc-
rents and voltages are reversed). tion behaving as an insulator.
Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases
through the diode involves electrons flowing through the as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric
N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–
the P-type region in the opposite direction toward the n junction depletion zone breaks down and current be-
junction, and the two species of carriers constantly re- gins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche
combining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown pro-
and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have
cesses are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as
opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same di-
the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that
rection on both sides of the diode, as required. cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause
The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias thermal damage.
operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the This effect is used to one’s advantage in Zener diode reg-
avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region. ulator circuits. Zener diodes have a certain – low – break-
down voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is
for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cath-
4.2.4 Reverse bias ode can never be more than 5.6 V higher than the voltage
at the anode, because the diode will break down – and
therefore conduct – if the voltage gets any higher. This
in effect regulates the voltage over the diode.
Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes,
where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with
the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the
diode.
dp CA = dn CD 4.2.6 Summary
because the total charge on either side of the depletion
The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the
region must cancel out. Therefore, letting D and ∆V
p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n
represent the entire depletion region and the potential dif-
junction diode allows electric charges to flow in one di-
ference across it,
∫ ∫ rection, but not in the opposite direction; negative charges
∆V = D qε [(N0 − P0 ) + (CD − CA )] dx dx (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to
CA CD 2q
= CA +CD ε (dp + dn )2 p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for holes.
When the p–n junction is forward-biased, electric charge
Where P0 = N0 = 0 , because we are in the depletion flows freely due to reduced resistance of the p–n junc-
region. And thus, letting d be the total width of the de- tion. When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however,
pletion region, we get the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes
√
CA +CD greater and charge flow is minimal.
d = 2ε q CA CD ∆V
The following discussion treats five common biasing cir- For a given transistor, V ₑ does not vary significantly dur-
cuits used with Class A bipolar transistor amplifiers: ing use. As V is of fixed value, on selection of RB, the
base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed
1. Fixed bias bias type of circuit.
2. Collector-to-base bias Also for given circuit,
3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
V = ICRC + V ₑ
4. Voltage divider bias
5. Emitter bias Therefore,
This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the ex- The common-emitter current gain of a transistor is an im-
ample image on the right, the single power source (for portant parameter in circuit design, and is specified on the
example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of data sheet for a particular transistor. It is denoted as β on
a transistor, although separate batteries can also be used. this page.
In the given circuit, Because
98 CHAPTER 4. BACKGROUND THEORY
IC = βIB
Demerits:
Demerits:
current increases. However, a larger Iₑ increases the emit- • In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback
ter voltage Vₑ = IₑRₑ, which in turn reduces the voltage which reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier.
VR across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor volt-
age drop reduces the base current, which results in less Usage:
collector current because I = β IB. Collector current and The feedback also increases the input impedance of the
emitter current are related by I = α Iₑ with α ≈ 1, so the amplifier when seen from the base, which can be advan-
increase in emitter current with temperature is opposed, tageous. Due to the above disadvantages, this type of
and the operating point is kept stable. biasing circuit is used only with careful consideration of
Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there the trade-offs involved.
may be a change in IC (corresponding to change in β- Collector-Stabilized Biasing
value, for example). By similar process as above, the
change is negated and operating point kept stable.
Voltage divider biasing
For the given circuit,
VCC − Vbe
IB =
RB + (β + 1)RE
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point
against changes in temperature and β-value.
Demerits:
(β + 1)RE ≫ RB
Voltage divider bias
• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation
can be satisfied either by keeping RE very large, or The voltage divider is formed using external resistors R1
making RB very low. and R2 . The voltage across R2 forward biases the emit-
ter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1 and R2 ,
--- If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. the operating point of the transistor can be made inde-
This increases cost as well as precautions nec- pendent of β. In this circuit, the voltage divider holds the
essary while handling. base voltage fixed independent of base current provided
--- If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply the divider current is large compared to the base current.
should be used in the base circuit. Using two However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector cur-
supplies of different voltages is impractical. rent varies with temperature (for example) so an emitter
4.3. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR BIASING 101
resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the • As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation
above circuits with emitter resistor. can be satisfied either by keeping RE fairly large, or
In this circuit the base voltage is given by: making R1 ||R2 very low.
IE = (VEE - V ₑ)/RE
The operating point is independent of β if RE >> RB/β
Merit:
Good stability of operating point similar to voltage di-
vider bias. (about 1% of maximum possible value). Class AB bias
Demerit: is when the collector current I is about 1/4 of maximum
possible value. The class AB push–pull output amplifier
This type can only be used when a split (dual) power sup- circuit below could be the basis for a moderate-power au-
ply is available. dio amplifier.
Signal requirements
R1 R3 R4 • MOSFET +V supply
Q3
4.3.5 References
Q4
Input [1] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Cir-
D1 cuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Output
p. 397, Figure 5.17, and p.&nb₡sp;1245. ISBN 0-19-
C1 Q1 Q2 D2 514251-9.
Q5
R7 R8 C2
4.3.6 Further reading
R2 R5
R6
• Patil, P.K.; Chitnis, M.M. (2005). Basic Electricity
and Semiconductor0VDevices.
(ground)
Phadke Prakashan.
5.1 555 timer IC tions. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide
up to four timing circuits in one package.
Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in
widespread use due to its ease of use, low price, and sta-
bility. It is now made by many companies in the original
bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003,
it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured ev-
ery year.[1]
5.1.1 Design
VCC
VCC RESET
8 4 TRIG
CONT RESET
5 DISCH
6 R1
THRES 3
R OUT GND
S
Internal schematic
2
TRIG The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under
contract to Signetics, which was later acquired by Philips
7 (now NXP).
DISCH
1 Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 pack-
GND
age includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a
silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line pack-
Internal block diagram age (DIP-8).[2] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-
pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly
variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applica- modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and
104
5.1. 555 TIMER IC 105
VCC
THRES
RESET
GND 1 8 VCC
CONT
OUT
TRIG 2 7 DIS
TRIG
555
DISCH OUT 3 6 THR
GND
RESET 4 5 CTRL
Internal schematic (CMOS version)
VCC The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes
to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by
R 4 8
RESET VCC
t = RC ln(3) ≈ 1.1RC
7
DIS
6 3 where t is in seconds, R is in ohms (resistance) and C is
C THR OUT
Out in farads(capacitance).
2
TRIG While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the
Trigger
GND CTRL main disadvantage is that the time span between any
1 5 two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time
10nF
constant.[6]
GND
Bistable
Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode
VCC
Reset 4 8
RESET VCC
2
TRIG
Trigger 6 3
THR OUT
7
Out
DIS
GND CTRL
1 5
10nF
GND
The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the In bistable (also called Schmitt trigger) mode, the 555
pulse width in monostable mode timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset in-
puts (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high
via Pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is
timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls be- simply floating. Thus configured, pulling the trigger mo-
low a third of the voltage supply. The width of the output mentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the out-
pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC net- put pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset input
work, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin
The output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor to ground (low state). No timing capacitors are required
equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width in a bistable configuration. Pin 5 (control voltage) is con-
can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific nected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01
application by adjusting the values of R and C.[5] to 0.1 uF); pin 7 (discharge) is left floating.[7]
5.1. 555 TIMER IC 107
2
VCC The power capability of R1 must be greater than
Vcc
.
R1
Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be
R1
avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts
4 8
during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Oth-
RESET VCC erwise the output low time will be greater than calculated
7 above. The first cycle will take appreciably longer than
DIS
6 3 the calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from
THR OUT 0V to 2/3 of VCC from power-up, but only from 1/3 of
R2 2
Out
VCC to 2/3 of VCC on subsequent cycles.
TRIG
GND CTRL To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a small diode
(that is fast enough for the application) can be placed
1 5
C
in parallel with R2 , with the cathode on the capacitor
10nF
side. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cy-
cle so that the high interval depends approximately only
GND
on R1 and C. The presence of the diode is a voltage drop
that slows charging on the capacitor so that the high time
Standard 555 astable circuit is longer than the expected and often-cited ln(2)*R1 C =
0.693 R1 C. The low time will be the same as without the
diode as shown above. With a diode, the high time is
Astable
packages also exist with two or four timers on the same “game paddles” or two joysticks to the host computer. It
chip. The 555 is also known under the following type also used a single 555 for flashing the display cursor.
numbers: A similar circuit was used in the IBM PC.[11] In the joy-
stick interface circuit of the IBM PC, the capacitor (C)
556 Dual timer of the RC network (see Monostable Mode above) was
generally a 10 nF capacitor. The resistor (R) of the RC
network consisted of the potentiometer inside the joy-
stick along with an external resistor of 2.2 kilohms.[12]
The joystick potentiometer acted as a variable resistor.
By moving the joystick, the resistance of the joystick in-
creased from a small value up to about 100 kilohms. The
joystick operated at 5 V.[13]
Software running in the host computer started the pro-
cess of determining the joystick position by writing to a
special address (ISA bus I/O address 201h).[13][14] This
would result in a trigger signal to the quad timer, which
would cause the capacitor (C) of the RC network to begin
charging and cause the quad timer to output a pulse. The
width of the pulse was determined by how long it took the
C to charge up to 2/3 of 5 V (or about 3.33 V), which was
in turn determined by the joystick position.[13][15] The
Die of a 556 dual timer manufactured by STMicroelectronics. software then measured the pulse width to determine the
joystick position. A wide pulse represented the full-right
The dual version is called 556. It features two complete joystick position, for example, while a narrow pulse rep-
555s in a 14 pin DIL package. resented the full-left joystick position.[13]
This version includes non-overlapped complementary [1] Ward, Jack (2004). The 555 Timer IC – An Interview
outputs, coarse temperature sensor and on-chip 200pF with Hans Camenzind. The Semiconductor Museum. Re-
trieved 2010-04-05
timing capacitance.[10]
[2] van Roon, Fig 3 & related text.
5.1.4 Example applications [3] Scherz, Paul (2000) “Practical Electronics for Inventors”,
p. 589. McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. ISBN 978-0-07-
Joystick interface circuit using the 558 quad timer 058078-7. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
[5] van Roon, Chapter “Monostable Mode”. (Using the 555 5.1.8 External links
timer as a logic clock)
• 555 Timer Circuits – the Astable, Monostable and
[6] http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM555.pdf Bistable
[7] http://www.555-timer-circuits.com/operating-modes. • Simple 555 timer circuits
html
• Java simulation of 555 oscillator circuit
[8] van Roon Chapter: “Astable operation”.
• NE555 Frequency and duty cycle calculator for
[9] http://www.customsiliconsolutions.com/
products-for-ASIC-solutions/standard-IC-products.
astable multivibrators
aspx
• Using NE555 as a Temperature DSP
[10] 15 X-REL Semiconductor Data Sheet, 38100 Grenoble
France • 555 Timer Tutorial
[12] Engdahl, “Circuit diagram of PC joystick interface” • 555 and 556 Timer Circuits
• IC 555 Projects; E.A. Parr; Bernard Babani Publish- • XTR65x, HiRel HiTemp Timer, X-REL (operates
ing; 144 pages; 1978; ISBN 978-0-85934-047-2. from −60°C to 230°C)
110 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
VS+
V+
A Signetics μa741 operational amplifier, one of the most success-
ful op-amps. Vout
V in
Rg V out
( ) • Infinite
( Power
) supply rejection ratio.
Vin Vin × Rf Rf
Vout = Vin +i×Rf = Vin + × Rf = Vin + = Vin 1 +
Rg Rg These ideals can
Rg be summarized by the two “golden rules
By combining terms, we determine the closed-loop gain extquotedbl:
ACL:
I. The output attempts to do whatever is nec-
essary to make the voltage difference between
Vout Rf the inputs zero.
ACL = =1+
Vin Rg II. The inputs draw no current.[5]:177
5.2.3 Op-amp characteristics The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-
amp is used in a closed-loop design (negative feedback,
Ideal op-amps where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back
from the output to the inverting input). These rules are
An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the follow- commonly used as a good first approximation
[5]:177
for analyz-
ing properties: ing or designing op-amp circuits.
None of these ideals can be perfectly realized. A real
• Infinite open-loop gain G = vₒᵤ / 'vin op-amp may be modeled with non-infinite or non-zero
5.2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 113
parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in the amplifier will be significant. Hence, the out-
the op-amp model. The designer can then include these put impedance of the amplifier limits the maxi-
effects into the overall performance of the final circuit. mum power that can be provided. In configurations
Some parameters may turn out to have negligible effect with a voltage-sensing negative feedback, the out-
on the final design while others represent actual limita- put impedance of the amplifier is effectively low-
tions of the final performance that must be evaluated. ered; thus, in linear applications, op-amps usually
exhibit a very low output impedance indeed. Neg-
ative feedback can not, however, reduce the limita-
Real op-amps tions that R ₒₐ in conjunction with Rₒᵤ place on the
maximum and minimum possible output voltages; it
Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various as- can only reduce output errors within that range.
pects.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent
(i.e., idle) current in the output stage and will dissi-
DC imperfections Real operational amplifiers suffer pate more power, so low-power designs may pur-
from several non-ideal effects: posely sacrifice low output impedance.
Finite gain Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal oper- Input current Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a
ational amplifier but finite in real operational am- small amount of current (typically ~10 nanoamperes
plifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes (pA) for
ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. So long JFET input stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET
as the loop gain (i.e., the product of open-loop and input stages) flows into the inputs. When large re-
feedback gains) is very large, the circuit gain will be sistors or sources with high output impedances are
determined entirely by the amount of negative feed- used in the circuit, these small currents can produce
back (i.e., it will be independent of open-loop gain). large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input cur-
In cases where closed-loop gain must be very high, rents are matched, and the impedance looking out
the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feed- of both inputs are matched, then the voltages pro-
back gain causes low loop gain; in these cases, the duced at each input will be equal. Because the oper-
operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally. ational amplifier operates on the difference between
its inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect
(unless the operational amplifier has poor CMRR,
Finite input impedances The differential input which is described below). It is more common for
impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as the input currents (or the impedances looking out
the impedance between its two inputs; the common- of each input) to be slightly mismatched, and so a
mode input impedance is the impedance from small offset voltage (different from the input offset
each input to ground. MOSFET-input operational voltage below) can be produced. This offset volt-
amplifiers often have protection circuits that ef- age can create offsets or drifting in the operational
fectively short circuit any input differences greater amplifier. It can often be nulled externally; how-
than a small threshold, so the input impedance can ever, many operational amplifiers include offset null
appear to be very low in some tests. However, as or balance pins and some procedure for using them
long as these operational amplifiers are used in a to remove this offset. Some operational amplifiers
typical high-gain negative feedback application, attempt to nullify this offset automatically
these protection circuits will be inactive. The
input bias and leakage currents described below Input offset voltage This voltage, which is what is re-
are a more important design parameter for typical quired across the op-amp’s input terminals to drive
operational amplifier applications. the output voltage to zero,[6][nb 1] is related to the
mismatches in input bias current. In the perfect am-
Non-zero output impedance Low output impedance is plifier, there would be no input offset voltage. How-
important for low-impedance loads; for these loads, ever, it exists in actual op-amps because of imper-
the voltage drop across the output impedance of fections in the differential amplifier that constitutes
114 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
the input stage of the vast majority of these devices. AC imperfections The op-amp gain calculated at DC
Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due does not apply at higher frequencies. Thus, for high-
to the amplifier’s high voltage gain, it virtually as- speed operation, more sophisticated considerations must
sures that the amplifier output will go into satura- be used in an op-amp circuit design.
tion if it is operated without negative feedback, even
when the input terminals are wired together. Sec- Finite bandwidth All amplifiers have finite bandwidth.
ond, in a closed loop, negative feedback configura- To a first approximation, the op-amp has the fre-
tion, the input offset voltage is amplified along with quency response of an integrator with gain. That
the signal and this may pose a problem if high pre- is, the gain of a typical op-amp is inversely propor-
cision DC amplification is required or if the input tional to frequency and is characterized by its gain–
signal is very small.[nb 2] bandwidth product (GBWP). For example, an op-
amp with a GBWP of 1 MHz would have a gain of
5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This dy-
Common-mode gain A perfect operational amplifier
namic response coupled with the very high DC gain
amplifies only the voltage difference between its
of the op-amp gives it the characteristics of a first-
two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are
order low-pass filter with very high DC gain and low
common to both. However, the differential input
cutoff frequency given by the GBWP divided by the
stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect,
DC gain.
leading to the amplification of these common volt-
ages to some degree. The standard measure of this
defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio The finite bandwidth of an op-amp can be the
(denoted CMRR). Minimization of common mode source of several problems, including:
gain is usually important in non-inverting amplifiers • Stability. Associated with the band-
(described below) that operate at high amplification. width limitation is a phase difference be-
tween the input signal and the amplifier
Power-supply rejection The output of a perfect oper- output that can lead to oscillation in some
ational amplifier will be completely independent feedback circuits. For example, a sinu-
from ripples that arrive on its power supply in- soidal output signal meant to interfere
puts. Every real operational amplifier has a spec- destructively with an input signal of the
ified power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that re- same frequency will interfere construc-
flects how well the op-amp can reject changes in its tively if delayed by 180 degrees form-
supply voltage. Copious use of bypass capacitors ing positive feedback. In these cases,
can improve the PSRR of many devices, including the feedback circuit can be stabilized
the operational amplifier. by means of frequency compensation,
which increases the gain or phase mar-
gin of the open-loop circuit. The cir-
Temperature effects All parameters change with tem- cuit designer can implement this com-
perature. Temperature drift of the input offset volt- pensation externally with a separate cir-
age is especially important. cuit component. Alternatively, the com-
pensation can be implemented within the
Drift Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow operational amplifier with the addition
change over time and with changes in temperature, of a dominant pole that sufficiently at-
input conditions, etc. tenuates the high-frequency gain of the
operational amplifier. The location of
this pole may be fixed internally by the
Noise Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output manufacturer or configured by the circuit
even when there is no signal applied. This can be designer using methods specific to the
due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the devices. op-amp. In general, dominant-pole fre-
For applications with high gain or high bandwidth, quency compensation reduces the band-
noise becomes a very important consideration. width of the op-amp even further. When
5.2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 115
the desired closed-loop gain is high, op- • In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power
amp frequency compensation is often not supply, a voltage gain that produces an output
needed because the requisite open-loop that is more positive or more negative than that
gain is sufficiently low; consequently, ap- maximum or minimum; or
plications with high closed-loop gain can
• In the case of an op-amp using a single sup-
make use of op-amps with higher band-
ply voltage, either a voltage gain that pro-
widths.
duces an output that is more positive than that
• Noise, Distortion, and Other Effects. maximum, or a signal so close to ground that
Reduced bandwidth also results in lower the amplifier’s gain is not sufficient to raise it
amounts of feedback at higher frequen- above the lower threshold.[nb 4]
cies, producing higher distortion, noise,
and output impedance and also reduced
output phase linearity as the frequency Slewing The amplifier’s output voltage reaches its maxi-
increases. mum rate of change, the slew rate, usually specified
in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, fur-
Typical low-cost, general-purpose op-amps ther increases in the input signal have no effect on
exhibit a GBWP of a few megahertz. Spe- the rate of change of the output. Slewing is usu-
cialty and high-speed op-amps exist that can ally caused by the input stage saturating; the result
achieve a GBWP of hundreds of megahertz. is a constant current i driving a capacitance C in the
For very high-frequency circuits, a current- amplifier (especially those capacitances used to im-
feedback operational amplifier is often used. plement its frequency compensation); the slew rate
is limited by dv/dt=i/C.
Input capacitance Most important for high frequency
operation because it further reduces the open-loop Slewing is associated with the large-signal per-
bandwidth of the amplifier. formance of an op-amp. Consider for, exam-
ple an op-amp configured for a gain of 10. Let
Common-mode gain See DC imperfections, above. the input be a 1 V, 100 kHz sawtooth wave.
That is, the amplitude is 1 V and the period
is 10 microseconds. Accordingly, the rate of
change (i.e., the slope) of the input is 0.1 V
per microsecond. After 10x amplification, the
output should be a 10 V, 100 kHz sawtooth,
with a corresponding slew rate of 1 V per mi-
crosecond. However, the classic 741 op-amp
has a 0.5 V per microsecond slew rate speci-
fication, so that its output can rise to no more
than 5 V in the sawtooth’s 10 microsecond pe-
riod. Thus, if one were to measure the output,
it would be a 5 V, 100 kHz sawtooth, rather
than a 10 V, 100 kHz sawtooth.
Modern high speed op-amps can have slew Limited dissipated power The output current flows
rates in excess of 5,000 V per microsecond. through the op-amp’s internal output impedance,
However, it is more common for op-amps to dissipating heat. If the op-amp dissipates too much
have slew rates in the range 5-100 V per mi- power, then its temperature will increase above
crosecond. For example, the general purpose some safe limit. The op-amp may enter thermal
TL081 op-amp has a slew rate of 13 V per mi- shutdown, or it may be destroyed.
crosecond. As a general rule, low power and
small bandwidth op-amps have low slew rates.
As an example, the LT1494 micropower op- Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approx-
amp consumes 1.5 microamp but has a 2.7 kHz imate more closely the ideal op-amp than bipolar ICs
gain-bandwidth product and a 0.001 V per mi- when it comes to input impedance and input bias cur-
crosecond slew rate. rents. Bipolars are generally better when it comes to in-
put voltage offset, and often have lower noise. Generally,
Non-linear input-output relationship The output at room temperature, with a fairly large signal, and lim-
voltage may not be accurately proportional to ited bandwidth, FET and MOSFET op-amps now offer
the difference between the input voltages. It is better performance.
commonly called distortion when the input signal
is a waveform. This effect will be very small
in a practical circuit where substantial negative
feedback is used. 5.2.4 Internal circuitry of 741-type op-
amp
Phase reversal In some integrated op-amps, when the
published common mode voltage is violated (e.g. by
one of the inputs being driven to one of the supply Q8 Q9
Q12 Q13 7
VS+
voltages), the output may slew to the opposite polar- Q14
Q20
Q10 Q15
Power considerations 1 Q5
Q6 5
Offset Q11
Q22
Q19
Offset 50 kΩ
null null
1 kΩ 5 kΩ 50 kΩ 50 Ω
1 kΩ
4
Limited output current The output current must be fi- VS−
Architecture output sink transistor Q20 receives its base drive from
the common collectors of Q15 and Q19; the level-shifter
A small-scale integrated circuit, the 741 op-amp shares Q16 provides base drive for the output source transistor
with most op-amps an internal structure consisting of Q14. Note the similarity between the transistors Q15 and
three gain stages: Q7.
The transistor Q22 prevents this stage from saturating
1. Differential amplifier (outlined blue) — provides by diverting the excessive Q15 base current (it acts as a
high differential amplification (gain), with rejec- Baker clamp).
tion of common-mode signal, low noise, high input
impedance, and drives a
Output amplifier The output stage (Q14, Q20, out-
2. Voltage amplifier (outlined magenta) — provides lined in cyan) is a Class AB push-pull emitter follower
high voltage gain, a single-pole frequency roll-off, amplifier. It provides an output drive with impedance of
and in turn drives the ≈50Ω, in essence, current gain. Transistor Q16 (outlined
3. Output amplifier (outlined cyan and green) — pro- in green) provides the quiescent current for the output
vides high current gain (low output impedance), transistors, and Q17 provides output current limiting.
along with output current limiting, and output short-
circuit protection. Biasing circuits
Additionally, it contains current mirror (outlined red) bias Provide appropriate quiescent current for each stage of
circuitry and a gain-stabilization capacitor (30 pF). the op-amp.
The resistor (39 kΩ) connecting the (diode-connected)
Differential amplifier A cascaded differential ampli- Q11 and Q12, and the given supply voltage (VS₊−VS₋),
fier followed by a current-mirror active load, the input determine the current in the current mirrors, (matched
stage (outlined in blue) is a transconductance amplifier, pairs) Q10/Q11 and Q12/Q13. The collector current of
turning a differential voltage signal at the bases of Q1, Q11, i11 * 39 kΩ = VS₊ − VS₋ − 2 VBE. For the typical
Q2 into a current signal into the base of Q15. VS = ±20 V, the standing current in Q11/Q12 (as well as
in Q13) would be ≈1 mA. A supply current for a typical
It entails two cascaded transistor pairs, satisfying conflict-
741 of about 2 mA agrees with the notion that these two
ing requirements. The first stage consists of the matched
bias currents dominate the quiescent supply current.
NPN emitter follower pair Q1, Q2 that provide high input
impedance. The second is the matched PNP common- Transistors Q11 and Q10 form a Widlar current mirror,
base pair Q3, Q4 that eliminates the undesirable Miller with quiescent current in Q10 i10 such that ln( i11 / i10 )
effect; it drives an active load Q7 plus matched pair Q5, = i10 * 5 kΩ / 28 mV, where 5 kΩ represents the emitter
Q6. resistor of Q10, and 28 mV is VT, the thermal voltage at
room temperature. In this case i10 ≈ 20 μA.
That active load is implemented as a modified Wilson
current mirror; its role is to convert the (differential) in-
put current signal to a single-ended signal without the at- Differential amplifier The biasing circuit of this stage
tendant 50% losses (increasing the op-amp’s open-loop is set by a feedback loop that forces the collector currents
gain by 3dB).[nb 5] Thus, a small-signal differential cur- of Q10 and Q9 to (nearly) match. The small difference
rent in Q3 versus Q4 appears summed (doubled) at the in these currents provides the drive for the common base
base of Q15, the input of the voltage gain stage. of Q3/Q4 (note that the base drive for input transistors
Q1/Q2 is the input bias current and must be sourced ex-
Voltage amplifier The (class-A) voltage gain stage ternally). The summed quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 plus
(outlined in magenta) consists of the two NPN transistors Q2/Q4 is mirrored from Q8 into Q9, where it is summed
Q15/Q19 connected in a Darlington configuration and with the collector current in Q10, the result being applied
uses the output side of current mirror Q12/Q13 as its col- to the bases of Q3/Q4.
lector (dynamic) load to achieve its high voltage gain. The The quiescent currents of Q1/Q3 (resp., Q2/Q4) i1 will
118 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
thus be half of i10 , of order ≈ 10 μA. Input bias cur- Input impedance Because Q1 and Q3 (resp. Q2 and
rent for the base of Q1 (resp. Q2) will amount to i1 / β; Q4) form a Darlington pair, the small-signal differen-
typically ≈50 nA, implying a current gain h ₑ ≈ 200 for tial input impedance is of order 2hᵢₑh ₑ, where hᵢₑ is the
Q1(Q2). small-signal input impedance (common emitter) of Q1
This feedback circuit tends to draw the common base and Q3 (resp. Q2 and Q4) and where h ₑ is the transis-
node of Q3/Q4 to a voltage V ₒ − 2 * VBE, where V ₒ tor small-signal current gain (or β). This contrasts with
is the input common-mode voltage. At the same time, what would be the case with a simpler emitter-coupled
the magnitude of the quiescent current is relatively insen- pair (long-tailed pair) input stage, where the differential
sitive to the characteristics of the components Q1–Q4, input impedance is 2hᵢₑ, a factor of β lower. A typical
such as h ₑ, that would otherwise cause temperature de- 741 op amp has an input impedance 2–8 MΩ.
pendence or part-to-part variations.
Transistor Q7 drives Q5 and Q6 into conduction until Differential amplifier A differential voltage VI at the
their (equal) collector currents match that of Q1/Q3 and op-amp inputs (pins 3 and 2, respectively) gives rise to a
Q2/Q4. The quiescent current in Q7 is VBE / 50 kΩ, small differential current in the bases of Q1 and Q2 iI ≈
about 35μA, as is the quiescent current in Q15, with its VI / ( 2 hᵢₑ * h ₑ). This differential base current causes a
matching operating point. Thus, the quiescent currents change in the differential collector current in each leg by
are pairwise matched in Q1/Q2, Q3/Q4, Q5/Q6, and iI * h ₑ. Introducing the transconductance of Q1, gm =
Q7/Q15. h ₑ / hᵢₑ, the (small-signal) current at the base of Q15 (the
input of the voltage gain stage) is VI * gm / 2.
This portion of the op amp cleverly changes a differen-
Voltage amplifier Quiescent currents in Q16 and Q19 tial signal at the op amp inputs to a single-ended signal at
are set by the current mirror Q12/Q13, which is running the base of Q15, and in a way that avoids wastefully dis-
at ≈ 1 mA. Through some (?) mechanism, the collector carding the signal in either leg. To see how, notice that
current in Q19 tracks that standing current. a small negative change in voltage at the inverting input
(Q2 base) drives it out of conduction, and this incremen-
tal decrease in current passes directly from Q4 collector
Output amplifier In the circuit involving Q16 (vari- to its emitter, resulting in an decrease in base drive for
ously named rubber diode or VBE multiplier), the 4.5 kΩ Q15. On the other hand, a small positive change in volt-
resistor must be conducting about 100 μA, with the Q16 age at the non-inverting input (Q1 base) drives this tran-
VBE roughly 700 mV. Then the VCB must be about 0.45 sistor into conduction, reflected in an increase in current
V and VCE at about 1.0 V. Because the Q16 collector is at the collector of Q3. This current drives Q7 further into
driven by a current source and the Q16 emitter drives into conduction, which turns on current mirror Q5/Q6. Thus,
the Q19 collector current sink, the Q16 transistor estab- the increase in Q3 emitter current is mirrored in an in-
lishes a voltage difference between Q14 base and Q20 crease in Q6 collector current, resulting also in a decrease
base of ≈ 1 V, regardless of the common-mode voltage in base drive for Q15. Besides avoiding wasting 3dB of
of Q14/Q20 base. The standing current in Q14/Q20 will gain here, this technique decreases common-mode gain
be a factor exp(100 mV / VT ) ≈ 36 smaller than the and feedthrough of power supply noise.
1 mA quiescent current in the class A portion of the op
amp. This (small) standing current in the output transis-
tors establishes the output stage in class AB operation and Voltage amplifier A current signal i at 2
Q15’s base
reduces the crossover distortion of this stage. gives rise to a current in Q19 of order i * β (the product
of the h ₑ of each of Q15 and Q19, which are connected in
a Darlington pair). This current signal develops a voltage
at the bases of output transistors Q14/Q20 proportional
Small-signal differential mode to the hᵢₑ of the respective transistor.
occurs there; instead, this stage provides current gain, reactive and the closed loop gain is unity or higher.
equal to the h ₑ of Q14 (resp. Q20). By contrast, amplifiers requiring external compensation,
The output impedance is not zero, as it would be in an such as the μA748, may require external compensation
ideal op-amp, but with negative feedback it approaches or closed-loop gains significantly higher than unity.
zero at low frequencies.
Input offset voltage The “offset null” pins may be
Overall open-loop voltage gain The net open-loop used to place external resistors (typically in the form of
small-signal voltage gain of the op amp involves the prod- the two ends of a potentiometer, with the slider connected
uct of the current gain h ₑ of some 4 transistors. In prac- to VS–) in parallel with the emitter resistors of Q5 and
tice, the voltage gain for a typical 741-style op amp is Q6, to adjust the balance of the Q5/Q6 current mirror.
of order 200,000, and the current gain, the ratio of in- The potentiometer is adjusted such that the output is null
put impedance (≈2−6 MΩ) to output impedance (≈50Ω) (midrange) when the inputs are shorted together.
provides yet more (power) gain.
Non-linear characteristics
Other linear characteristics
Input breakdown voltage The transistors Q3, Q4
Small-signal common mode gain The ideal op help to increase the reverse VBE rating: the base-emitter
amp has infinite common-mode rejection ratio, or zero junctions of the NPN transistors Q1 and Q2 break down
common-mode gain. at around 7V, but the PNP transistors Q3 and Q4 have
VBE breakdown voltages around 50 V.[11]
In the present circuit, if the input voltages change in the
same direction, the negative feedback makes Q3/Q4 base
voltage follow (with 2VBE below) the input voltage vari- Output-stage voltage swing and current limiting
ations. Now the output part (Q10) of Q10-Q11 current Variations in the quiescent current with temperature, or
mirror keeps up the common current through Q9/Q8 con- between parts with the same type number, are common,
stant in spite of varying voltage. Q3/Q4 collector cur- so crossover distortion and quiescent current may be sub-
rents, and accordingly the output current at the base of ject to significant variation.
Q15, remain unchanged.
The output range of the amplifier is about one volt less
In the typical 741 op amp, the common-mode rejection than the supply voltage, owing in part to VBE of the out-
ratio is 90dB, implying an open-loop common-mode volt- put transistors Q14 and Q20.
age gain of about 6.
The 25 Ω resistor at the Q14 emitter, along with Q17,
acts to limit Q14 current to about 25 mA; otherwise, Q17
Frequency compensation The innovation of the conducts no current.
Fairchild μA741 was the introduction of frequency com- Current limiting for Q20 is performed in the voltage gain
pensation via an on-chip (monolithic) capacitor, simpli- stage: Q22 senses the voltage across Q19’s emitter resis-
fying application of the op amp by eliminating the need tor (50Ω); as it turns on, it diminishes the drive current
for external components for this function. The 30 pF ca- to Q15 base.
pacitor stabilizes the amplifier via Miller compensation
Later versions of this amplifier schematic may show a
and functions in a manner similar to an op-amp integrator
somewhat different method of output current limiting.
circuit. Also known as 'dominant pole compensation'
because it introduces a pole that masks (dominates) the
effects of other poles into the open loop frequency re- Applicability considerations
sponse; in a 741 op amp this pole can be as low as 10 Hz
(where it causes a −3 dB loss of open loop voltage gain).
Note: while the 741 was historically used in audio and
This internal compensation is provided to achieve un- other sensitive equipment, such use is now rare because
conditional stability of the amplifier in negative feed- of the improved noise performance of more modern op-
back configurations where the feedback network is non- amps. Apart from generating noticeable hiss, 741s and
120 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
other older op-amps may have poor common-mode rejec- • Classification by internal compensation: op-amps
tion ratios and so will often introduce cable-borne mains may suffer from high frequency instability in some
hum and other common-mode interference, such as switch negative feedback circuits unless a small compen-
'clicks’, into sensitive equipment. sation capacitor modifies the phase and frequency
The “741” has come to often mean a generic op-amp IC responses. Op-amps with a built-in capacitor
(such as μA741, LM301, 558, LM324, TBA221 — or are termed extquotedblcompensated extquotedbl, or
a more modern replacement such as the TL071). The perhaps compensated for closed-loop gains down to
description of the 741 output stage is qualitatively simi- (say) 5. All others are considered uncompensated.
lar for many other designs (that may have quite different • Single, dual and quad versions of many commercial
input stages), except: op-amp IC are available, meaning 1, 2 or 4 opera-
tional amplifiers are included in the same package.
• Some devices (μA748, LM301, LM308) are not in- • Rail-to-rail input (and/or output) op-amps can work
ternally compensated (require an external capacitor with input (and/or output) signals very close to the
from output to some point within the operational power supply rails.
amplifier, if used in low closed-loop gain applica-
tions). • CMOS op-amps (such as the CA3140E) provide ex-
tremely high input resistances, higher than JFET-
• Some modern devices have “rail-to-rail output” ca- input op-amps, which are normally higher than
pability, meaning that the output can range from bipolar-input op-amps.
within a few millivolts of the positive supply volt- • other varieties of op-amp include programmable op-
age to within a few millivolts of the negative supply amps (simply meaning the quiescent current, gain,
voltage. bandwidth and so on can be adjusted slightly by an
external resistor).
• hybrid
• Classification by package type may also affect envi- Use in electronics system design
ronmental hardiness, as well as manufacturing op-
tions; DIP, and other through-hole packages are The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and
tending to be replaced by surface-mount devices. clearer than specifying all their individual circuit ele-
5.2. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 121
ments (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers mains interference and current spikes.
used are integrated or discrete. In the first approximation
op-amps can be used as if they were ideal differential gain
blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the accept- Positive feedback applications
able range of parameters for each op-amp.
Another typical configuration of op-amps is with posi-
Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic cir- tive feedback, which takes a fraction of the output signal
cuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the back to the non-inverting input. An important applica-
circuit is required to do, with allowable limits. For ex- tion of it is the comparator with hysteresis, the Schmitt
ample, the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a trigger. Some circuits may use Positive feedback and Neg-
tolerance of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified ative feedback around the same amplifier, for example
temperature range; the input impedance not less than one Triangle wave oscillators and active filters.
megohm; etc.
Because of the wide slew-range and lack of positive feed-
A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit back, the response of all the open-loop level detectors
modeling (on a computer). Specific commercially avail- described above will be relatively slow. External over-
able op-amps and other components are then chosen that all positive feedback may be applied but (unlike internal
meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at positive feedback that may be applied within the latter
acceptable cost. If not all criteria can be met, the speci- stages of a purpose-designed comparator) this markedly
fication may need to be modified. affects the accuracy of the zero-crossing detection point.
A prototype is then built and tested; changes to meet or Using a general-purpose op-amp, for example, the fre-
improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce quency of Eᵢ for the sine to square wave converter should
the cost, may be made. probably be below 100 Hz.
Rf
V− = β · Vout
where
Rin
Vin
Vout
R1
β=
R1 + R2
Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:
Other applications
• Analog computer [6] D.F. Stout Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit De-
sign (McGraw-Hill, 1976, ISBN 0-07-061797-X ) pp. 1–
• Negative feedback amplifier 11.
• Small Signal Audio Design; Douglas Self; Focal • Loebe Julie historical OpAmp interview by Bob
Press; 556 pages; 2010; ISBN 978-0-240-52177-0. Pease
A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a However, if there is an accident, a pace car comes out to
control system that generates an output signal whose set a safe speed. None of the race cars are permitted to
phase is related to the phase of an input signal. While pass the pace car (or the race cars in front of them), but
there are several differing types, it is easy to initially vi-
each of the race cars wants to stay as close to the pace
sualize as an electronic circuit consisting of a variable car as it can. While it is on the track, the pace car is a
frequency oscillator and a phase detector. The oscillator reference, and the race cars become phase-locked loops.
generates a periodic signal. The phase detector compares Each driver will measure the phase difference (a distance
the phase of that signal with the phase of the input peri- in laps) between him and the pace car. If the driver is far
odic signal and adjusts the oscillator to keep the phases away, he will increase his engine speed to close the gap.
matched. Bringing the output signal back toward the in- If he’s too close to the pace car, he will slow down. The
put signal for comparison is called a feedback loop since result is all the race cars lock on to the phase of the pace
the output is 'fed back' toward the input forming a loop. car. The cars travel around the track in a tight group that
Keeping the input and output phase in lock step also is a small fraction of a lap.
implies keeping the input and output frequencies the
same. Consequently, in addition to synchronizing signals, Clock analogy
a phase-locked loop can track an input frequency, or it
can generate a frequency that is a multiple of the input Phase can be proportional to time,[1] so a phase differ-
frequency. These properties are used for computer clock ence can be a time difference. Clocks are, with vary-
synchronization, demodulation, and frequency synthesis. ing degrees of accuracy, phase-locked (time-locked) to a
Phase-locked loops are widely employed in radio, master clock.
telecommunications, computers and other electronic ap- Left on its own, each clock will mark time at slightly dif-
plications. They can be used to demodulate a signal, re- ferent rates. A wall clock, for example, might be fast by
cover a signal from a noisy communication channel, gen- a few seconds per hour compared to the reference clock
erate a stable frequency at multiples of an input frequency at NIST. Over time, that time difference would become
(frequency synthesis), or distribute precisely timed clock substantial.
pulses in digital logic circuits such as microprocessors.
Since a single integrated circuit can provide a complete To keep his clock in sync, each week the owner compares
phase-locked-loop building block, the technique is widely the time on his wall clock to a more accurate clock (a
used in modern electronic devices, with output frequen- phase comparison), and he resets his clock. Left alone,
cies from a fraction of a hertz up to many gigahertz. the wall clock will continue to diverge from the reference
clock at the same few seconds per hour rate.
Some clocks have a timing adjustment (a fast-slow con-
trol). When the owner compared his wall clock’s time to
5.3.1 Practical analogies the reference time, he noticed that his clock was too fast.
Consequently, he could turn the timing adjust a small
Automobile race analogy amount to make the clock run a little slower. If things
work out right, his clock will be more accurate. Over a
For a practical idea of what is going on, consider an auto series of weekly adjustments, the wall clock’s notion of a
race. There are many cars, and the driver of each of them second would agree with the reference time (within the
wants to go around the track as fast as possible. Each lap wall clock’s stability).
corresponds to a complete cycle, and each car will com-
plete dozens of laps per hour. The number of laps per An early electromechanical version of a phase-locked
hour (a speed) corresponds to an angular velocity (i.e. loop was used in 1921 in the Shortt-Synchronome clock.
a frequency), but the number of laps (a distance) corre-
sponds to a phase (and the conversion factor is the dis-
5.3.2 History
tance around the track loop).
During most of the race, each car is on its own and the Spontaneous synchronization of weakly coupled pendu-
driver of the car is trying to beat the driver of every other lum clocks was noted by the Dutch physicist Christiaan
car on the course, and the phase of each car varies freely. Huygens as early as 1673.[2] Around the turn of the
5.3. PHASE-LOCKED LOOP 129
19th century, Lord Rayleigh observed synchronization of • feedback path (which may include a frequency di-
weakly coupled organ pipes and tuning forks.[3] In 1919, vider).
W. H. Eccles and J. H. Vincent found that two electronic
oscillators that had been tuned to oscillate at slightly dif-
ferent frequencies but that were coupled to a resonant cir- Variations
cuit would soon oscillate at the same frequency.[4] Au-
tomatic synchronization of electronic oscillators was de- There are several variations of PLLs. Some terms that
scribed in 1923 by Edward Victor Appleton.[5] are used are analog phase-locked loop (APLL) also re-
ferred to as a linear phase-locked loop (LPLL), digital
Earliest research towards what became known as the phase-locked loop (DPLL), all digital phase-locked loop
phase-locked loop goes back to 1932, when British (ADPLL), and software phase-locked loop (SPLL).[11]
researchers developed an alternative to Edwin Arm-
strong's superheterodyne receiver, the Homodyne or Analog or linear PLL (APLL) Phase detector is an
direct-conversion receiver. In the homodyne or synchro- analog multiplier. Loop filter is active or passive.
dyne system, a local oscillator was tuned to the desired Uses a Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).
input frequency and multiplied with the input signal. The
resulting output signal included the original modulation Digital PLL (DPLL) An analog PLL with a digital
information. The intent was to develop an alternative phase detector (such as XOR, edge-trigger JK,
receiver circuit that required fewer tuned circuits than phase frequency detector). May have digital divider
the superheterodyne receiver. Since the local oscilla- in the loop.
tor would rapidly drift in frequency, an automatic cor-
All digital PLL (ADPLL) Phase detector, filter and
rection signal was applied to the oscillator, maintaining
oscillator are digital. Uses a numerically controlled
it in the same phase and frequency as the desired sig-
oscillator (NCO).
nal. The technique was described in 1932, in a paper by
Henri de Bellescize, in the French journal L'Onde Élec- Software PLL (SPLL) Functional blocks are imple-
trique.[6][7][8] mented by software rather than specialized hard-
In analog television receivers since at least the late 1930s, ware.
phase-locked-loop horizontal and vertical sweep circuits Neuronal PLL (NPLL) Phase detector, filter and os-
are locked to synchronization pulses in the broadcast cillator are neurons or small neuronal pools. Uses
signal.[9] a rate controlled oscillator (RCO). Used for track-
When Signetics introduced a line of monolithic ing and decoding low frequency modulations (< 1
integrated circuits such as the NE565 that were complete kHz), such as those occurring during mammalian-
phase-locked loop systems on a chip in 1969, [10]
appli- like active sensing.
cations for the technique multiplied. A few years later
RCA introduced the extquotedblCD4046 extquotedbl
Performance parameters
CMOS Micropower Phase-Locked Loop, which became
a popular integrated circuit. • Type and order
• Lock range: The frequency range the PLL is able to
5.3.3 Structure and function stay locked. Mainly defined by the VCO range.
Phase-locked loop mechanisms may be implemented as • Capture range: The frequency range the PLL is able
either analog or digital circuits. Both implementations to lock-in, starting from unlocked condition. This
use the same basic structure. Both analog and digital PLL range is usually smaller than the lock range and will
circuits include four basic elements: depend, for example, on phase detector.
• Loop bandwidth: Defining the speed of the control
• Phase detector,
loop.
• Low-pass filter,
• Transient response: Like overshoot and settling time
• Variable-frequency oscillator, and to a certain accuracy (like 50ppm).
130 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
generally appears at sharp spectral peaks (usually at the Jitter and noise reduction
operating frequency of the device, and a few harmonics).
A system designer can use a spread-spectrum PLL to re-
One desirable property of all PLLs is that the refer-
duce interference with high-Q receivers by spreading the
ence and feedback clock edges be brought into very close
energy over a larger portion of the spectrum. For exam-
alignment. The average difference in time between the
ple, by changing the operating frequency up and down
phases of the two signals when the PLL has achieved lock
by a small amount (about 1%), a device running at hun-
is called the static phase offset (also called the steady-
dreds of megahertz can spread its interference evenly over
state phase error). The variance between these phases
a few megahertz of spectrum, which drastically reduces
is called tracking jitter. Ideally, the static phase offset
the amount of noise seen on broadcast FM radio chan-
should be zero, and the tracking jitter should be as low as
nels, which have a bandwidth of several tens of kilohertz.
possible.
Phase noise is another type of jitter observed in PLLs,
and is caused by the oscillator itself and by elements
used in the oscillator’s frequency control circuit. Some
technologies are known to perform better than others in
this regard. The best digital PLLs are constructed with
Clock distribution emitter-coupled logic (ECL) elements, at the expense of
high power consumption. To keep phase noise low in
PLL circuits, it is best to avoid saturating logic families
such as transistor-transistor logic (TTL) or CMOS.
Another desirable property of all PLLs is that the phase
and frequency of the generated clock be unaffected by
rapid changes in the voltages of the power and ground
supply lines, as well as the voltage of the substrate on
which the PLL circuits are fabricated. This is called sub-
strate and supply noise rejection. The higher the noise
rejection, the better.
To further improve the phase noise of the output, an
injection locked oscillator can be employed following the
VCO in the PLL.
Typically, the reference clock enters the chip and drives
a phase locked loop (PLL), which then drives the sys-
tem’s clock distribution. The clock distribution is usually
balanced so that the clock arrives at every endpoint simul-
taneously. One of those endpoints is the PLL’s feedback Frequency synthesis
input. The function of the PLL is to compare the dis-
tributed clock to the incoming reference clock, and vary In digital wireless communication systems (GSM,
the phase and frequency of its output until the reference CDMA etc.), PLLs are used to provide the local os-
and feedback clocks are phase and frequency matched. cillator up-conversion during transmission and down-
PLLs are ubiquitous—they tune clocks in systems sev- conversion during reception. In most cellular handsets
eral feet across, as well as clocks in small portions of in- this function has been largely integrated into a single in-
dividual chips. Sometimes the reference clock may not tegrated circuit to reduce the cost and size of the handset.
actually be a pure clock at all, but rather a data stream However, due to the high performance required of base
with enough transitions that the PLL is able to recover a station terminals, the transmission and reception circuits
regular clock from that stream. Sometimes the reference are built with discrete components to achieve the levels
clock is the same frequency as the clock driven through of performance required. GSM local oscillator modules
the clock distribution, other times the distributed clock are typically built with a frequency synthesizer integrated
may be some rational multiple of the reference. circuit and discrete resonator VCOs.
132 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
A phase detector compares two input signals and pro- A phase detector (PD) generates a voltage, which rep-
duces an error signal which is proportional to their phase resents the phase difference between two signals. In a
difference. The error signal is then low-pass filtered and PLL, the two inputs of the phase detector are the ref-
used to drive a VCO which creates an output phase. The erence input and the feedback from the VCO. The PD
output is fed through an optional divider back to the input output voltage is used to control the VCO such that the
of the system, producing a negative feedback loop. If the phase difference between the two inputs is held constant,
output phase drifts, the error signal will increase, driving making it a negative feedback system. There are several
the VCO phase in the opposite direction so as to reduce types of phase detectors in the two main categories of
the error. Thus the output phase is locked to the phase at analog and digital.
the other input. This input is called the reference. Different types of phase detectors have different perfor-
Analog phase locked loops are generally built with an mance characteristics.
analog phase detector, low pass filter and VCO placed in For instance, the frequency mixer produces harmonics
a negative feedback configuration. A digital phase locked that adds complexity in applications where spectral purity
loop uses a digital phase detector; it may also have a di- of the VCO signal is important. The resulting unwanted
vider in the feedback path or in the reference path, or (spurious) sidebands, also called extquotedblreference
both, in order to make the PLL’s output signal frequency spurs extquotedbl can dominate the filter requirements
a rational multiple of the reference frequency. A non- and reduce the capture range and lock time well below
integer multiple of the reference frequency can also be the requirements. In these applications the more complex
created by replacing the simple divide-by-N counter in digital phase detectors are used which do not have as se-
the feedback path with a programmable pulse swallow- vere a reference spur component on their output. Also,
ing counter. This technique is usually referred to as a when in lock, the steady-state phase difference at the in-
fractional-N synthesizer or fractional-N PLL. puts using this type of phase detector is near 90 degrees.
The oscillator generates a periodic output signal. Assume The actual difference is determined by the DC loop gain.
that initially the oscillator is at nearly the same frequencyA bang-bang charge pump phase detector must always
as the reference signal. If the phase from the oscilla- have a dead band where the phases of inputs are close
tor falls behind that of the reference, the phase detec- enough that the detector detects no phase error. For this
tor changes the control voltage of the oscillator so that reason, bang-bang phase detectors are associated with
it speeds up. Likewise, if the phase creeps ahead of the significant minimum peak-to-peak jitter, because of drift
reference, the phase detector changes the control voltage within the dead band. However these types, having out-
to slow down the oscillator. Since initially the oscillator puts consisting of very narrow pulses at lock, are very
may be far from the reference frequency, practical phase useful for applications requiring very low VCO spurious
detectors may also respond to frequency differences, so outputs. The narrow pulses contain very little energy and
as to increase the lock-in range of allowable inputs. are easy to filter out of the VCO control voltage. This
Depending on the application, either the output of the results in low VCO control line ripple and therefore low
controlled oscillator, or the control signal to the oscilla- FM sidebands on the VCO.
tor, provides the useful output of the PLL system. In PLL applications it is frequently required to know
when the loop is out of lock. The more complex digi-
tal phase-frequency detectors usually have an output that
5.3.6 Elements
allows a reliable indication of an out of lock condition.
5.3. PHASE-LOCKED LOOP 133
a much lower frequency than the VCO without a loss in xc (θ) there is a function φ(θ) such that the output G(t)
loop gain. of Filter
• Lord Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound (London, Eng- [15] N.V. Kuznetsov, G.A. Leonov, M.V. Yuldashev, R.V.
land: Macmillan, 1896), vol. 2. The synchroniza- Yuldashev (2011). “Analytical methods for compu-
tion of organ pipes in opposed phase is mentioned tation of phase-detector characteristics and PLL de-
in §322c, pages 221-222. sign”. ISSCS 2011 – International Symposium on
Signals, Circuits and Systems, Proceedings: 7–10.
• Lord Rayleigh (1907) “Acoustical notes — VII,”
doi:10.1109/ISSCS.2011.5978639.
Philosophical Magazine, 6th series, 13 : 316-333.
See “Tuning-forks with slight mutual influence,” [16] A. J. Viterbi, Principles of Coherent Communication,
pages 322-323. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966
138 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Liu, Mingliang (February 21, 2006), Build a 1.5-V 5.4.1 Measures of regulator quality
2.4-GHz CMOS PLL, Wireless Net Design Line. An
article on designing a standard PLL IC for Bluetooth The output voltage can only be held roughly constant; the
applications. regulation is specified by two measurements:
• Wolaver, Dan H. (1991), Phase-Locked Loop Circuit
Design, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-662743-9 • load regulation is the change in output voltage for
a given change in load current (for example: “typ-
• Signal processing and system aspects of all-digital ically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load currents
phase-locked loops (ADPLLs) between 5 mA and 1.4 A, at some specified temper-
ature and input voltage”).
• Phase-Locked Loop Tutorial, PLL
• line regulation or input regulation is the degree
• Temporal-code to rate-code conversion by neuronal to which output voltage changes with input (supply)
phase-locked loops. Neural Comput 10:597-650., voltage changes - as a ratio of output to input change
1998 (for example “typically 13 mV/V”), or the output
5.4. VOLTAGE REGULATOR 139
voltage change over the entire specified input volt- the load transient) or input voltage (called the line
age range (for example “plus or minus 2% for input transient) occurs. Some regulators will tend to os-
voltages between 90 V and 260 V, 50-60 Hz”). cillate or have a slow response time which in some
cases might lead to undesired results. This value
Other important parameters are: is different from the regulation parameters, as that
is the stable situation definition. The transient re-
sponse shows the behaviour of the regulator on a
• Temperature coefficient of the output voltage is change. This data is usually provided in the tech-
the change with temperature (perhaps averaged over nical documentation of a regulator and is also de-
a given temperature range). pendent on output capacitance.
• Initial accuracy of a voltage regulator (or simply • Mirror-image insertion protection means that a
“the voltage accuracy”) reflects the error in output regulator is designed for use when a voltage, usually
voltage for a fixed regulator without taking into ac- not higher than the maximum input voltage of the
count temperature or aging effects on output accu- regulator, is applied to its output pin while its input
racy. terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded.
• Dropout voltage is the minimum difference be- Some regulators can continuously withstand this sit-
tween input voltage and output voltage for which the uation; others might only manage it for a limited
regulator can still supply the specified current. A time such as 60 seconds, as usually specified in the
low drop-out (LDO) regulator is designed to work datasheet. This situation can occur when a three ter-
well even with an input supply only a volt or so above minal regulator is incorrectly mounted for example
the output voltage. The input-output differential at on a PCB, with the output terminal connected to the
which the voltage regulator will no longer maintain unregulated DC input and the input connected to the
regulation is the dropout voltage. Further reduction load. Mirror-image insertion protection is also im-
in input voltage will result in reduced output voltage. portant when a regulator circuit is used in battery
This value is dependent on load current and junction charging circuits, when external power fails or is not
temperature. turned on and the output terminal remains at battery
voltage.
• Absolute maximum ratings are defined for regula-
tor components, specifying the continuous and peak
output currents that may be used (sometimes inter- 5.4.2 Electronic voltage regulators
nally limited), the maximum input voltage, maxi-
mum power dissipation at a given temperature, etc. A simple voltage regulator can be made from a resistor
in series with a diode (or series of diodes). Due to the
• Output noise (thermal white noise) and output logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across
dynamic impedance may be specified as graphs the diode changes only slightly due to changes in cur-
versus frequency, while output ripple noise (mains rent drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage
“hum” or switch-mode “hash” noise) may be given control and efficiency are not important, this design may
as peak-to-peak or RMS voltages, or in terms of work fine.
their spectra.
Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the
• Quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the cur- actual output voltage to some fixed reference voltage.
rent drawn internally, not available to the load, nor- Any difference is amplified and used to control the regu-
mally measured as the input current while no load is lation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error.
connected (and hence a source of inefficiency; some This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing
linear regulators are, surprisingly, more efficient at the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy
very low current loads than switch-mode designs be- but reduce stability. (Stability is avoidance of oscillation,
cause of this). or ringing, during step changes.) There will also be a
trade-off between stability and the speed of the response
• Transient response is the reaction of a regulator to changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due
when a (sudden) change of the load current (called to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the
140 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
The ferroresonant transformer, ferroresonant regu- Output voltage varies about 1.2% for every 1% change
lator or constant-voltage transformer is a type of sat- in supply frequency. For example, a 2 Hz change in gen-
5.4. VOLTAGE REGULATOR 143
erator frequency, which is very large, results in an output to dissipate the excess energy. The power supply is de-
voltage change of only 4%, which has little effect for most signed to only supply a maximum amount of current that
loads. is within the safe operating capability of the shunt regu-
It accepts 100% single-phase switch-mode power supply lating device.
loading without any requirement for derating, including If the stabilizer must provide more power, the shunt reg-
all neutral components. ulator output is only used to provide the standard voltage
Input current distortion remains less than 8% THD even reference for the electronic device, known as the voltage
when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100% stabilizer. The voltage stabilizer is the electronic device,
current THD. able to deliver much larger currents on demand.
Entire linear regulators are available as integrated cir- • Switching regulators are required when the only
cuits. These chips come in either fixed or adjustable volt- power supply is a DC voltage, and a higher output
age types. voltage is required.
SCR regulators
Switching regulators rapidly switch a series device on and
off. The duty cycle of the switch sets how much charge
Regulators powered from AC power circuits can use
is transferred to the load. This is controlled by a simi-
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) as the series device.
lar feedback mechanism as in a linear regulator. Because
Whenever the output voltage is below the desired value,
the series element is either fully conducting, or switched
the SCR is triggered, allowing electricity to flow into the
off, it dissipates almost no power; this is what gives the
load until the AC mains voltage passes through zero (end-
switching design its efficiency. Switching regulators are
ing the half cycle). SCR regulators have the advantages
also able to generate output voltages which are higher
of being both very efficient and very simple, but because
than the input, or of opposite polarity — something not
they can not terminate an on-going half cycle of conduc-
possible with a linear design.
tion, they are not capable of very accurate voltage regula-
Like linear regulators, nearly complete switching regula- tion in response to rapidly changing loads. An alternative
tors are also available as integrated circuits. Unlike lin- is the SCR shunt regulator which uses the regulator out-
ear regulators, these usually require one external compo- put as a trigger, both series and shunt designs are noisy,
nent: an inductor that acts as the energy storage element. but powerful, as the device has a low on resistance.
(Large-valued inductors tend to be physically large rela-
tive to almost all other kinds of componentry, so they are
rarely fabricated within integrated circuits and IC regula- Combination (hybrid) regulators
tors — with some exceptions.[1][2] )
Many power supplies use more than one regulating
method in series. For example, the output from a switch-
Comparing linear vs. switching regulators ing regulator can be further regulated by a linear regula-
tor. The switching regulator accepts a wide range of in-
The two types of regulators have their different advan- put voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhat noisy)
tages: voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. That
is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the
• Linear regulators are best when low output noise desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise gener-
(and low RFI radiated noise) is required ated by the switching regulator. Other designs may use
an SCR regulator as the “pre-regulator”, followed by an-
• Linear regulators are best when a fast response to other type of regulator. An efficient way of creating a
input and output disturbances is required. variable-voltage, accurate output power supply is to com-
• At low levels of power, linear regulators are cheaper bine a multi-tapped transformer with an adjustable linear
and occupy less printed circuit board space. post-regulator.
U
Regulator with an operational amplifier
CE
+U +U
In Out The stability of the output voltage can be significantly in-
Q creased by using an operational amplifier:
Rv
U
BE
U R U
Out L CE
+U +U
In Out
Rv Q R1
U Dz
Z OA
U
+ BE
R2
U R
_ Out L
U Dz R3
Z
1 V
In electronics, a comparator is a device that compares Vout
two voltages or currents and outputs a digital signal indi-
cating which is larger. It has two analog input terminals 2 V
V+ and V− and one binary digital output Vo . The output
is ideally A simple op-amp comparator
amps show an increased quiescent current when the analog to digital converter). If there is a fixed voltage
inputs are not equal. source from, for example, a DC adjustable device in the
signal path, a comparator is just the equivalent of a cas-
4. A comparator is designed to produce well lim- cade of amplifiers. When the voltages are nearly equal,
ited output voltages that easily interface with digi- the output voltage will not fall into one of the logic lev-
tal logic. Compatibility with digital logic must be els, thus analog signals will enter the digital domain with
verified while using an op-amp as a comparator. unpredictable results. To make this range as small as pos-
sible, the amplifier cascade is high gain. The circuit con-
5. Some multiple-section op-amps may exhibit ex-
sists of mainly Bipolar transistors. For very high frequen-
treme channel-channel interaction when used as
cies, the input impedance of the stages is low. This re-
comparators.
duces the saturation of the slow, large P-N junction bipo-
6. Many op-amps have back to back diodes between lar transistors that would otherwise lead to long recovery
their inputs. Op-amp inputs usually follow each times. Fast small Schottky diodes, like those found in bi-
other so this is fine. But comparator inputs are not nary logic designs, improve the performance significantly
usually the same. The diodes can cause unexpected though the performance still lags that of circuits with am-
current through inputs. plifiers using analog signals. Slew rate has no meaning
for these devices. For applications in flash ADCs the dis-
tributed signal across eight ports matches the voltage and
5.5.3 Working current gain after each amplifier, and resistors then be-
have as level-shifters.
The LM339 accomplishes this with an open collector out-
put. When the inverting input is at a higher voltage than
the non inverting input, the output of the comparator con-
nects to the negative power supply. When the non invert-
ing input is higher than the inverting input, the output
is 'floating' (has a very high impedance to ground). The
gain of op amp as comparator is given by this equation
V(out)=V(in)*A
With a pull-up resistor and a 0 to +5 V power supply, the
output takes on the voltages 0 or +5 and can interface with
TTL logic:
Several voltage comparator ICs While it is easy to understand the basic task of a compara-
tor, that is, comparing two voltages or currents, several
A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster parameters must be considered while selecting a suitable
than a general-purpose operational amplifier pressed into comparator:
service as a comparator. A dedicated voltage comparator
may also contain additional features such as an accurate,
Speed and power
internal voltage reference, an adjustable hysteresis and a
clock gated input. While in general comparators are “fast,” their circuits
A dedicated voltage comparator chip such as LM339 is are not immune to the classic speed-power tradeoff.
designed to interface with a digital logic interface (to a High speed comparators use transistors with larger as-
TTL or a CMOS). The output is a binary state often pect ratios and hence also consume more power.[6] De-
used to interface real world signals to digital circuitry (see pending on the application, select either a comparator
148 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
with high speed or one that saves power. For exam- Output type
ple, nano-powered comparators in space-saving chip-
scale packages (UCSP), DFN or SC70 packages such
as MAX9027, LTC1540, LPV7215, MAX9060 and
MCP6541 are ideal for ultra-low-power, portable appli-
cations. Likewise if a comparator is needed to imple-
ment a relaxation oscillator circuit to create a high speed
clock signal then comparators having few nano seconds of
propagation delay may be suitable. ADCMP572 (CML
output), LMH7220 (LVDS Output), MAX999 (CMOS
output / TTL output), LT1719 (CMOS output / TTL out-
put), MAX9010 (TTL output), and MAX9601 (PECL
output) are examples of some good high speed compara-
tors.
Hysteresis
A Low Power CMOS Clocked Comparator
A comparator normally changes its output state when the
voltage between its inputs crosses through approximately Because comparators have only two output states, their
zero volts. Small voltage fluctuations due to noise, al- outputs are near zero or near the supply voltage. Bipolar
ways present on the inputs, can cause undesirable rapid rail-to-rail comparators have a common-emitter output
changes between the two output states when the input that produces a small voltage drop between the output and
voltage difference is near zero volts. To prevent this out- each rail. That drop is equal to the collector-to-emitter
put oscillation, a small hysteresis of a few millivolts is in- voltage of a saturated transistor. When output currents
tegrated into many modern comparators.[7] For example, are light, output voltages of CMOS rail-to-rail compara-
the LTC6702, MAX9021 and MAX9031 have internal tors, which rely on a saturated MOSFET, range closer to
hysteresis desensitizing them from input noise. In place the rails than their bipolar counterparts.[9]
of one switching point, hysteresis introduces two: one for
rising voltages, and one for falling voltages. The differ- On the basis of outputs, comparators can also be clas-
ence between the higher-level trip value (VTRIP+) and sified as open drain or push–pull. Comparators with an
the lower-level trip value (VTRIP-) equals the hysteresis open-drain output stage use an external pull up resistor to
voltage (VHYST). a positive supply that defines the logic high level. Open
drain comparators are more suitable for mixed-voltage
If the comparator does not have internal hysteresis or system design. Since the output is high impedance for
if the input noise is greater than the internal hysteresis logic level high, open drain comparators can also be used
then an external hysteresis network can be built using to connect multiple comparators on to a single bus. Push
positive feedback from the output to the non-inverting pull output does not need a pull up resistor and can also
input of the comparator. The resulting Schmitt trig- source current unlike an open drain output.
ger circuit gives additional noise immunity and a cleaner
output signal. Some comparators such as LMP7300,
LTC1540, MAX931, MAX971 and ADCMP341 also Internal reference
provide the hysteresis control through a separate hystere-
sis pin. These comparators make it possible to add a pro- The most frequent application for comparators is the
grammable hysteresis without feedback or complicated comparison between a voltage and a stable reference.
equations. Using a dedicated hysteresis pin is also conve- Most comparator manufacturers also offer comparators
nient if the source impedance is high since the inputs are in which a reference voltage is integrated on to the chip.
isolated from the hysteresis network.[8] When hysteresis Combining the reference and comparator in one chip
is added then a comparator cannot resolve signals within not only saves space, but also draws less supply cur-
the hysteresis band. rent than a comparator with an external reference.[9]
5.5. COMPARATOR 149
ICs with wide range of references are available such as When using a comparator as a null detector, there are
MAX9062(200 mV reference), LT6700(400 mV ref- limits as to the accuracy of the zero value measurable.
erence), ADCMP350 (600 mV reference), MAX9025 Zero output is given when the magnitude of the difference
(1.236 V reference), MAX9040 (2.048 V reference), in the voltages multiplied by the gain of the amplifier is
TLV3012 (1.24 V reference) and TSM109 (2.5 V ref- less than the voltage limits. For example, if the gain of the
erence). amplifier is 106 , and the voltage limits are ±6 V, then no
output will be given if the difference in the voltages is less
than 6 μV. One could refer to this as a sort of uncertainty
Continuous versus clocked in the measurement.[11]
A continuous comparator will output either a “1” or a “0”
any time a high or low signal is applied to its input and Zero-crossing detectors
will change quickly when the inputs are updated. How-
ever, many applications only require comparator outputs For this type of detector, a comparator detects each time
at certain instances, such as in A/D converters and mem- an ac pulse changes polarity. The output of the compara-
ory. By only strobing a comparator at certain intervals, tor changes state each time the pulse changes its polarity,
higher accuracy and lower power can be achieved with a that is the output is HI (high) for a positive pulse and LO
clocked (or dynamic) comparator structure, also called a (low) for a negative pulse squares the input signal.[12]
latched comparator. Often latched comparators employ
strong positive feedback for a “regeneration phase” when
a clock is high, and have a “reset phase” when the clock Relaxation oscillator
is low.[10] This is in contrast to a continuous compara-
tor, which can only employ weak positive feedback since A comparator can be used to build a relaxation oscillator.
there is no reset period. It uses both positive and negative feedback. The posi-
tive feedback is a Schmitt trigger configuration. Alone,
the trigger is a bistable multivibrator. However, the slow
5.5.5 Applications negative feedback added to the trigger by the RC circuit
causes the circuit to oscillate automatically. That is, the
Main article: Comparator applications addition of the RC circuit turns the hysteretic bistable
multivibrator into an astable multivibrator.[13]
A null detector is one that functions to identify when a This circuit requires only a single comparator with
given value is zero. Comparators can be a type of am- an open-drain output as in the LM393, TLV3011 or
plifier distinctively for null comparison measurements. It MAX9028. The circuit provides great flexibility in
is the equivalent to a very high gain amplifier with well- choosing the voltages to be translated by using a suitable
balanced inputs and controlled output limits. The circuit pull up voltage. It also allows the translation of bipolar
compares the two input voltages, determining the larger. ±5 V logic to unipolar 3 V logic by using a comparator
The inputs are an unknown voltage and a reference volt- like the MAX972.[9]
age, usually referred to as vᵤ and vᵣ. A reference volt-
age is generally on the non-inverting input (+), while vᵤ
is usually on the inverting input (−). (A circuit diagram Analog-to-digital converters
would display the inputs according to their sign with re-
spect to the output when a particular input is greater than When a comparator performs the function of telling if
the other.) The output is either positive or negative, for an input voltage is above or below a given threshold, it
example ±12 V. In this case, the idea is to detect when is essentially performing a 1-bit quantization. This func-
there is no difference between in the input voltages. This tion is used in nearly all analog to digital converters (such
gives the identity of the unknown voltage since the refer- as flash, pipeline, successive approximation, delta-sigma
ence voltage is known. modulation, folding, interpolating, dual-slope and others)
150 CHAPTER 5. COMMON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
in combination with other devices to achieve a multi-bit [8] AN3616, Maxim Integrated Products, Adding Extra Hys-
quantization.[14] teresis to Comparators.
[1] LM111/LM211/LM311 datasheet. Texas Instruments. • A Java based resistor value search tool for analysing
August 2003. Retrieved 2014-07-02. an inverting comparator circuit with hysteresis
[2] LM139/LM239/LM339/LM2901/LM3302 datasheet.
Texas Instruments. August 2012. Retrieved 2014-07-02.
Sensors
where 1
= a + b ln(R) + c (ln(R))3
T
where a, b and c are called the Steinhart–Hart parame-
∆R
ters, and must be specified for each device. T is the tem-
∆T perature in kelvin and R is the resistance in ohms. To give
resistance as a function of temperature, the above can be
k rearranged into:
Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending
on the classification of k . If k is positive, the resistance y
1 1
−(x+ y2 ) 3
R = e(x− 2 )
3
increases with increasing temperature, and the device is
151
152 CHAPTER 6. SENSORS
The error in the Steinhart–Hart equation is generally less Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc,
than 0.02 °C in the measurement of temperature over a rod, plate, bead or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a
200 °C range.[3] As an example, typical values for a ther- sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the tem-
mistor with a resistance of 3000 Ω at room temperature perature of a semiconductor increases the number of ac-
(25 °C = 298.15 K) are: tive charge carriers - it promotes them into the conduction
band. The more charge carriers that are available, the
more current a material can conduct. In certain materi-
a = 1.40 × 10−3 als like ferric oxide (Fe2 O3 ) with titanium (Ti) doping
a n-type semiconductor is formed and the charge carri-
b = 2.37 × 10−4
ers are electrons. In materials such as nickel oxide (NiO)
c = 9.90 × 10−8 with lithium (Li) doping a p-type semiconductor is cre-
ated where holes are the charge carriers.[4]
6.1.3 B or β parameter equation This is described in the formula:
°C).
or, alternatively,
PTC
R = r∞ eB/T
Most PTC thermistors are of the “switching” type, which
where r∞ = R0 e−B/T0 .
means that their resistance rises suddenly at a certain crit-
This can be solved for the temperature: ical temperature. The devices are made of a doped poly-
crystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3 )
and other compounds. The dielectric constant of this
B
T = ferroelectric material varies with temperature. Below
ln (R/r∞ ) the Curie point temperature, the high dielectric constant
The B-parameter equation can also be written as ln R = prevents the formation of potential barriers between the
B/T + ln r∞ . This can be used to convert the function crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region
of resistance vs. temperature of a thermistor into a lin- the device has a small negative temperature coefficient.
ear function of ln R vs. 1/T . The average slope of this At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant
function will then yield an estimate of the value of the B drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential bar-
parameter. riers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases
6.1. THERMISTOR 153
sharply. At even higher temperatures, the material reverts heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environ-
to NTC behaviour. ment. The rate of transfer is well described by Newton’s
Another type of thermistor is a silistor, a thermally sen- law of cooling:
sitive silicon resistor. Silistors employ silicon as the
semiconductive component material. In contrary to the
“switching” type thermistor, silistors have an almost lin- PT = K(T (R) − T0 )
ear resistance-temperature characteristic.[5]
The degaussing coils in many CRT monitors were con- where T(R) is the temperature of the thermistor as a func-
trolled by thermistors bonded to a small heating element. tion of its resistance R, T0 is the temperature of the sur-
The thermistor would be connected in series with the coil roundings, and K is the dissipation constant, usually ex-
across the AC input, with the heater also directly con- pressed in units of milliwatts per degree Celsius. At equi-
nected to the AC input. When cold the thermistor would librium, the two rates must be equal.
allow a large current to flow through but would be quickly
heated by the heating element and the current would trail
to zero. This would degauss the screen every time the PE = PT
power is removed for long enough for the device to cool.
Another device similar in function to PTC thermistor is The current and voltage across the thermistor will depend
the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such on the particular circuit configuration. As a simple exam-
as extquotedblPolyswitch extquotedbl “Semifuse”, and ple, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed, then
“Multifuse”. This consists of a slice of plastic with carbon by Ohm’s Law we have I = V /R and the equilibrium
grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the car- equation can be solved for the ambient temperature as a
bon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a function of the measured resistance of the thermistor:
conductive path through the device. When the plastic
heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and
causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly. Like V2
the BaTiO3 thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear T0 = T (R) −
KR
resistance/temperature response and is used for switch-
ing, not for proportional temperature measurement. The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal con-
nection of the thermistor to its surroundings. It is gener-
ally given for the thermistor in still air, and in well-stirred
6.1.5 Self-heating effects
oil. Typical values for a small glass bead thermistor are
When a current flows through a thermistor, it will gen- 1.5 mW/°C in still air and 6.0 mW/°C in stirred oil. If
erate heat which will raise the temperature of the ther- the temperature of the environment is known beforehand,
mistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor then a thermistor may be used to measure the value of the
is being used to measure the temperature of the environ- dissipation constant. For example, the thermistor may be
ment, this electrical heating may introduce a significant used as a flow rate sensor, since the dissipation constant
error if a correction is not made. Alternatively, this effect increases with the rate of flow of a fluid past the thermis-
itself can be exploited. It can, for example, make a sensi- tor.
tive air-flow device employed in a sailplane rate-of-climb The power dissipated in a thermistor is typically main-
instrument, the electronic variometer, or serve as a timer tained at a very low level to ensure insignificant tem-
for a relay as was formerly done in telephone exchanges. perature measurement error due to self heating. How-
The electrical power input to the thermistor is just: ever, some thermistor applications depend upon signifi-
cant “self heating” to raise the body temperature of the
thermistor well above the ambient temperature so the
PE = IV sensor then detects even subtle changes in the thermal
conductivity of the environment. Some of these applica-
where I is current and V is the voltage drop across the tions include liquid level detection, liquid flow measure-
thermistor. This power is converted to heat, and this ment and air flow measurement.[2]
154 CHAPTER 6. SENSORS
6.1.9 References
[1] “NTC Thermistors”. Micro-chip Technologies. 2010.
Photovoltaic mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A com-
cathode driven positive with respect to the anode). This mon type of phototransistor, called a photobipolar tran-
reduces the response time because the additional reverse sistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a
bias increases the width of the depletion layer, which de-
transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector
creases the junction’s capacitance. The reverse bias alsojunction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more fa-
increases the dark current without much change in the mous for his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948,[4]:205
photocurrent. For a given spectral distribution, the pho-but it wasn't announced until 1950.[5] The electrons that
tocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and
are generated by photons in the base-collector junction
to the irradiance).[3] are injected into the base, and this photodiode current
Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode is amplified by the transistor’s current gain β (or h ₑ).
tends to exhibit more electronic noise. The leakage cur- If the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor
6.2. PHOTODIODE 157
response [A/W]
Field-effect phototransistors, also known as photoFETs, 0.5
are light-sensitive field-effect transistors. Unlike photo-
0.4
bipolar transistors, photoFETs control drain-source cur-
rent by creating a gate voltage. 0.3
0.2
6.2.2 Materials 0.1
ulation and thus data transmission. of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical
switch), or to couple two digital or analog circuits while
Noise-equivalent power (NEP) The minimum input maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between
optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the them, often for safety (optocoupler).
rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of
essentially the minimum detectable power. The re- light intensity in science and industry. They generally
lated characteristic detectivity ( D ) is the inverse have a more linear response than photoconductors.
of NEP, 1/NEP. There is also the specific detectiv-
ity ( D⋆ ) which is the detectivity multiplied by the They are also widely used in various medical applica-
square root tions, such as detectors for computed tomography (cou-
⋆
√ of the area ( A ) of the photodetector, ( pled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples
D = D A ) for a 1 Hz bandwidth. The specific
detectivity allows different systems to be compared (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters.
independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p-
a higher detectivity value indicates a low-noise de- n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical
vice or system.[11] Although it is traditional to give ( communications and in lighting regulation.
D⋆ ) in many catalogues as a measure of the diode’s
P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low
quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key param-
light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed,
eter.
avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled de-
vices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications
When a photodiode is used in an optical communication such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment
system, all these parameters contribute to the sensitivity and laser rangefinding.
of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power
required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error Pinned photodiode is not a PIN photodiode, it has p+/n/p
rate. regions in it. It has a shallow P+ implant in N type dif-
fusion layer over a P-type epitaxial substrate layer. It is
used in CMOS Active pixel sensor.[12]
6.2.4 Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other Comparison with photomultipliers
photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled [13]
devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used Advantages compared to photomultipliers:
to generate an output which is dependent upon the illu-
mination (analog; for measurement and the like), or to 1. Excellent linearity of output current as a function of
change the state of circuitry (digital; either for control incident light
and switching, or digital signal processing).
2. Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the semiconductor materials
receivers for infrared remote control devices used to con-
trol equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For 3. Low noise
many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors
may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used 4. Ruggedized to mechanical stress
for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to
5. Low cost
respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting
after dark. 6. Compact and light weight
Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to in-
7. Long lifetime
cident light, or to a source of light which is part of the
same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined 8. High quantum efficiency, typically 60-80% [14]
into a single component with an emitter of light, usually a
light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence 9. No high voltage required
6.2. PHOTODIODE 159
6.2.7 References
This article incorporates public domain material from
the General Services Administration document “Federal
Standard 1037C”.
[4] Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The 6.2.8 External links
Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information
Age. ISBN 9780393318517. • Technical Information Hamamatsu Photonics
[5] “The phototransistor”. Bell Laboratories RECORD. May • Using the Photodiode to convert the PC to a Light
1950. Intensity Logger
[6] Held. G, Introduction to Light Emitting Diode Technol- • Design Fundamentals for Phototransistor Circuits
ogy and Applications, CRC Press, (Worldwide, 2008).
• Working principles of photodiodes
Ch. 5 p. 116. ISBN 1-4200-7662-0
[11] Graham Brooker, Introduction to Sensors for Rang- A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR)
ing and Imaging, ScitTech Publishing, 2009 ISBN or photocell is a light-controlled variable resistor. The
9781891121746 page 87 resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increas-
ing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits
[12] http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/83018/ photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in
difference-between-buried-photodiode-and-pinned-photodiode
light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-
activated switching circuits.
[13] Photodiode Technical Guide on Hamamatsu website
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance
[14] Knoll, F.G. (2010). Radiation detection and measurementsemiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can
−4th ed. p. 298. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 978-0-470- have a resistance as high as a few megaohms (MΩ),
13148-0 while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance
as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on
[15] Wei Gao (2010). Precision Nanometrology: Sensors and a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons
Measuring Systems for Nanomanufacturing. Springer. pp. absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons
15–16. ISBN 978-1-84996-253-7.
enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The
resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct
• Gowar, John, Optical Communication Systems, 2 ed., electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance
Prentice-Hall, Hempstead UK, 1993 (ISBN 0-13- range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially
638727-6) differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique
6.3. PHOTORESISTOR 161
photoresistors may react substantially differently to Photoresistors also exhibit a certain degree of latency be-
photons within certain wavelength bands. tween the moment they are hit by light and the subse-
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrin- quent moment that their resistance actually drops. This
sic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge car- drop is usually about 10 milliseconds. Also, they exhibit a
riers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, much longer latency when going from lighted to dark en-
silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons vironments, often of as long as one second. This property
are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have makes them unsuitable for sensing rapidly flashing lights
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire (unless the flashing is so frequent that the [3]
diode cannot
bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called detect the drop in light between flashes).
dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the
conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to 6.3.2 Applications
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths
and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive
If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by cadmium sulphide cells can be found in many consumer
phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra elec- items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock ra-
trons available for conduction. This is an example of an dios, alarm devices, night lights, outdoor clocks, solar
extrinsic semiconductor.[2] street lamps and solar road studs, etc.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors to-
gether with a small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-
emitting diode to control gain reduction. A common us-
age of this application can be found in many guitar am-
plifiers that incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the
oscillating light patterns control the level of signal run-
ning through the amp circuit.
The use of CdS and CdSe[4] photoresistors is severely re-
stricted in Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb)
LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used for the mid-
infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are
used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical
American streetlight. The photoresistor is facing rightwards, and
controls whether current flows through the heater which opens 6.3.3 References
the main power contacts. At night, the heater cools, closing the
power contacts, energizing the street light. [1] British Standard 3939
The Decibel
7.1 Decibel The decibel symbol is often qualified with a suffix that in-
dicates which reference quantity has been used or some
other property of the quantity being measured. For ex-
This article is about the unit of level. For other uses, see ample, dBm indicates a reference level of one milliwatt,
Decibel (disambiguation). while dBu is referenced to approximately 0.775 volts
RMS.[2]
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to express In the International System of Quantities, the decibel is
the ratio between two values of a physical quantity, of- defined as a unit of level or level difference, equal to one-
ten power or intensity. One of these quantities is often a tenth of a bel. The bel is then defined in terms of the
reference value, and in this case the decibel can be used neper, an alternative unit of level of root-power quan-
to express the absolute level of the physical quantity, as tities, applicable when the natural logarithm (base e) is
in the case of sound pressure. The number of decibels used to define the level.[3]
is ten times the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of two
power quantities,[1] or of the ratio of the squares of two
field amplitude quantities. One decibel is one tenth of 7.1.1 History
one bel, named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell. The
bel is seldom used without the deci- prefix. The decibel originates from methods used to quantify
The definition of the decibel is based on the measure- signal losses in telephone circuits. These losses were
ment practices in telephony of the early 20th century in originally measured in units of Miles of Standard Cable
the Bell System in the United States. Today, the unit is (MSC), where 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power
used for a wide variety of measurements in science and over a 1 mile (approximately 1.6 km) length of standard
engineering, most prominently in acoustics, electronics, telephone cable at a frequency of 5000 radians per second
and control theory. In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, (795.8 Hz), and roughly matched the smallest attenuation
attenuation of signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often detectable to the average listener. Standard telephone ca-
expressed in decibels. The decibel confers a number of ble was defined as “a cable having uniformly distributed
advantages, such as the ability to conveniently represent resistance of 88 ohms per loop mile and uniformly dis-
very large or small numbers, and the ability to carry out tributed shunt capacitance of .054 microfarad per mile”
multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtrac- (approximately 19 gauge).[4]
tion. The transmission unit (TU) was devised by engineers of
A change in power by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 10 the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1920s to replace
dB change in level. A change in power by a factor of two the MSC. 1 TU was defined as ten times the base-10 loga-
approximately corresponds to a 3 dB change. A change rithm of the ratio of measured power to a reference power
in voltage by a factor of 10 results in a change in power level.[5] The definitions were conveniently chosen such
by a factor of 100 and corresponds to a 20 dB change. A that 1 TU approximately equaled 1 MSC (specifically,
change in voltage ratio by a factor of two approximately 1.056 TU = 1 MSC).The threshold of hearing is 25 dB[6]
corresponds to a 6 dB change. In 1928, the Bell system renamed the TU the decibel,[7]
163
164 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
being one tenth of a newly defined unit for the base-10 is deprecated by ISO, which favors root-power. Neither
logarithm of the power ratio. It was named the bel, in IEC nor ISO permit the use of modifiers such as dBA or
honor of their founder and telecommunications pioneer dBV; such units, though widely used, are not defined by
Alexander Graham Bell.[8] The bel is seldom used, as the international standards.
decibel was the proposed working unit.[9]
The naming and early definition of the decibel is de- 7.1.2 Definition
scribed in the NBS Standard’s Yearbook of 1931:[10]
The decibel (dB) is one tenth of the bel (B): 1B = 10dB.
Since the earliest days of the telephone, The bel is (1/2) ln(10) nepers.
the need for a unit in which to measure the
transmission efficiency of telephone facilities The bel represents a ratio between two power quanti-
has been recognized. The introduction of ca- ties of 10:1, and a ratio between two field quantities
ble in 1896 afforded a stable basis for a con- of √10:1.[14] A field quantity is a quantity such as volt-
venient unit and the “mile of standard” cable age, current, pressure, electric field strength, velocity, or
came into general use shortly thereafter. This charge density, the square of which in linear systems is
unit was employed up to 1923 when a new unit proportional to power.[15] A power quantity is a power
was adopted as being more suitable for modern or a quantity directly proportional to power, e.g., energy
telephone work. The new transmission unit is density, acoustic intensity and luminous intensity.
widely used among the foreign telephone orga- The method of calculation of a ratio in decibels depends
nizations and recently it was termed the “deci- on whether the measured property is a power quantity or
bel” at the suggestion of the International Advi- a field quantity.
sory Committee on Long Distance Telephony.
The decibel may be defined by the state- Two signals that differ by one decibel have a power ratio
1
ment that two amounts of power differ by 1 of 10 10 which is approximately 1.25892, and an ampli-
√ 1
decibel when they are in the ratio of 100.1 and tude (field) ratio of 10 10 (1.12202).[16][17]
any two amounts of power differ by N decibels Although permissible, the bel is rarely used with other SI
when they are in the ratio of 10N(0.1) . The num- unit prefixes than deci. It is preferred to use hundredths
ber of transmission units expressing the ratio of of a decibel rather than millibels.[18]
any two powers is therefore ten times the com-
mon logarithm of that ratio. This method of
designating the gain or loss of power in tele- Conversions
phone circuits permits direct addition or sub-
traction of the units expressing the efficiency The bel is defined by ISO Standard 80000-3:2006 as (1/2)
of different parts of the circuit... ln(10) nepers (Np), where ln denotes the natural loga-
rithm. Because the decibel is one tenth of a bel, it follows
that 1 dB = (1/20) ln(10) Np. The same standard defines
Standards 1 Np as equal to 1 (thereby relating all of the units as
nondimensional natural log of field-quantity ratios, 1 dB
In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights = 0.11513..., 1 B = 1.1513...). Since logarithm differ-
and Measures (CIPM) considered a recommendation for ences measured in these units are used to represent power
the decibel’s inclusion in the International System of ratios and field ratios, the values of the ratios represented
Units (SI), but decided not to adopt the decibel as an SI by each unit are also included in the table.
unit.[11] However, the decibel is recognized by other in-
ternational bodies such as the International Electrotech-
nical Commission (IEC) and International Organization Power quantities
for Standardization (ISO).[12] The IEC permits the use
of the decibel with field quantities as well as power and When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a
this recommendation is followed by many national stan- ratio can be expressed in decibels by evaluating ten times
dards bodies, such as NIST, which justifies the use of the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quan-
the decibel for voltage ratios.[13] The term field quantity tity to the reference level. Thus, the ratio of a power value
7.1. DECIBEL 165
P 1 to another power value P 0 is represented by L B, that where V 1 is the voltage being measured, V 0 is a specified
ratio expressed in decibels,[19] which is calculated using reference voltage, and G B is the power gain expressed in
the formula: decibels. A similar formula holds for current.
The term root-power quantity is introduced by ISO Stan-
( ) dard 80000-1:2009 as a substitute of field quantity. The
P1
LdB = 10 log10 term field quantity is deprecated by that standard.
P0
The base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the two power levels Examples
is the number of bels. The number of decibels is ten times
the number of bels (equivalently, a decibel is one-tenth of All of these examples yield dimensionless answers in dB
a bel). P 1 and P 0 must measure the same type of quantity, because they are relative ratios expressed in decibels. The
and have the same units before calculating the ratio. If P 1 unit dBW is often used to denote a ratio for which the
= P 0 in the above equation, then L B = 0. If P 1 is greater reference is 1 W, and similarly dBm for a 1 mW reference
than P 0 then L B is positive; if P 1 is less than P 0 then point.
L B is negative.
Rearranging the above equation gives the following for- • Calculating the ratio of 1 kW (one kilowatt, or 1000
mula for P 1 in terms of P 0 and L B: watts) to 1 W in decibels yields:
( )
1000 W
LdB GdB = 10 log10 ≡ 30 dB
P1 = 10 10 P0 1W
√
• The ratio of 1000 V ≈ 31.62 V to 1 V in decibels
Field quantities
is
When referring to measurements of field amplitude, it is ( )
31.62 V
usual to consider the ratio of the squares of A1 (mea- GdB = 20 log10 ≡ 30 dB
1V
sured amplitude) and A0 (reference amplitude). This is
because in most applications power is proportional to the (31.62 V/1 V)2 ≈ 1 kW/1 W , illustrating the conse-
square of amplitude, and it is desirable for the two deci- quence from the definitions above that GdB has the same
bel formulations to give the same result in such typical value, 30 dB , regardless of whether it is obtained from
cases. Thus, the following definition is used: powers or from amplitudes, provided that in the specific
system being considered power ratios are equal to ampli-
tude ratios squared.
( ) ( )
A21 A1
LdB = 10 log10 = 20 log10 .
A20 A0 • The ratio of 1 mW (one milliwatt) to 10 W in deci-
bels is obtained with the formula
The formula may be rearranged to give
( )
0.001 W
GdB = 10 log10 ≡ −40 dB
LdB 10 W
A1 = 10 20 A0
• The power ratio corresponding to a 3 dB change in
Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typi- level is given by
cally proportional to the square of voltage or current when
the impedance is held constant. Taking voltage as an ex- 3
G = 10 10 × 1 = 1.99526... ≈ 2
ample, this leads to the equation:
A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 is a change of
10 dB. A change in power ratio by a factor of two is ap-
( )
V1 proximately a change of 3 dB. More precisely, the factor
GdB = 20 log10 is 103/10 , or 1.9953, about 0.24% different from exactly
V0
166 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
The decibel has the following properties: 7.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
• The logarithmic nature of the decibel means that a
very large range of ratios can be represented by a • According to Mitschke,[20] “The advantage of using
convenient number, in a similar manner to scientific a logarithmic measure is that in a transmission chain,
notation. This allows one to clearly visualize huge there are many elements concatenated, and each has
changes of some quantity. See Bode plot and semi- its own gain or attenuation. To obtain the total, addi-
log plot. For example, 120 dB SPL may be clearer tion of decibel values is much more convenient than
than a “a trillion times more intense than the thresh- multiplication of the individual factors.”
old of hearing”, or easier to interpret than “20 pas-
cals of sound pressure”. • The human perception of the intensity of, for exam-
ple, sound or light, is more nearly linearly related to
• The unit is an additive function, which means that the logarithm of intensity than to the intensity itself,
the overall gain of a multi-component system, such per the Weber–Fechner law, so the dB scale can be
as a series of amplifier stages, can be calculated useful to describe perceptual levels or level differ-
by summing the gains in decibels of the individual ences.
components, rather than multiply the amplification
factors; that is, log(A × B × C) = log(A) + log(B)
+ log(C). Practically, this means that, armed only Disadvantages
with the knowledge that 1 dB is approximately 26%
power gain, 3 dB is approximately 2× power gain, According to several articles published in Electrical En-
and 10 dB is 10× power gain, it is possible to de- gineering[21] and the Journal of the Acoustical Society of
termine the power ratio of a system from the gain America,[22][23][24] the decibel suffers from the following
in dB with only simple addition and multiplication. disadvantages:
For example:
• The decibel creates confusion.
A system consists of 3 amplifiers in • The logarithmic form obscures reasoning.
series, with gains (ratio of power
out to in) of 10 dB, 8 dB, and 7 • Decibels are more related to the era of slide rules
dB respectively, for a total gain of than that of modern digital processing.
25 dB. Broken into combinations
of 10, 3, and 1 dB, this is: • Decibels are cumbersome and difficult to interpret.
25 dB = 10 dB + 10 dB +
Hickling concludes “Decibels are a useless affectation,
3 dB + 1 dB + 1 dB
which is impeding the development of noise control as
With an input of 1 watt, the output an engineering discipline”.[23]
is approximately
Another disadvantage is that quantities in decibels are not
1 W x 10 x 10 x 2 x 1.26 necessarily additive,[25][26] thus being “of unacceptable
x 1.26 = ~317.5 W form for use in dimensional analysis extquotedbl.[27]
7.1. DECIBEL 167
For the same reason that decibels excel at multiplicative that the ear can hear is greater than or equal to 1 tril-
operations (e.g., antenna gain), they are awkward when lion (1012 ).[30] Such large measurement ranges are con-
dealing with additive operations. Peters (2013, p. 13)[28] veniently expressed in logarithmic units: the base-10 log-
provides several examples: arithm of 1012 is 12, which is expressed as a sound pres-
sure level of 120 dB re 20 micropascals. Since the hu-
• “if two machines each individually produce a [sound man ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies,
pressure] level of, say, 90 dB at a certain point, then noise levels at maximum human sensitivity, somewhere
when both are operating together we should expect between 2 and 4 kHz, are factored more heavily into
the combined sound pressure level to increase to 93 some measurements using frequency weighting. (See also
dB, but certaintly not to 180 dB! extquotedbl Stevens’ power law.)
• “supposed that the noise from a machine is mea- Further information: Examples of sound pressure and
sured (including the contribution of background sound pressure levels
noise) and found to be 87 dBA but when the ma-
chine is switched off the background noise alone is
measured as 83 dBA. ... the machine noise [level
Electronics
(alone)] may be obtained by 'subtracting' the 83
dBA background noise from the combined level of
In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power
87 dBA; i.e., 84.8 dBA.”
or amplitude ratios (gains), in preference to arithmetic
• “in order to find a representative value of the sound ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total
level in a room a number of measurements are taken decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers
at different positions within the room, and an aver- and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the
age value is calculated. (...) Compare the logarith- decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in
mic and arithmetic averages of ... 70 dB and 90 dB: telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss
logarithmic average = 87 dB; arithmetic average = from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium
80 dB.” (free space, waveguide, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.)
using a link budget.
The decibel unit can also be combined with a suffix to
7.1.5 Uses create an absolute unit of electric power. For example,
it can be combined with “m” for “milliwatt” to produce
Acoustics
the extquotedbldBm extquotedbl. Zero dBm is the level
corresponding to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel
The decibel is commonly used in acoustics as a unit
greater (about 1.259 mW).
of sound pressure level, for a reference pressure of 20
micropascals in air[29] and 1 micropascal in water. The In professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the
reference pressure in air is set at the typical threshold of dBu. The suffix u stands for unloaded, and was probably
perception of an average human and there are common chosen to be similar to lowercase v, as dBv was the older
comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound name for the same unit. It was changed to avoid con-
pressure. Sound pressure is a field quantity, therefore the fusion with dBV. The dBu is a root mean square (RMS)
field version of the unit definition is used: measurement of voltage that uses as its reference approx-
( ) imately 0.775 VRMS. Chosen for historical reasons, the
prms
Lp = 20 log10 pref dB reference value is the voltage level which delivers 1 mW
of power in a 600 ohm resistor, which used to be the stan-
where pᵣₑ is equal to the standard reference dard reference impedance in telephone circuits.
sound pressure level of 20 micropascals in air
or 1 micropascal in water.
Optics
The human ear has a large dynamic range in audio recep-
tion. The ratio of the sound intensity that causes perma- In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in
nent damage during short exposure to the quietest sound dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and
168 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
the losses, in dB (decibels), of each electronic component In cases such as this, where the numerical value of the
(e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, reference is explicitly and exactly stated, the decibel mea-
the overall link loss may be quickly calculated by addition surement is called an “absolute” measurement, in the
and subtraction of decibel quantities.[31] sense that the exact value of the measured quantity can
In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to be recovered using the formula given earlier. If the nu-
measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B. merical value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as
in the dB gain of an amplifier, then the decibel measure-
ment is purely relative.
Video and digital imaging The SI does not permit attaching qualifiers to units,
whether as suffix or prefix, other than standard SI pre-
In connection with video and digital image sensors, deci- fixes. Therefore, even though the decibel is accepted for
bels generally represent ratios of video voltages or dig- use alongside SI units, the practice of attaching a suffix to
itized light levels, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the basic dB unit, forming compound units such as dBm,
the represented optical power is directly proportional to dBu, dBA, etc., is not.[13] The proper way, according to
the voltage or level, not to its square, as in a CCD imager the IEC 60027-3,[12] is either as Lx (re xᵣₑ ) or as Lx/xᵣₑ ,
where response voltage is linear in intensity.[32] Thus, a where x is the quantity symbol and xᵣₑ is the value of the
camera signal-to-noise ratio or dynamic range of 40 dB reference quantity, e.g., LE (re 1 μV/m) = LE/₍₁ μV/ ₎ for
represents a power ratio of 100:1 between signal power the electric field strength E relative to 1 μV/m reference
and noise power, not 10,000:1.[33] Sometimes the 20 log value.
ratio definition is applied to electron counts or photon
counts directly, which are proportional to intensity with- Outside of documents adhering to SI units, the practice
out the need to consider whether the voltage response is is very common as illustrated by the following examples.
linear.[34] There is no general rule, with various discipline-specific
practices. Sometimes the suffix is a unit symbol (“W”,
However, as mentioned above, the 10 log intensity con- extquotedblK”, extquotedblm”), sometimes it’s a translit-
vention prevails more generally in physical optics, includ- eration of a unit symbol (“uV” instead of μV for micro
ing fiber optics, so the terminology can become murky volt), sometimes it’s an acronym for the units name (“sm”
between the conventions of digital photographic technol- for m2 , “m” for mW), other times it’s a mnemonic for
ogy and physics. Most commonly, quantities called “dy- the type of quantity being calculated (“i” for antenna gain
namic range” or “signal-to-noise” (of the camera) would w.r.t. an isotropic antenna, extquotedblλ extquotedbl for
be specified in 20 log dBs, but in related contexts (e.g. anything normalized by the EM wavelength), or other-
attenuation, gain, intensifier SNR, or rejection ratio) the wise a general attribute or identifier about the nature of
term should be interpreted cautiously, as confusion of the the quantity (“A” for A-weighted sound pressure level).
two units can result in very large misunderstandings of the The suffix is often connected with a dash (dB-Hz), with
value. a space (dB HL), with no intervening character (dBm),
Photographers also often use an alternative base-2 log or enclosed in parentheses, dB(sm).
unit, the f-stop, and in software contexts these image level
ratios, particularly dynamic range, are often loosely re- Voltage
ferred to by the number of bits needed to represent the
quantity, such that 60 dB (digital photographic) is roughly Since the decibel is defined with respect to power, not
equal to 10 f-stops or 10 bits, since 103 is nearly equal to amplitude, conversions of voltage ratios to decibels must
210 . square the amplitude, or use the factor of 20 instead of
10, as discussed above.
7.1.6 Suffixes and reference values dBV
Suffixes are commonly attached to the basic dB unit in dB(VRMS) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regard-
order to indicate the reference value against which the less of impedance.[2]
decibel measurement is taken. For example, dBm indi-
cates power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt. dBu or dBv
7.1. DECIBEL 169
Acoustics
dB HL or dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm6 m−3 :[43]
measure of hearing loss. The reference level varies with energy of reflectivity (weather radar), related
frequency according to a minimum audibility curve as de- to the amount of transmitted power returned
fined in ANSI and other standards, such that the resulting to the radar receiver. Values above 15–20 dBZ
audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as 'nor- usually indicate falling precipitation.[44]
mal' hearing.
dB Q is sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, dBsm
commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise weighting
dB(m2 ) – decibel relative to one square meter:
measure of the radar cross section (RCS) of
Audio electronics a target. The power reflected by the target is
proportional to its RCS. “Stealth” aircraft and
dBm insects have negative RCS measured in dBsm,
large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have
positive values.[45]
dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In au-
dio and telephony, dBm is typically referenced
relative to a 600 ohm impedance,[40] while in Radio power, energy, and field strength
radio frequency work dBm is typically refer-
enced relative to a 50 ohm impedance.[41] dBc dBc – relative to carrier—in telecommunications,
this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband
power, compared with the carrier power. Compare
dBFS dBC, used in acoustics.
dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal com- dBJ dB(J) – energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule = 1 watt
pared with the maximum which a device can second = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density
handle before clipping occurs. Full-scale may can be expressed in dBJ.
be defined as the power level of a full-scale
sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square dBm dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. Tradi-
wave. A signal measured with reference to tionally associated with the telephone and broad-
a full-scale sine-wave will appear 3dB weaker casting industry to express audio-power levels ref-
when referenced to a full-scale square wave, erenced to one milliwatt of power, normally with a
thus: 0 dBFS(ref=fullscale sine wave) = −3 600 ohm load, which is a voltage level of 0.775 volts
dBFS(ref=fullscale square wave). or 775 millivolts. This is still commonly used to
express audio levels with professional audio equip-
dBTP ment.
In the radio field, dBm is usually referenced to a 50 ohm
dB(true peak) - peak amplitude of a signal load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts.
compared with the maximum which a device
can handle before clipping occurs.[42] In dig- dBμV/m or dBuV/m dB(μV/m) – electric field
ital systems, 0 dBTP would equal the highest strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter. Often
level (number) the processor is capable of rep- used to specify the signal strength from a television
resenting. Measured values are always nega- broadcast at a receiving site (the signal measured at
tive or zero, since they are less than or equal to the antenna output will be in dBμV).
full-scale.
dBf dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.
dBK
dBm−1
dB(K) – decibels relative to kelvin: Used to
dB(m−1 ) – decibel relative to reciprocal of me- express noise temperature.[48]
ter: measure of the antenna factor.
dB/K
Other measurements dB(K−1 ) – decibels relative to reciprocal of
kelvin [49] -- not decibels per kelvin: Used for
dB-Hz the G/T factor, a figure of merit utilized in
satellite communications, relating the antenna
dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one hertz. E.g., gain G to the receiver system noise equivalent
20 dB-Hz corresponds to a bandwidth of 100 temperature T.[50][51]
172 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
mBm mB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt, in mil- [1] IEEE Standard 100 Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms,
libels (one hundredth of a decibel). 100 mBm = Seventh Edition, The Institute of Electrical and Electron-
ics Engineering, New York, 2000; ISBN 0-7381-2601-2;
1dBm. This unit is in the Wi-Fi drivers of the Linux
page 288
kernel[52] and the regulatory domain sections.[53]
[2] Analog Devices : Virtual Design Center : Interactive De-
sign Tools : Utilities : VRMS / dBm / dBu / dBV calcu-
Np or cNp
lator
Another closely related unit is the neper (Np) [3] “ISO 80000-3:2006”. International Organization for
Standardization. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
or centineper (cNp). Like the decibel, the
neper is a unit of level.[54] The linear approxi- [4] Johnson, Kenneth Simonds (1944). Transmission Circuits
mation 1cNp =~ 1% for small percentage dif- for Telephonic Communication: Methods of Analysis and
ferences is widely used finance. Design. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co. p. 10.
[5] Don Davis and Carolyn Davis (1997). Sound system engi-
1 Np = 20 log10 e dB ≈ 8.685889638 dB neering (2nd ed.). Focal Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-240-
80305-0.
Attenuation constants, in fields such as optical fiber com- [7] R. V. L. Hartley (Dec 1928). extquotedbl'TU' becomes
munication and radio propagation path loss, are often ex- 'Decibel' extquotedbl. Bell Laboratories Record (AT&T)
7 (4): 137–139.
pressed as a fraction or ratio to distance of transmission.
dB/m means decibels per meter, dB/mi is decibels per [8] Martin, W. H. (January 1929). “DeciBel—The New
mile, for example. These quantities are to be manipu- Name for the Transmission Unit”. Bell System Technical
lated obeying the rules of dimensional analysis, e.g., a Journal 8 (1).
100-meter run with a 3.5 dB/km fiber yields a loss of
[9] 100 Years of Telephone Switching, p. 276, Robert J. Cha-
0.35 dB = 3.5 dB/km × 0.1 km.
puis, Amos E. Joel, 2003
[15] Brian C.J. Moore (1995). Hearing. Academic Press. p. [33] Francis T. S. Yu and Xiangyang Yang (1997).
11. ISBN 9780080533865. Introduction to optical engineering. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-0-521-57493-8.
[16] Mark, James E., Physical properties of polymers hand-
book, Springer, 2007, p 1025: extquotedbl… the decibel [34] Junichi Nakamura (2006). “Basics of Image Sensors”. In
represents a reduction in power of 1.258 times.” Junichi Nakamura. Image sensors and signal processing
for digital still cameras. CRC Press. pp. 79–83. ISBN
[17] Yost, William, Fundamentals of hearing: an introduction, 978-0-8493-3545-7.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985, p 206: extquotedbl…
a pressure ratio of 1.122 equals +1.0 dB” [35] What is the difference between dBv, dBu, dBV, dBm, dB
SPL, and plain old dB? Why not just use regular voltage
[18] Fedor Mitschke, Fiber Optics: Physics and Technology, and power measurements? – rec.audio.pro Audio Profes-
Springer, 2010 ISBN 3642037038. sional FAQ
[19] David M. Pozar (2005). Microwave Engineering (3rd ed.). [36] deltamedia.com. “DB or Not DB”. Deltamedia.com. Re-
Wiley. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-471-44878-5. trieved 2013-09-16.
[20] Fiber Optics (Springer, 2010) [37] The IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electron-
ics terms (6th ed.). IEEE. 1996 [1941]. ISBN 1-55937-
[21] C W Horton, “The bewildering decibel”, Elec. Eng., 73,
833-6.
550-555 (1954).
[38] Jay Rose (2002). Audio postproduction for digital video.
[22] C S Clay (1999), Underwater sound transmission and SI
Focal Press,. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-57820-116-7.
units, J Acoust Soc Am 106, 3047
[39] Morfey, C. L. (2001). Dictionary of Acoustics. Academic
[23] R Hickling (1999), Noise Control and SI Units, J Acoust
Press, San Diego.
Soc Am 106, 3048
[40] Bigelow, Stephen. Understanding Telephone Electronics.
[24] D M F Chapman (2000), Decibels, SI units, and stan-
Newnes. p. 16. ISBN 978-0750671750.
dards, J Acoust Soc Am 108, 480
[41] Carr, Joseph (2002). RF Components and Circuits.
[25] Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff (1996) Noise Control in Indus- Newnes. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0750648448.
try: A Practical Guide, Elsevier, 203 pp, p.
[42] ITU-R BS.1770
[26] Andrew Clennel Palmer (2008), Dimensional Analysis
and Intelligent Experimentation, World Scientific, 154 [43] “Glossary: D’s”. National Weather Service. Retrieved
pp, p.13 2013-04-25.
[27] J.C. Gibbings, Dimensional Analysis, p.37, Springer, [44] “Radar FAQ from WSI”. Archived from the original on
2011 ISBN 1849963177. 2008-05-18. Retrieved 2008-03-18.
[28] R J Peters, Acoustics and Noise Control, Routledge, Nov [45] “Definition at Everything2”. Retrieved 2008-08-06.
12, 2013, 400 pages
[46] EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warfare - David
[29] “Electronic Engineer’s Handbook” by Donald G. Fink, Adamy - Google Livros. Books.google.com.br. Retrieved
Editor-in-Chief ISBN 0-07-020980-4 Published by Mc- 2013-09-16.
Graw Hill, page 19-3
[47] dBrnC is defined on page 230 in “Engineering and Op-
[30] National Institute on Deafness and Other Communica- erations in the Bell System,” (2ed), R.F. Rey (technical
tions Disorders, Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (National In- editor), copyright 1983, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Mur-
stitutes of Health, 2008). ray Hill, NJ, ISBN 0-932764-04-5
[31] Bob Chomycz (2000). Fiber optic installer’s field manual. [48] Satellite Communication: Concepts And Applications -
McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 123–126. ISBN 978-0- K. N. Raja Rao - Google Livros. Books.google.com.br.
07-135604-6. 2013-01-31. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
[32] Stephen J. Sangwine and Robin E. N. Horne (1998). The [49] Comprehensive Glossary of Telecom Abbreviations
Colour Image Processing Handbook. Springer. pp. 127– and Acronyms - Ali Akbar Arabi - Google Livros.
130. ISBN 978-0-412-80620-9. Books.google.com.br. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
174 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
[50] The Digital Satellite TV Handbook - Mark E. Long - Google trical signal, a characteristic of all electronic circuits.[1]
Livros. Books.google.com.br. Retrieved 2013-09-16. Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly,
as it can be produced by several different effects.
[51] Reference Data for Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Com-
Thermal noise is unavoidable at non-zero temperature
puters and Communications - Mac E. Van Valkenburg -
(see fluctuation-dissipation theorem), while other types
Google Livros. Books.google.com.br. 2001-10-19. Re-
trieved 2013-09-16. depend mostly on device type (such as shot noise,[1][2]
which needs steep potential barrier) or manufacturing
[52] setting the TX power for a Wi-Fi device in Linux showing quality and semiconductor defects, such as conductance
units in mBm fluctuations, including 1/f noise.
[53] kernel notification of change in regulatory domain show- In communication systems, noise is an error or undesired
ing units in mBm random disturbance of a useful information signal in a
communication channel. The noise is a summation of
[54] “ISO 80000-3:2006”. International Organization for unwanted or disturbing energy from natural and some-
Standardization. Retrieved 20 July 2013. times man-made sources. Noise is, however, typically
distinguished from interference, (e.g. cross-talk, delib-
erate jamming or other unwanted electromagnetic inter-
7.1.11 External links ference from specific transmitters), for example in the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), signal-to-interference ratio
• What is a decibel? With sound files and animations (SIR) and signal-to-noise plus interference ratio (SNIR)
• Conversion of sound level units: dBSPL or dBA to measures. Noise is also typically distinguished from
sound pressure p and sound intensity J distortion, which is an unwanted systematic alteration of
the signal waveform by the communication equipment,
• OSHA Regulations on Occupational Noise Expo- for example in the signal-to-noise and distortion ratio
sure (SINAD). In a carrier-modulated passband analog com-
munication system, a certain carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR)
at the radio receiver input would result in a certain signal-
to-noise ratio in the detected message signal. In a digi-
7.2 Noise (electronics) tal communications system, a certain E /N 0 (normalized
signal-to-noise ratio) would result in a certain bit error
This article is about fundamental noise processes. For rate (BER).
noise arising from outside sources, see electromagnetic
compatibility and electromagnetic interference. While noise is generally unwanted, it can serve a useful
In electronics, noise is a random fluctuation in an elec- purpose in some applications, such as random number
generation or dithering.
Thermal noise
frequency spectrum. The amplitude of the signal has sively within the material; the electrons do not have dis-
very nearly a Gaussian probability density function. A crete arrivial times. Shot noise has been demonstrated
communication system affected by thermal noise is often in mesoscopic resistors when the size of the resistive el-
modeled as an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) ement becomes shorter than the electron-phonon scatter-
channel. ing length.[3]
The root mean square (RMS) voltage due to thermal noise
vn , generated in a resistance R (ohms) over bandwidth Flicker noise
Δf (hertz), is given by
Main article: Flicker noise
√
vn = 4kB T R∆f
Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, is a signal or pro-
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant (joules per kelvin) and cess with a frequency spectrum that falls off steadily into
T is the resistor’s absolute temperature (kelvin). the higher frequencies, with a pink spectrum. It occurs
in almost all electronic devices, and results from a variety
As the amount of thermal noise generated depends upon of effects, though always related to a direct current.
the temperature of the circuit, very sensitive circuits such
as preamplifiers in radio telescopes are sometimes cooled
in liquid nitrogen to reduce the noise level. Intermodulation noise
to be in the audio range (less than 100 Hz), leading to the fluorescent lamps cause industrial noise. These noises are
term popcorn noise for the popping or crackling sounds it produced by the discharge present in all these operations.
produces in audio circuits.
Extraterrestrial noise
Transit-time noise
Noise from outside the Earth includes:
If the time taken by the electrons from traveling from
emitter to collector becomes comparable to the period
of the signal being amplified, that is, at frequencies above Solar noise Noise that originates from the Sun is called
VHF and beyond, so-called transit-time effect takes place solar noise. Under normal conditions there is constant
and noise input admittance of the transistor increases. radiation from the Sun due to its high temperature. Elec-
From the frequency at which this effect becomes signif- trical disturbances such as corona discharges, as well as
icant it goes on increasing with frequency and quickly sunspots can produce additional noise.
dominates over other terms.
Avalanche noise is the noise produced when a junction Distant stars generate noise called cosmic noise. While
diode is operated at the onset of avalanche breakdown, a these stars are too far away to individually affect terres-
semiconductor junction phenomenon in which carriers in trial communications systems, their large number leads
a high voltage gradient develop sufficient energy to dis- to appreciable collective effects. Cosmic noise has been
lodge additional carriers through physical impact, creat- observed in a range from 8 MHz to 1.43 GHz.
ing ragged current flows.
Reduction of noise coupling
7.2.2 Coupled noise
In many cases noise found on a signal in a circuit is un-
See also: Electromagnetic compatibility wanted. When creating a circuit, one usually wants a
true output of what the circuit has accomplished. There
are many different noise reduction techniques that can
Energy external of the receiver can couple noise, also by change a noisy altered output signal to a more theoretical
energy conversion. Generally this is done by fundamental output signal.
interaction, in electronics mainly by Inductive coupling
and/or capacitive coupling.
1. Faraday cage – A Faraday cage is a good way to re-
duce the overall noise in a complete circuit. The
Atmospheric noise (static noise) Faraday cage can be thought of as an enclosure that
separates the complete circuit from outside power
Main article: Atmospheric noise lines and any other signal that may alter the true sig-
nal. A Faraday cage will usually block out most elec-
This noise is also called static noise and it is the natural tromagnetic and electrostatic noise.
source of disturbance caused by lightning discharge of
in thunderstorm and the natural(electrical) disturbances 2. Capacitive coupling – A current through two resis-
occurring in the nature. tors, or any other type of conductor, close to each
other in a circuit can create unwanted capacitive
coupling. If this happens an AC signal from one
Industrial noise part of the circuit can be accidentally picked up in
another part. The two resistors (conductors) act like
Sources such as automobiles, aircraft, ignition elec- a capacitor thus transferring AC signals. There may
tric motors and switching gear, High voltage wires and be other reasons for which capacitive coupling is
7.2. NOISE (ELECTRONICS) 177
• Discovery of cosmic microwave background radia- • Active Filter (Sallen & Key) Noise Study
tion
• Generation–recombination noise 7.3 Switched capacitor
• Matched filter for noise reduction in modems
A switched capacitor is an electronic circuit element
• Noise reduction and noise cancellation for audio and
used for discrete time signal processing. It works by mov-
images
ing charges into and out of capacitors when switches are
• Error correction for digital signals subject to noise. opened and closed. Usually, non-overlapping signals are
used to control the switches, so that not all switches are
• Phonon noise closed simultaneously. Filters implemented with these
elements are termed “switched-capacitor filters,” and de-
pend only on the ratios between capacitances. This
7.2.6 Notes makes them much more suitable for use within integrated
[1] Motchenbacher, C. D.; Connelly, J. A. (1993). Low-noise
circuits, where accurately specified resistors and capaci-
electronic system design. Wiley Interscience. tors are not economical to construct.[1]
7.2.7 References
• White noise calculator, thermal noise - Voltage in
microvolts, conversion to noise level in dBu and
dBV and vice versa
• This article incorporates public domain mate- Switched-capacitor resistor
rial from the General Services Administration docu-
ment “Federal Standard 1037C” (in support of MIL- The simplest switched capacitor (SC) circuit is the
STD-188). switched capacitor resistor, made of one capacitor C and
7.3. SWITCHED CAPACITOR 179
two switches S1 and S2 which connect the capacitor with So the equivalent resistance R (i.e., the voltage–current
a given frequency alternately to the input and output of relationship) is:
the SC. Each switching cycle transfers a charge q from
the input to the output at the switching frequency f . Re-
call that the charge q on a capacitor C with a voltage V V 1
R= = .
between the plates is given by: I CS f
Thus, the SC behaves like a resistor whose value depends
on capacitance CS and switching frequency f.
q = CV
The SC resistor is used as a replacement for simple resis-
where V is the voltage across the capacitor. Therefore, tors in integrated circuits because it is easier to fabricate
when S1 is closed while S2 is open, the charge stored in reliably with a wide range of values. It also has the ben-
the capacitor CS is: efit that its value can be adjusted by changing the switch-
ing frequency (i.e., it is a programmable resistance). See
also: operational amplifier applications. q = CV This
same circuit can be used in discrete time systems (such
qIN = CS VIN .
as analog to digital converters) as a track and hold cir-
When S2 is closed, some of that charge is transferred out cuit. During the appropriate clock phase, the capacitor
of the capacitor, after which the charge that remains in samples the analog voltage through switch one and in the
capacitor CS is: second phase presents this held sampled value to an elec-
tronic circuit for processing.
Qs (t − T )
Vf b (t) = + Vf b (t − T )
Cf b
Cs
Vf b (t) = · Vs (t − T ) + Vf b (t − T )
Cf b
7.4 H bridge
Variants
The most efficient MOSFET designs use N-channel There are many commercially available inexpensive sin-
MOSFETs on both the high side and low side because gle and dual H-bridge packages, and L293x series are the
they typically have a third of the ON resistance of P- most common ones. Few packages, like L9110,[4] have
7.5. HALL EFFECT SENSOR 183
• Commutator (electric)
7.4.6 References
[1] Al Williams (2002). Microcontroller projects using the Ba-
sic Stamp (2nd ed.). Focal Press. p. 344. ISBN 978-1-
57820-101-3.
[2] wordpress.com
[4] wordpress.com
• H-Bridges on the BEAM Robotics Wiki Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that
allows the device to act in a digital (on/off) mode, and
• Derivation of formulas to estimate H-bridge con- may be called a switch in this configuration. Com-
troller current (Vex, JAGUAR,Victor). Discusses monly seen in industrial applications such as the pictured
why some H-bridges used in robotics have non- pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer equip-
linear current and speed responses. ment; for example some computer printers use them to
184 CHAPTER 7. THE DECIBEL
The magnetic piston (1) in this pneumatic cylinder will cause the Commonly used circuit symbol
Hall effect sensors (2 and 3) mounted on its outer wall to activate
when it is fully retracted or extended.
7.5.1 Hall probe
ral electron drift of the charge carriers causes the mag- • indium antimonide (InSb)
netic field to apply a Lorentz force (the force exerted on
a charged particle in an electromagnetic field) to these • graphene [3]
charge carriers. The result is what is seen as a charge
separation, with a buildup of either positive or negative 7.5.4 Signal processing and interface
charges on the bottom or on the top of the plate. The
crystal measures 5 mm square. The probe handle, being Hall effect sensors are linear transducers. As a result such
made of a non-ferrous material, has no disturbing effect sensors require linear circuit for processing of the sensor’s
on the field. output signal. Such a linear circuit:
A Hall probe should be calibrated against a known value
of magnetic field strength. For a solenoid the Hall probe • provides constant driving current to the sensors
is placed in the center.
• amplifies the output signal
7.5.2 Working principle In some cases linear circuit may cancel the offset volt-
age of Hall effect sensors. Moreover, AC modulation of
When a beam of charged particles passes through a mag- driving current may reduce the influence of offset voltage
netic field, forces act on the particles and the beam is de- on characteristics of Hall effect sensor.
flected from its straight line path. The beam of charged Hall effect sensors with linear transducers are commonly
particles refers to the electrons flowing through a con- integrated with digital electronics. This enables advanced
ductor. When a current carrying conductor is placed in corrections of the sensor’s characteristics (e.g. tempera-
a magnetic field perpendicular to the path of the elec- ture coefficient corrections) and digital interfacing to mi-
trons, the electrons are deflected from its straight line croprocessor systems. In some solutions of IC Hall ef-
path. Therefore, one side of the conductor becomes neg- fect sensors DSP is implemented. The simplest digital
ative portion and the other side becomes positive one. processing circuit is an electronic comparator enabling
The transverse voltage is measured and is known as Hall switch on/off operation, which is useful in industrial au-
Voltage.[2] tomation applications.
The Hall effect sensors interfaces may include input di-
The charge separation continues until the force on the agnostics, fault protection for transient conditions, and
charged particles from the electric field balances the force short/open circuit detection. It may also provide and
produced by magnetic field. If the current is constant, monitor the current to the Hall effect sensor itself. There
then the Hall voltage is a measure of the magnetic flux are precision IC products available to handle these fea-
density. There are two forms of Hall Effect Sensors. One tures.
is linear where the output voltage linearly varies with the
magnetic flux density. The other is known as threshold
where there is a sharp drop of output voltage at a partic- 7.5.5 Advantages
ular magnetic flux density.
A Hall effect sensor may operate as an electronic switch.
7.5.3 Materials for Hall effect sensors • Such a switch costs less than a mechanical switch
and is much more reliable.
The key factor deciding on sensitivity of Hall effect sen-
sors is high electron mobility. As a result following ma- • It can be operated up to 100 kHz.
terials are especially suitable for Hall effect sensors:
• It does not suffer from contact bounce because a
solid state switch with hysteresis is used rather than
• gallium arsenide (GaAs) a mechanical contact.
In the case of linear sensor (for the magnetic field strength current carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the
measurements), a Hall effect sensor: tank lining up with the magnet. When the level of
fuel rises, an increasing magnetic field is applied on
• can measure a wide range of magnetic fields the current resulting in higher Hall voltage. As the
fuel level decreases, the Hall voltage will also de-
• is available that can measure either North or South crease. The fuel level is indicated and displayed by
pole magnetic fields proper signal condition of Hall voltage.
• can be flat • In a rotating lever sensor a diametrically magne-
tized ring magnet rotates about a linear hall sensor.
7.5.6 Disadvantages The sensor only measures the perpendicular (verti-
cal) component of the field. The strength of the field
Hall effect sensors provide much lower measuring accu- measured correlates directly to the angle of the lever
racy than fluxgate magnetometers or magnetoresistance and thus the level of the fuel tank.
based sensors. Moreover, Hall effect sensors drift signif-
icantly, requiring compensation.
7.5.8 References
[1] Ed Ramsden (2006). Hall-effect sensors: theory and appli-
7.5.7 Applications cations (2, illustrated ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-7934-
4.
Position sensing
[2] R. S. Popović (2004). Hall effect devices (2, illustrated
Sensing the presence of magnetic object (connected with ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0-7503-0855-9.
the position sensing) is the most common industrial ap-
[3] Petruk, O.; Szewczyk, R.; Ciuk, T. et al. (2014).
plication of Hall effect sensors, especially these operating “Sensitivity and Offset Voltage Testing in the Hall-
in the switch mode (on/off mode). The Hall effect sen- Effect Sensors Made of Graphene”. Advances in In-
sors are also used in the brushless DC motor to sense the telligent Systems and Computing (Springer) 267: 631.
position of the rotor and to switch the transistor in the doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05353-0_60.
right sequence.
[4] Petruk, O.; Szewczyk, R.; Salach, J.; Nowicki, M. (2014).
“Digitally Controlled Current Transformer with Hall Sen-
DC current transformers sor”. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
(Springer) 267: 641. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05353-
Hall effect sensors may be utilized for contactless mea- 0_61.
surements of DC current in current transformers. In such [5] https://www.infineon.com/dgdl/AppNote_
a case the Hall effect sensor is mounted in the gap in mag- Liquid_Level_Sensing_Rev.1.0.pdf?folderId=
netic core around the current conductor.[4] As a result, the db3a30431ce5fb52011d4cae1f582dad&fileId=
DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current db3a30432313ff5e0123a385f3b2262d
in the conductor can be calculated.
Filters
187
188 CHAPTER 8. FILTERS
sin(πx)
πx digital-to-analog converters use real filter approxima-
1.0
tions.
0.8
0.4 10
Cutoff frequency
0.2
0
x
−3.01 dB
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 −10
-0.2
Slope: −20 dB/decade
−20
Gain (dB)
−30
The sinc function, the impulse response of an ideal low-pass fil-
ter.
−40
−50
Passband Stopband
However, the ideal filter is impossible to realize without Angular frequency (rad/s)
Vin
dB per decade).
R
line to the right and the diagonal line to the upper-left
(the asymptotes of the function), they intersect at exactly
the cutoff frequency. The frequency response at the cutoff
frequency in a first-order filter is 3 dB below the horizon-
Vout
tal line. The various types of filters (Butterworth filter,
Chebyshev filter, Bessel filter, etc.) all have different-
looking knee curves. Many second-order filters have
“peaking” or resonance that puts their frequency response
at the cutoff frequency above the horizontal line. Further-
more, the actual frequency where this peaking occurs can
be predicted without calculus, as shown by Cartwright[5]
C
et al. For third-order filters, the peaking and its frequency
of occurrence can too be predicted without calculus as
recently shown by Cartwright[6] et al. See electronic filter
for other types. Passive, first order low-pass RC filter
The meanings of 'low' and 'high'—that is, the cutoff fre-
quency—depend on the characteristics of the filter. The One simple low-pass filter circuit consists of a resistor
term “low-pass filter” merely refers to the shape of the fil- in series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the
ter’s response; a high-pass filter could be built that cuts off load. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and blocks low-
at a lower frequency than any low-pass filter—it is their frequency signals, forcing them through the load instead.
responses that set them apart. Electronic circuits can be At higher frequencies the reactance drops, and the capac-
devised for any desired frequency range, right up through itor effectively functions as a short circuit. The combina-
microwave frequencies (above 1 GHz) and higher. tion of resistance and capacitance gives the time constant
190 CHAPTER 8. FILTERS
fc =
1
=
1 vin R1
2πτ 2πRC vout
or equivalently (in radians per second):
1 1
ωc = =
τ RC An active low-pass filter
lated on a computer by analyzing an RC filter’s behavior That is, this discrete-time implementation of a simple RC
in the time domain, and then discretizing the model. low-pass filter is the exponentially-weighted moving av-
erage
R
∆T
yi = αxi +(1−α)yi−1 where α≜
RC + ∆T
By definition, the smoothing factor 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 . The ex-
vin C vout pression for α yields the equivalent time constant RC in
terms of the sampling period ∆T and smoothing factor α
:
( )
A simple low-pass RC filter 1−α
RC = ∆T
α
From the circuit diagram to the right, according to
Kirchhoff’s Laws and the definition of capacitance: If α = 0.5 , then the RC time constant is equal to the sam-
pling period. If α ≪ 0.5 , then RC is significantly larger
than the sampling interval, and ∆T ≈ αRC .
The filter recurrence relation provides a way to determine
the output samples in terms of the input samples and the
preceding output. The following pseudocode algorithm
simulates the effect of a low-pass filter on a series of dig-
ital samples:
where Qc (t) is the charge stored in the capacitor at time // Return RC low-pass filter output samples, given input
t . Substituting equation Q into equation I gives i(t) = samples, // time interval dt, and time constant RC func-
filter. In practice, the time-domain response must be time 8.2 High-pass filter
truncated and is often of a simplified shape; in the sim-
plest case, a running average can be used, giving a square This article is about an electronic component. For the
time response.[7] Australian band, see High Pass Filter (band).
[7] Signal recovery from noise in electronic instrumentation Figure 1: A passive, analog, first-order high-pass filter, realized
– T H Whilmshurst by an RC circuit
I(t)
z ( }| ){ ( )
d Vin d Vout d Vin d Vout
Vout (t) = C − R = RC −
dt dt dt dt
This equation can be discretized. For simplicity, as-
sume that samples of the input and output are taken
at evenly-spaced points in time separated by ∆T time.
Let the samples of Vin be represented by the sequence
Figure 2: An active high-pass filter (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) , and let Vout be represented by the se-
quence (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) which correspond to the same
points in time. Making these substitutions:
Figure 2 shows an active electronic implementation of a
first-order high-pass filter using an operational amplifier.
( )
In this case, the filter has a passband gain of -R2 /R1 and xi − xi−1 yi − yi−1
has a corner frequency of yi = RC −
∆T ∆T
And rearranging terms gives the recurrence relation
1 1
fc = = ,
2πτ 2πR1 C
inputs prior from contribution Decaying input in change from Contribution
z }| { }| z {
Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity pass- RC RC
band gain. That is, high-frequency signals are inverted yi = yi−1 + (xi − xi−1 )
RC + ∆T RC + ∆T
and amplified by R2 /R1 .
That is, this discrete-time implementation of a simple
continuous-time RC high-pass filter is
8.2.2 Discrete-time realization
RC
For another method of conversion from continuous- to yi = αyi−1 +α(xi −xi−1 ) where α≜
discrete-time, see Bilinear transform. RC + ∆T
By definition, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 . The expression for parameter
Discrete-time high-pass filters can also be designed. α yields the equivalent time constant RC in terms of the
Discrete-time filter design is beyond the scope of this ar- sampling period ∆T and α :
ticle; however, a simple example comes from the con-
version of the continuous-time high-pass filter above to ( )
a discrete-time realization. That is, the continuous-time α
RC = ∆T
behavior can be discretized. 1−α
From the circuit in Figure 1 above, according to If α = 0.5 , then the RC time constant equal to the
Kirchhoff’s Laws and the definition of capacitance: sampling period. If α ≪ 0.5 , then RC is significantly
smaller than the sampling interval, and RC ≈ α∆T .
Vout (t) = I(t) R (V)
Algorithmic implementation
Qc (t) = C (Vin (t) − Vout (t)) (Q)
I(t) = ddQtc (I) The filter recurrence relation provides a way to determine
the output samples in terms of the input samples and the
where Qc (t) is the charge stored in the capacitor at time preceding output. The following pseudocode algorithm
t . Substituting Equation (Q) into Equation (I) and then will simulate the effect of a high-pass filter on a series of
Equation (I) into Equation (V) gives: digital samples:
194 CHAPTER 8. FILTERS
// Return RC high-pass filter output samples, given in- is built into a loudspeaker cabinet it is normally a passive
put samples, // time interval dt, and time constant RC filter that also includes a low-pass filter for the woofer and
function highpass(real[0..n] x, real dt, real RC) var so often employs both a capacitor and inductor (although
real[0..n] y var real α := RC / (RC + dt) y[0] := x[0] very simple high-pass filters for tweeters can consist of
for i from 1 to n y[i] := α * y[i-1] + α * (x[i] - x[i-1]) a series capacitor and nothing else). As an example, the
return y formula above, applied to a tweeter with R=10 Ohm, will
The loop which calculates each of the n outputs can be determine the capacitor value for a cut-off frequency of
refactored into the equivalent: 5 kHz. C = 2πf1 R = 6.28×5000×10
1
= 3.18 × 10−6 , or
approx 3.2 μF.
for i from 1 to n y[i] := α * (y[i-1] + x[i] - x[i-1])
An alternative, which provides good quality sound with-
However, the earlier form shows how the parameter α out inductors (which are prone to parasitic coupling, are
changes the impact of the prior output y[i-1] and current expensive, and may have significant internal resistance)
change in input (x[i] - x[i-1]). In particular, is to employ bi-amplification with active RC filters or ac-
tive digital filters with separate power amplifiers for each
• A large α implies that the output will decay very loudspeaker. Such low-current and low-voltage line level
slowly but will also be strongly influenced by even crossovers are called active crossovers.[1]
small changes in input. By the relationship between Rumble filters are high-pass filters applied to the removal
parameter α and time constant RC above, a large of unwanted sounds near to the lower end of the audible
α corresponds to a large RC and therefore a low range or below. For example, noises (e.g., footsteps, or
corner frequency of the filter. Hence, this case cor- motor noises from record players and tape decks) may be
responds to a high-pass filter with a very narrow stop removed because they are undesired or may overload the
band. Because it is excited by small changes and RIAA equalization circuit of the preamp.[1]
tends to hold its prior output values for a long time,
it can pass relatively low frequencies. However, a High-pass filters are also used for AC coupling at the in-
constant input (i.e., an input with (x[i] - x[i-1])=0) puts of many audio power amplifiers, for preventing the
will always decay to zero, as would be expected with amplification of DC currents which may harm the ampli-
a high-pass filter with a large RC . fier, rob the amplifier of headroom, and generate waste
heat at the loudspeakers voice coil. One amplifier, the
• A small α implies that the output will decay quickly professional audio model DC300 made by Crown Inter-
and will require large changes in the input (i.e., (x[i] national beginning in the 1960s, did not have high-pass
- x[i-1]) is large) to cause the output to change much. filtering at all, and could be used to amplify the DC sig-
By the relationship between parameter α and time nal of a common 9-volt battery at the input to supply 18
constant RC above, a small α corresponds to a small volts DC in an emergency for mixing console power.[2]
RC and therefore a high corner frequency of the fil- However, that model’s basic design has been superseded
ter. Hence, this case corresponds to a high-pass fil- by newer designs such as the Crown Macro-Tech series
ter with a very wide stop band. Because it requires developed in the late 1980s which included 10 Hz high-
large (i.e., fast) changes and tends to quickly forget pass filtering on the inputs and switchable 35 Hz high-
its prior output values, it can only pass relatively high pass filtering on the outputs.[3] Another example is the
frequencies, as would be expected with a high-pass QSC Audio PLX amplifier series which includes an in-
filter with a small RC . ternal 5 Hz high-pass filter which is applied to the inputs
whenever the optional 50 and 30 Hz high-pass filters are
turned off.[4]
8.2.3 Applications
Mixing consoles often include high-pass filtering at each
Audio channel strip. Some models have fixed-slope, fixed-
frequency high-pass filters at 80 or 100 Hz that can be
High-pass filters have many applications. They are used engaged; other models have 'sweepable HPF'—a high-
as part of an audio crossover to direct high frequencies pass filter of fixed slope that can be set within a specified
to a tweeter while attenuating bass signals which could frequency range, such as from 20 to 400 Hz on the Midas
interfere with, or damage, the speaker. When such a filter Heritage 3000, or 20 to 20,000 Hz on the Yamaha M7CL
8.2. HIGH-PASS FILTER 195
• ECE 209: Review of Circuits as LTI Systems, a A medium-complexity example of a band-pass filter.
short primer on the mathematical analysis of (elec-
trical) LTI systems.
A band-pass filter can be characterised by its Q-factor. [1] E. R. Kanasewich (1981). Time Sequence Analysis in Geo-
physics. University of Alberta. p. 260. ISBN 0-88864-
The Q-factor is the inverse of the fractional bandwidth.
074-9.
A high-Q filter will have a narrow passband and a low-Q
filter will have a wide passband. These are respectively [2] Belle A. Shenoi (2006). Introduction to digital signal pro-
referred to as narrow-band and wide-band filters. cessing and filter design. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120.
ISBN 978-0-471-46482-2.
• Audio crossover
• Band-stop filter
Chapter 9
9.1 Text
• Transistor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor?oldid=625165861 Contributors: Mav, The Anome, Taw, Rjstott, Jkominek,
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198
9.1. TEXT 199
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• Field-effect transistor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor?oldid=626735374 Contributors: Sandos, Mudlock,
Heron, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Dgrant, Stw, Stevenj, Kaeslin, Glenn, Nikai, EdH, Rob Hooft, Lommer, Colin Marquardt, Ozuma,
Omegatron, Jerzy, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Jakohn, Altenmann, Moink, Wikibot, Wjbeaty, Nunh-huh, Cantus, Jaan513, Glengarry, Bob-
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• Silicon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon?oldid=627479860 Contributors: AxelBoldt, CYD, Mav, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert,
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guy, Grendelkhan, Omegatron, Shafei, Denelson83, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Hankwang, Moriori, Jotomicron, Romanm, Naddy, Modu-
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• Germanium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium?oldid=623792123 Contributors: AxelBoldt, CYD, Mav, Bryan Derksen,
LA2, Josh Grosse, PierreAbbat, William Avery, DrBob, David spector, Bdesham, RTC, Tim Starling, Erik Zachte, Gdarin, Shellreef,
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Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, AJim, Guanaco, Yekrats, Darrien, Jaan513, Jackol, Delta G, R. fiend, OldZeb, Antandrus, Qleem, Thincat,
Icairns, Gscshoyru, B.d.mills, Joyous!, Trevor MacInnis, Plexust, Discospinster, Guanabot, Vsmith, Nvj, Paul August, DcoetzeeBot, Ben-
der235, Sunborn, RJHall, CanisRufus, El C, Joanjoc, Kwamikagami, Remember, Art LaPella, Triona, Femto, Krellis, Jumbuck, Alansohn,
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Chobot, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Wavelength, Mukkakukaku, Petiatil, Hellbus, Hydrargyrum, Yyy, Shaddack, Alex Bakharev, Bovineone,
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sian Poet Gal, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, Deli nk, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Sbharris, Gyrobo, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ser-
gio.ballestrero, Kaimiddleton, Rrburke, SundarBot, PsychoCola, Cybercobra, Nibuod, Smokefoot, Doodle77, DMacks, PeterJeremy, Cap-
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R9tgokunks, FlyingToaster, MarsRover, Intelligentguest, Christian75, Roberta F., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Irishleprechaun, Runch,
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MorseDCOhio, Ember of Light, The Red, Thingg, Aitias, Plasmic Physics, Versus22, Dana boomer, RexxS, Badinfinity, TravisAF, Sky-
Lined, Mr0t1633, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, PranksterTurtle, Loveandprotect, Novel
tubes, Alchemist-hp, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Trevas, Margin1522, Luckas-bot, Yobot, EchetusXe, Lethalgeek, Berkay0652,
II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Obscuranym, Cjp24, Tempodivalse, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Galoubet, Commander Shepard,
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Scott940603, Hgjghjh, Hedgerhedger, Wik1ped1a is meant 2 be vanda1ised, Barathrumm, Spindocter123, Finalius, Citation bot 1,
Pinethicket, A8UDI, RedBot, Phearson, Wikitanvir, Jhbuk, Jauhienij, ActivExpression, FoxBot, Double sharp, TobeBot, Vrenator, Dracae-
naFragrans, Tbhotch, Slipknot1018, AXRL, RjwilmsiBot, Regancy42, DASHBot, EmausBot, Rbaselt, Richard.danylyuk, Racerx11, K6ka,
Kaimakides, Peterindelft, HiW-Bot, Daonguyen95, StringTheory11, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Sthubertus, Aschwole, Donner60, Chuispaston-
Bot, Zenhomeenergy, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Feedintm, Leeroyjenkins1996, Mouse20080706, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot,
Charouili, ElphiBot, Supernerd11, Zombieslayer523, Shisha-Tom, Murcielago7, ChrisGualtieri, CarrieVS, Dexbot, TrollTrollTrollTroll,
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Monkbot, Hardkhora, Mtbrandon and Anonymous: 393
• Gallium arsenide Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide?oldid=617335450 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Hep-
202 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
haestos, Edward, Tim Starling, Collabi, Dgrant, Mac, Strebe, Julesd, Samw, HolIgor, Tantalate, Stone, Andrewman327, Denelson83,
Donarreiskoffer, Gentgeen, Hankwang, Psychonaut, Giftlite, Eequor, Jabowery, Gadfium, Karl-Henner, N328KF, Cacycle, Femto, Matt
Britt, Keenan Pepper, Benjah-bmm27, Walkerma, Ynhockey, Suruena, Gene Nygaard, Japanese Searobin, Firsfron, DuncanWidman,
Benbest, Polyparadigm, Alan Canon, CronoDAS, Nanite, Rjwilmsi, TheGWO, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Jeepo, Fresheneesz, Physchim62,
Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Conscious, Alexmorgan, Rada, Shaddack, DragonHawk, ArséniureDeGallium, BOT-Superzerocool, RyanJones,
Calaschysm, Sbyrnes321, Attilios, SmackBot, Ququ, Thorseth, The Photon, Jrockley, Lainagier, Commander Keane bot, Hugo-cs, Blue-
bot, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Plotnick, AndrewBuck, Miquonranger03, Papa November, Gruzd, Rrburke, Phudga, Smokefoot, Doodle77,
Mion, Chymicus, Beetstra, Norm mit, Thricecube, Eastlaw, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, Corp1117, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Peter gk, Bri-
anthegiant, Rehnn83, JAnDbot, MER-C, Plantsurfer, Flippin42, VoABot II, Keithpoole, R'n'B, T.vanschaik, R!SC, LordAnubisBOT, Billr
wiki, Atropos235, Jim Swenson, VolkovBot, Bry9000, Nicholasnice, Axiosaurus, Razvan NEAGOE, Why Not A Duck, Kbrose, AIMet-
alsResearcher, Da Joe, Debussy Agutter, Chem-awb, Swisskitt, JSVickers, CohesionBot, ChardonnayNimeque, Wilso418, Wikimedes,
Plasmic Physics, Addbot, Mortense, Frankhindle, Cantaloupe2, Some jerk on the Internet, Laser Razor, Hudavendigar, Lightbot, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Bunnyhop11, CheMoBot, KamikazeBot, Materialscientist, Peterdx, GrouchoBot, Pinethicket, Tiananmen 8888, RedBot,
MastiBot, Mikespedia, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Dcirovic, Chemicalinterest, Sthubertus, Tolly4bolly, Joeblanda, Mikhail Ryazanov, Clue-
Bot NG, Rycecube57, Snotbot, Dsperlich, Ntansu, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Moonx, CeraBot, Senor Spandex, Monkbot,
La2O3 and Anonymous: 91
• Voltage-controlled oscillator Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-controlled_oscillator?oldid=623210713 Contributors: Glenn,
Radiojon, Omegatron, Phil Boswell, DavidCary, Ds13, MFNickster, Ary29, Mike Rosoft, Hooperbloob, Atlant, Wtshymanski, Miq, Ve-
gaswikian, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, PinothyJ, Gaius Cornelius, Alynna Kasmira, Brandon, Light current, Donald Albury, JLaTondre,
SmackBot, Telestylo, Maliaydin, Chris the speller, Mailmerge, Vina-iwbot, Wmattis, Kvng, Chetvorno, Chrumps, Boardhead, Electron9,
AkosSzoboszlay, EP111, JAnDbot, Pi.1415926535, Nikevich, HL-SDK, Japo, Bissinger, Glrx, Cuddlyable3, Spinningspark, Allebor-
goBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, A. Carty, Zdilli, Vahid avr, IR-TCI, Firefly322, PlantTrees, Denisarona, Dp67, BOTarate, Dim4ik, Thingg,
XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, WikHead, Addbot, Ravindra 20, Redheylin, Zorrobot, Ronaldo.nunez, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou,
Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, ^musaz, Materialscientist, Comt Till, Febert, Berrinkursun, Gbalasandeep, Anitauky, J. in Jerusalem, EmausBot,
ZéroBot, Aportnoy, Akerans, 28bot, Vishalshindeelect, Rushikeshbansodeelec, Z-communications and Anonymous: 63
• Frequency-shift keying Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying?oldid=599753694 Contributors: The Anome,
Michael Hardy, Ellywa, CatherineMunro, Glenn, Robbot, Ktims, Karn, Ssd, Ary29, Vishahu, Sonett72, ChrisJ, Mcpusc, Smalljim, Bsad-
owski1, Dan100, Camw, Jonnabuz, Murat40, BD2412, HappyCamper, FlaBot, Fresheneesz, Roboto de Ajvol, Willpo, Deville, David Bid-
dulph, SDS, SmackBot, Moeron, KelleyCook, Oli Filth, Harumphy, Dougmc, Dicklyon, Tawkerbot2, Xcentaur, Wafulz, Chrumps, Tawker-
bot4, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Electron9, Tarnjp, Kauczuk, Alphachimpbot, Jim.henderson, Microsloth, Glrx, Haffner, J.delanoy,
Dhaluza, Brianonn, CanOfWorms, LeaveSleaves, Stoneygirl45, Sv1xv, RFdave007, Djkryptyk, Addbot, Cuaxdon, Ramkumarvecsrv,
Тиверополник, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Living001, Jeffrey Mall, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, 2A4Fh56OSA, Yahia.barie, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, RenamedUser01302013, Fæ, بدر الإسلام, ClueBot NG, MerlIwBot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Mbpaz, Srinathkr3,
ChrisGualtieri, Ginsuloft, MitchRandall and Anonymous: 82
• Amplifier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier?oldid=627607080 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Mav, Ray Van De
Walker, SimonP, Waveguy, Heron, Kku, Ixfd64, Delirium, Docu, Kingturtle, Glenn, Nikai, GRAHAMUK, Jengod, Ww, Wik, Jessel, Max-
imus Rex, Omegatron, Bevo, Raul654, Lumos3, Friedo, RedWolf, Donreed, Dave Bass, Hcheney, David Gerard, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWat-
son42, Lunkwill, DavidCary, Laudaka, Lupin, Vk2tds, Markus Kuhn, Jcobb, AJim, Maroux, Jason Quinn, Nayuki, Wmahan, Chowbok,
Sam Hocevar, Jcorgan, Abdull, Rich Farmbrough, TedPavlic, Guanabot, Pmsyyz, Pt, Meggar, Timl, Hooperbloob, Watsonladd, Malo, Os-
modiar, Wtshymanski, Twisp, Crosbiesmith, Woohookitty, Uncle G, Pol098, CaptainTickles, BD2412, FreplySpang, Snafflekid, Koavf,
Quiddity, Oblivious, Brighterorange, RobertG, Arnero, Margosbot, Alfred Centauri, Kolbasz, 121a0012, Bgwhite, Ahpook, The Rambling
Man, Nol Aders, Matt512, Epolk, Bergsten, Chaser, Rohitbd, Bjf, Bou, Welsh, Howcheng, Thiseye, Dhollm, Speedevil, DeadEyeArrow,
Searchme, Light current, Mattg2k4, Deville, Kungfuadam, Mebden, Jer ome, Kf4bdy, SmackBot, Reedy, Unyoyega, Freestyle, David-
david, Lindosland, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, Cadmium, Thumperward, Papa November, Szidomingo, Sajendra,
OrphanBot, Seduisant, Evilspoons, SnappingTurtle, DMacks, Pilotguy, Bn, Shields020, Breno, Minna Sora no Shita, CyrilB, Rogerbrent,
Dicklyon, 2006mba, Kvng, Politepunk, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Walton One, Mihitha, Yves-Laurent, Chetvorno, JohnTechnologist,
Xcentaur, CmdrObot, Chrumps, Nczempin, Lenilucho, Anoneditor, Doctormatt, Tubenutdave, Red Director, HermanFinster, Australian
audio guy, FredYork, Gionnico, Editor at Large, Enter The Crypt, Pjvpjv, Saimhe, Guy Macon, Mccartyp, CPMartin, CosineKitty, TAn-
thony, MegX, Jahoe, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Askari Mark, JNW, JamesBWatson, Faizhaider, MichaelSHoffman, Black Stripe, Ngwill,
MartinBot, Sigmundg, Jim.henderson, Anaxial, Nono64, Masisnr1, M samadi, DrKiernan, AntiSpamBot, SophieCat, Vspengen, Colorbow,
Ale2006, Mlewis000, Funandtrvl, Joeinwap, Meiskam, ICE77, Philip Trueman, The Original Wildbear, Zuperman, Smcreator, Henrydask,
Anonymous Dissident, Afluent Rider, Someguy1221, Monkey Bounce, Don4of4, Jackfork, Billinghurst, Kilmer-san, Dragonkillernz, Spin-
ningspark, Internetexploder, Biscuittin, Audioamp, Krawi, Hiddenfromview, Henry Delforn (old), Lightmouse, Nitram cero, StaticGull,
Denisarona, Asher196, Thinkingatoms, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, GeoffreyHale, Jan1nad, GreenSpigot, An-
nArborRick, Blanchardb, Linan0827, Gtstricky, Brews ohare, Arjayay, Versus22, Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Alexius08, Revancher, Srcloutier,
Pedro magalhaes86, Addbot, Mortense, Olli Niemitalo, Avobert, Yobot, Jordsan, Bestiasonica, Dleger, P1ayer, Sarukum, AnomieBOT,
Piano non troppo, B137, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Justanothervisitor, Ubcule, Maitchy, Uusijani, GliderMaven, FrescoBot,
Gog182, Jc3s5h, Nickw2066, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, Icontech, I dream of horses, TechnoDanny, Anooshg, Jujutacular, Hessamnia,
Orenburg1, Theo10011, Belledonne, Qianchq, John of Reading, Kodabmx, Cmavr8, TuomTuo, GoingBatty, Solarra, AnonymousNarrator,
The Nut, ChunkyPastaSauce, Tuborama, Peterh5322, Lowkyalur, Jefffolly, Lakkasuo, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Jaanus.kalde, MelbourneStar,
Piast93, Andreas.Persson, Historikeren, Robsuper, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Bibcode Bot, Supersam654, Citation-
CleanerBot, 1292simon, Braun walter, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Frosty, Mark viking, Epicgenius, Acrislg, Jamesmcmahon0, Brzydalski,
9.1. TEXT 203
Spyglasses, Rewa, AddWittyNameHere, Jbolton07, Gerbenvaneerten, Barefootwhistler, MasterTriangle12, Grsh90 and Anonymous: 404
• Electron hole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole?oldid=613374475 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Tim Starling,
Lkesteloot, Omegatron, Bevo, Robbot, Ojigiri, Wjbeaty, LiDaobing, Karol Langner, DragonflySixtyseven, Roo72, Tirthajyoti, PhilHibbs,
Nigelj, Robotje, Ranveig, Capi crimm, Palica, Mandarax, Salleman, FlaBot, Arnero, Chobot, YurikBot, RobotE, Bambaiah, Archelon,
Shaddack, Spike Wilbury, Ninly, Sbyrnes321, The Photon, Shai-kun, Betacommand, Jcarroll, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Lagrangian, DMacks,
Jaganath, Robofish, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Noah Salzman, Tawkerbot2, Jh12, Chetvorno, Gogo Dodo, Delta Spartan, Envy0, Thijs!bot,
Barticus88, Salgueiro, JAnDbot, Britcom, Savant13, Sir Link, Sqush101, Aboutmovies, Andejons, Kurosa, Captainlavender, JhsBot, Jack
Naven Rulez, SieBot, Extremecircuitz, No such user, Addbot, Out of Phase User, Bob K31416, OlEnglish, דוד שי, Uroboros, Meisam,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Leonardo Da Vinci, Erik9bot, Citation bot 1, Lissajous, EmausBot, K6ka, ClueBot NG, Crazy-
monkey1123, Bibcode Bot, Williammathew30, Iplaycards, Vanquisher.UA, YimmyYohnson and Anonymous: 59
• P–n junction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P–n_junction?oldid=627108074 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Waveguy, RTC, Dmd, Mac,
HolIgor, Auric, Wjbeaty, Ancheta Wis, Rafaelgr, Armandino, Mako098765, Abdull, Jfraser, Matt Britt, Foobaz, Timl, Storm Rider,
Keenan Pepper, Wtshymanski, Tebbb, Marudubshinki, Nanite, Amr Ramadan, Vegaswikian, LjL, Prgo, Alfred Centauri, Kolbasz, Tomer
Ish Shalom, Chobot, YurikBot, Sceptre, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, NawlinWiki, Bota47, Light current, Chaiken, Katieh5584, Attil-
ios, SmackBot, Jacek Kendysz, Mauls, JAn Dudík, Bluebot, Pieter Kuiper, MalafayaBot, Darth Panda, Apocryphite, Radagast83, Dr-
philharmonic, DMacks, Catani, Vriullop, Intellectnfun, JorisvS, CyrilB, Cikicdragan, Dicklyon, Filelakeshoe, Chetvorno, SkyWalker,
Christian75, Maque, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Electron9, Gerry Ashton, AntiVandalBot, Email4mobile, Dukebody, Kskowron, Gresszilla,
TheNoise, MartinBot, Bissinger, Glrx, CommonsDelinker, LordAnubisBOT, NewEnglandYankee, Cmichael, DorganBot, PowerWill500,
VolkovBot, Larryisgood, Scholzilla, Someguy1221, Lerdthenerd, Andy Dingley, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, SieBot, VVVBot, Delu 85, Pratik
mallya, Nopetro, Wilson44691, Arjen Dijksman, Siyamraj, Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, Brews ohare, Vboo-belarus, XLinkBot, Terry0051,
MystBot, Zinger0, Addbot, Mortense, Napy1kenobi, ProperFraction, Download, Jamesrei, Shrikul joshi, ScAvenger, Cesaar, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Choij, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Darcovian, DSisyphBot, Igorpark, Raffamaiden, Rickproser, Jangirke,
FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, BenzolBot, Youarefunny, MJ94, SpaceFlight89, Lowrybob, Javaidphy, علی ویکی, TheGrimReaper NS, MrSnoot,
Bhawani Gautam, EmausBot, Beatnik8983, Dewritech, Monterey Bay, TyA, Xiutwel-0003, Noophilic, ClueBot NG, Starshipenterprise,
Jbolte, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Helloakshaypoddar, Metricopolus, Satishb.elec, Tarunselec, Ulidtko, C susil, Aloysius314,
IngenieroLoco, Ginsuloft, Mattkevmd, Jadecatz, Kirasan5 and Anonymous: 186
• Bipolar transistor biasing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_transistor_biasing?oldid=608294834 Contributors: Brian-
Willoughby, Natrij, TedPavlic, Wtshymanski, Bruce1ee, Toffile, RadioFan, Moe Epsilon, Phil Holmes, Derek Andrews, Steve carlson,
Ohconfucius, Robofish, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Iridescent, Jaksmata, Xcentaur, Circuit dreamer, Alaibot, Qwyrxian, Marek69, Deficit,
Dr. Blofeld, Magioladitis, GreenSpigot, Brews ohare, Spitfire, Paushali, WikHead, Airplaneman, Addbot, Anypodetos, ThermalCat, Nas-
nema, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Enery the 8th, Vrenator, Retro917, Peter Karlsen, 28bot, ClueBot NG, 220 of Borg, ChrisGualtieri, Ekren,
Azeezur rahman and Anonymous: 61
• 555 timer IC Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC?oldid=627217654 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Scipius,
Heron, RTC, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Glenn, Nikai, Tomv, PeterGrecian, Omegatron, Huangdi, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Brouhaha, Leonard G.,
Nielmo, Sonett72, Abdull, Grunt, ThreeE, NathanHurst, Discospinster, Pak21, Pmsyyz, Jcmaco, Alistair1978, Kaisershatner, Kwamik-
agami, Bobo192, Longhair, Towel401, Hooperbloob, Nazli, Alansohn, Keenan Pepper, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Mikeo, SteveLetwin,
Gene Nygaard, Kay Dekker, Mindmatrix, Sdschulze, Jacj, Palica, Pfalstad, Mandarax, Dubkiller, Pbeens, Brighterorange, Ptdecker, FlaBot,
Nihiltres, RexNL, Turidoth, Gwernol, YurikBot, Adam1213, RussBot, Hellbus, Toffile, Hyjwei, Mikebest, Mikeblas, Speedevil, Ninly,
Nkendrick, Ataub2qf, SmackBot, Elonka, The Photon, Stefan506, Colin99, Bromskloss, Gilliam, Hlovdal, MrDrBob, Thumperward, Oli
Filth, Papa November, Audriusa, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Frap, Aznium, Weregerbil, Flsp70, DireWolf, IronGargoyle, Llamadog903,
CyrilB, Dicklyon, MTSbot, Dl2000, Hu12, Jachim, Tawkerbot2, Mikiemike, Ubernerd, Circuit dreamer, WeggeBot, **mech**, Bill
(who is cool!), A876, After Midnight, Click23, Foil166, Sprhodes, Dtgriscom, Marek69, Electron9, Mallred, Dgies, Mihtjel, Escar-
bot, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Ndyguy, MER-C, Wser, Hut 8.5, RebelRobot, .anacondabot, VoABot II, Mondebleu, Chkno,
ArmadilloFromHell, Welle4, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Keith D, Jerry teps, The Canadian Roadgeek, J.delanoy, Jcurie, Vesa Linja-
aho, NightFalcon90909, Flicovent, Kraftlos, Pundit, Potatoswatter, Bonadea, Ripper-b, VolkovBot, ICE77, Lexein, Quentonamos, Philip
Trueman, Hqb, Olly150, Jack1993jack, Inductiveload, Suriel1981, PeterEasthope, Truthanado, Jtcampbell, Josh the Nerd, Yintan, Fdu-
raibi, Jp314159, Oda Mari, JSpung, Ebarnett, Allmightyduck, XU-engineer, Shooke, Superbeecat, Prasanthv88, Bekuletz, ClueBot, Tim
Forcer, Avenged Eightfold, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, WaltBusterkeys, SuperHamster, Kiu77, (void*), Somno, Excirial,
Rswarbrick, RexxS, Against the current, Rror, AbstractBeliefs, Actam, Avoided, Thatguyflint, Addbot, Technicalpic, Ronhjones, Jncraton,
Eivindbot, Glane23, Favonian, Heshamdiab116, Numbo3-bot, Ettrig, SLourenco, Quadrescence, Yobot, CSSINC, Motif user, Materi-
alscientist, Xqbot, Ywaz, Bubble-boy-115, JWBE, Jmundo, SassoBot, Jacksonmiss, Prari, FrescoBot, 6hug99ko, ZenerV, Tetraedycal,
42murr42, DrilBot, Kimphill, A8UDI, Btilm, MinimanDragon32, Mikespedia, Jrkemerer, Lissajous, ApusChin, Segal’sLaw, Techwet-
paintwiki, Vikasjois, Nikhilpatel4488, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Gloomofdom, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Sophie, VOG-NevaDA,
Colin555, John Cline, East of Borschov, Sbmeirow, Raghavendrabsrg, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Terry caborn, 3000farad, Reify-
tech, Mtmcdaid, Ercrt, Jupiter Kasparov, ChrisGammell, MusikAnimal, Satishb.elec, Colin5555, Trevayne08, Mattsains, Hcamen, Lor-
dOider, Dhx1, Mogism, Techdude3331, Junbert hular, Guanta37201, AnthonyRobinson123, Sravan75, Nattsukhdeep, Sureshkumar.suraj,
Wasdichsoveraenderthat, ElectronicKing888, Jelabon123 and Anonymous: 335
• Operational amplifier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier?oldid=627316180 Contributors: Mav, The Anome,
WillWare, Malcolm Farmer, Heron, Edward, RTC, Michael Hardy, Mahjongg, Wapcaplet, Julesd, Glenn, Ghewgill, GRAHAMUK,
Bemoeial, Dysprosia, Andrewman327, Omegatron, Wernher, AnonMoos, AlexPlank, Hankwang, RedWolf, Donreed, Smither, Pengo,
Giftlite, DavidCary, Mintleaf, Inkling, Ds13, CyborgTosser, Leonard G., Frencheigh, Rpyle731, Mboverload, Foobar, Mike R, Aulis
204 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Eskola, DRE, Eranb, KeithTyler, Clemwang, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, TedPavlic, ArnoldReinhold, Sn0wflake, ESkog, Plugwash,
Dpotter, CanisRufus, Bdieseldorff, Shanes, Bobo192, Nigelj, .:Ajvol:., Foobaz, Hooperbloob, Musiphil, Neonumbers, Atlant, Keenan
Pepper, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Alai, DSatz, Unixxx, Weyes, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Cbdorsett, Gim-
boid13, Cataclysm, Msiddalingaiah, Snafflekid, Bvankuik, Sjakkalle, Arabani, Alejo2083, Chris Pressey, Ground Zero, Margosbot, Ef-
ficacy, Alfred Centauri, RexNL, Enon, Fresheneesz, Srleffler, YurikBot, Borgx, Gaius Cornelius, Rohitbd, Synaptidude, Grafen, 48v,
Sparkinark, TDogg310, Voidxor, Supten, DeadEyeArrow, Elkman, Searchme, Bakkster Man, Light current, Super Rad!, Closedmouth,
Mike1024, Mebden, Luk, Peranders, SmackBot, Igtorque, Thelukeeffect, Speight, Man with two legs, Jwestbrook, Lindosland, QEDquid,
KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Oli Filth, EncMstr, Papa November, DHN-bot, FredStrauss, Audriusa, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, LouScheffer, CanDo, TWINE006, Henning Makholm, Evlekis, Bejnar, Ohconfucius, Missamo80, Archimerged, Aw-
bliven, JohnWittle, Antireconciler, CyrilB, Rogerbrent, Dicklyon, Novangelis, Kvng, Pgadfor, Yves-Laurent, Phil Christs, JForget, Circuit
dreamer, WeggeBot, Myasuda, Anoneditor, Naspilot, Pyrilium, ZHENG Jiajun, Viscious81, HermanFinster, Christian75, Khattab01,
Raidfibre, Josemiotto, Editor at Large, Saintrain, Serych, Barticus88, Sunny sin2005, Electron9, Vasurak, Jonnie5, Nick Number, Es-
carbot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Lovibond, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, .K, CosineKitty, Magioladitis, Secret Squïrrel, Acu7,
Jerome Baum, Hypergeek14, SwiftBot, Clankypup, Crunchy Numbers, First Harmonic, Allstarecho, Nodekeeper, Cocytus, Manavbhard-
waj, Mårten Berglund, Sigmundg, Glrx, CommonsDelinker, Jascii, J.delanoy, Jcurie, Sakthivel30, Zen-in, Szzuk, SJP, Rumpelstiltskin223,
TottyBot, Homer Landskirty, Pmoseley, Red Thrush, VolkovBot, ICE77, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, Draurbilla, Ianr44, Bizarro Bull, In-
ductiveload, Andy Dingley, Spinningspark, SieBot, Caltas, Charles.small, Roy hu, Jjwilkerson, Jp314159, Opamp, M Puddick, OsamaBin-
Login, Evaluist, Faradayplank, PHermans, OscarJuan, PerryTachett, ClueBot, Smart Viral, Binksternet, ArthurOgawa, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Srinivasbt, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Brews ohare, Sldghmmr, La Pianista, Wstorr, Aitias, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Analogkidr, Salam32, Alexius08,
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AnnaFrance, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Bruno gouveia rodrigues, Supav1nnie, Eng general, OlEnglish, Pietrow, Zorrobot, RobertTanzi,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Annomination, AnomieBOT, Paulthomas2, Jim1138, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, LiuyuanChen, Ma-
terialscientist, Citation bot, Akilaa, Xqbot, Sellyme, XZeroBot, دانقولا, Dprabhu, Maitchy, Endothermic, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Lu-
cienBOT, Ong saluri, Berrinkursun, Anitauky, Wikigayburgers, Roman12345, Vhann, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, I dream of horses,
Jonesey95, Hoo man, Ezhuttukari, Mikespedia, Abhishekchavan79, Æneas, Dinamik-bot, Overjive, PleaseStand, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Teravolt, Breezeboy, EmausBot, John of Reading, Kasper Meerts, Torturella, Tawsifkhan, Solarra, Meht7860, Fæ, East of Borschov,
Aflafla1, Thine Antique Pen, Rcsprinter123, Sbmeirow, Peterh5322, L Kensington, Danielop-NJITWILL, VictorianMutant, Petrb, Sud-
heerp99, ClueBot NG, Jaanus.kalde, Grottolese, Muon, Iinvnt, Widr, Lain.cai, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Czar44, So-
daant, Minsbot, Yogirox234, Hghyux, MarinSwimmer, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Dexbot, Jamesx12345, Visitor01, Monkbot, Pcrengnr,
TerryAlex, MorganBEAST, AntonKrugerAtUiowa, Madphysics and Anonymous: 445
• Phase-locked loop Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loop?oldid=626157396 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome,
Ap, PierreAbbat, Heron, Michael Hardy, Karada, CesarB, PingPongBoy, Mac, Glenn, Raven in Orbit, Technopilgrim, Dcoetzee,
Lkesteloot, Omegatron, Maheshkale, Robbot, Jotomicron, Naddy, Mirv, Iain.mcclatchie, Cutler, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Brouhaha, Neffk,
Sarex, Tietew, BrianWilloughby, Abdull, RevRagnarok, D6, JGeld, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, CanisRufus, Cmdrjameson, Timl, Ilt-
seng, Hooperbloob, Tom Yates, Arthena, Wtshymanski, Brholden, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Linas, Sburke, Ruud Koot, Burgher,
Jonnabuz, Msiddalingaiah, Snafflekid, Kotukunui, Rjwilmsi, Leeyc0, Tawker, Mbutts, FlaBot, Chris Pressey, Mel Gibson, Gurch, Roby-
Wayne, WriterHound, YurikBot, Encyclops, Prometheus235, Toffile, Hydrargyrum, Brandon, Guerberj, Mikeblas, Mysid, Light cur-
rent, Deville, Ninly, Alanb, LeonardoRob0t, Whaa?, Zvika, Pankkake, SmackBot, H2eddsf3, Reedy, Unyoyega, Fulldecent, Larrykoen,
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question, Johnlogic, Mattisse, Alex Forencich, DmitTrix, Electron9, Prolog, Hmo, Beabroad, User A1, Glrx, R'n'B, Huzzlet the bot,
Kar.ma, Rod57, Ganymedstanek, Vanished user 47736712, Jrolston, Rex07, Frodo avr, Squids and Chips, Anton Rakitskiy, TXiKi-
BoT, ElinorD, ChooseAnother, Jpat34721, Billgordon1099, Wangyiliu99, Dirkbb, Faduman, AlleborgoBot, Plan10, SieBot, Cwkmail,
Mwaisberg, EngineerSteve, HURRICANE1415, WWStone, Vahid avr, IR-TCI, WakingLili, Dp67, ClueBot, PipepBot, Yegorius, 718
Bot, Stevenmyan, Alexbot, PixelBot, Jimfordbroadcom, Peter.C, SchreiberBike, DumZiBoT, Apps guy, Feinoha, MystBot, J 0JFCfr-
mAyw59oVFk, Dsimic, Addbot, AVand, Duketron, H92Bot, Mitch feaster, Lightbot, Wireless friend, Sechinsic, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
OrgasGirl, Castagna, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Grim23, Devanney, Feldhaus, Jangirke, Prosaicpat, MastiBot, Merlinsorca,
Renatyv, HitiABC, Cetsurfer, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tolly4bolly, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Daithiob, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Emresearch13, Neøn, LeonovGA, Kuznetsov N.V., Frogging101, Rabachand, 08Peter15, Dexbot, Bizet74, Vicentealvarez2, Ehud.ahissar,
Avinash701, Drjimbonobo, Lizbel123, AntonKrugerAtUiowa, Crystallizedcarbon and Anonymous: 217
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Glenn, GRAHAMUK, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Hankwang, Henrygb, DavidCary, Scott MacLean, Sonett72, Jcmaco, Rubi-
con, Jaberwocky6669, Plugwash, RoyBoy, Nigelj, Timl, Hooperbloob, Jakew, Mareino, 1-1111, Tpikonen, Atlant, Wtshymanski, Pol098,
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nelius, Rohitbd, Ethan, Spike Wilbury, Mikeblas, LeoNerd, Hirak 99, Ninly, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Gilliam, Lindosland, Chris the speller,
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agramma Della Verita, DeltaQuad, Pardo bsso, SoxBot III, XLinkBot, Mifter, Oboylej, Badgernet, MystBot, Addbot, MrOllie, Glass
Sword, Zaphodikus, Semiwiki, Gail, Arsenalboi20, Götz, Jim1138, Materialscientist, RibotBOT, Amaury, Maitchy, Chongkian, Shadow-
jams, MZIrish, FrescoBot, Þjóðólfr, Jaymie94, Pinethicket, Kl2217, Boobarkee, Rxgvhqkrywq6cxdjoar, Tucvbif, Di gama, Yusiang1998,
9.1. TEXT 205
Lee A. Hart, Eirik1231, DexDor, AndyHe829, Wyatte Gillette, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Mkratz, Pgarg78, Sbmeirow,
Mohsen.1987, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Akashacharyak, Ulrich67, Rezabot, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aholyokeb, Wbm1058, Matare-
sephotos, Mpalframan, Tiscando, Vydeoatpict, Jschnabs, Jamietwells, Nilay.pant, Tentinator, Buntybhai, Monkbot, GinAndChronically,
RoyPijnenburg, Mario Castelán Castro, ChamithN and Anonymous: 205
• Comparator Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparator?oldid=627647264 Contributors: Heron, Edward, Ahoerstemeier, Glenn,
Smack, Schneelocke, Omegatron, Dbroadwell, Stuuf, Jaan513, Discospinster, Sietse Snel, Hooperbloob, Andrewpmk, Cburnett, Jannex,
Matthew Platts, Mandarax, Maxim Razin, Arnero, Crazycomputers, Stassats, Guerberj, Katieh5584, Bmearns, Lindosland, Bluebot, Day-
dreamer302000, Af1218, Barney Stratford, S Roper, Jeff Wheeler, Paul Rako, Avé, 16@r, Dicklyon, Daharde, Chetvorno, Mikiemike, Cir-
cuit dreamer, TAB, Thijs!bot, CosineKitty, Adilsm, Scottr9, R'n'B, Amikake3, Grantdj, Miwanya, Inductiveload, AlleborgoBot, Flyer22,
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imeque, PixelBot, SpikeToronto, Analogkidr, Addbot, Mortense, Yobot, Xqbot, NSK Nikolaos S. Karastathis, FrescoBot, Febert, Smur-
fettekla, Berrinkursun, Cannolis, I dream of horses, Calmer Waters, Chotugubbi, Eguru37, Wikieditorz, Reconsider the static, EmausBot,
ZéroBot, East of Borschov, Derekleungtszhei, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, BattyBot, Jaspritsgill,
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• Thermistor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermistor?oldid=626052477 Contributors: Sodium, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Szopen,
Ray Van De Walker, Heron, Tim Starling, Tango, Ellywa, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Carbuncle, Jni, Twang, Chuunen Baka,
Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Hankwang, Tonsofpcs, Sho Uemura, Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Centrx, BenFrantzDale, Tsca, Leonard G., Bob-
blewik, Wmahan, DougEngland, Zondor, Grunt, Plugwash, Kjkolb, Hooperbloob, Alansohn, PAR, Velella, RainbowOfLight, Henry W.
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Shirifan, Dicklyon, Komeil, Tawkerbot2, Bemasher, CmdrObot, Zureks, Requestion, NickFr, Ussensor, Yaris678, PureGenius, NascarEd,
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oladitis, Diablod666, VoABot II, Rivertorch, Chakri srivatsa, Madmanguruman, MartinBot, Manavbhardwaj, Neeners, Jim.henderson,
Tgmsfu, EliV, Choihei, Ashtead Tutor, Dhaluza, Halmstad, Ibdelfest, Funandtrvl, Nasanbat, VolkovBot, ABF, Constant314, TXiKi-
BoT, Oh Snap, Salvar, Brian Helsinki, Broadbot, Jackfork, Madhero88, Triesault, AlleborgoBot, Neparis, SieBot, God Emperor, Mas-
gatotkaca, Seraphal, ClueBot, Janz94b, Mardetanha, Awickert, Plainman, Estirabot, Dittos12, Paulienator, Karpouzi, Teslaton, Rob-bob7-
0, SkyLined, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Mortense, Willking1979, Captain-tucker, AkhtaBot, West.andrew.g, Jnmurfin, Lou Mueller, Cesaar,
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rialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Vichou, Nedim Ardoğa, Yoganate79, Jangirke, IShadowed, Idyllic press, Pinethicket, SpaceFlight89,
Mayank2507, TjBot, EmausBot, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Tommy2010, Hhhippo, Back0ut, Jwortzel, SamuelFreli, ClueBot NG, Mel-
bourneStar, Lochlan1, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ramaksoud2000, Piguy101, Klilidiplomus, Mrt3366, MadCowpoke, Yukichen, Isarra
(HG), BeaumontTaz, Sihuapilapa, Chestercheryl, RogerDulhunty, Epicgenius, R.Mann66, Jodosma, Yardimsever, 99kmg365, Zeniu17,
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foot, Bdesham, RTC, Tim Starling, Rabin, Liftarn, Sannse, Glenn, Nikai, Andres, Epo, Reddi, Omegatron, Francs2000, Robbot, Fredrik,
Roscoe x, Giftlite, Ferkelparade, Mako098765, Rdsmith4, Nickptar, Deglr6328, Murtasa, Shanes, Bookofjude, Giraffedata, BigRiz,
Hooperbloob, Atlant, Wtshymanski, DV8 2XL, Linas, Pol098, Palica, RuM, Snafflekid, Rjwilmsi, KaiMartin, Weihao.chiu, Srleffler,
Chobot, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Jeffthejiff, Hede2000, Jhchang, Kkmurray, Morcheeba, Pb30, GrinBot, KnightRider, SmackBot, Terry1944,
The Photon, Fulldecent, Ohnoitsjamie, Vercalos, Lindosland, HenrikS, Oli Filth, A. B., Audriusa, LouScheffer, DinosaursLoveExis-
tence, Nakon, Xagent86, Rcopley, DJIndica, Anachron, NANOIDENT, Breno, Minna Sora no Shita, MadScientistVX, Beetstra, Dicklyon,
Spiel496, Kvng, Moonkey, Ddcc, Tarchon, Nilfanion, Shadwstalkr, Dancter, Mitjaprelovsek, Thijs!bot, Electron9, Tellyaddict, Big Bird,
KrakatoaKatie, Whogue, Gh5046, Em3ryguy, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Vssun, DerHexer, Kevglynn, MartinBot, Ctroy36, J.delanoy,
Pharaoh of the Wizards, Jstahley, Zen-in, Dlegros, Sgc2002, Philip Trueman, Srdhrp vict, Daisydaisy, Adam C C, LeaveSleaves, Silver-
bone, Tmaull, Andy Dingley, AledJames, WingkeeLEE, Cyfal, ClueBot, Robertmuil, Lucas the scot, Nrnkpeukdzr, AlanM1, H0dges,
Addbot, Mathieu Perrin, A0602336, Download, Shkirenko edik, Favonian, Bwrs, Semiwiki, Yobot, Amirobot, Fotodiod, SwisterTwister,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Erud, Capricorn42, RibotBOT, Nedim Ardoğa, Chn Andy, FrescoBot, Arande2, Evan
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Egil, Iain, Julesd, Glenn, Andres, Bemoeial, ElusiveByte, Omegatron, Raul654, Eugene van der Pijll, Robbot, Hankwang, Aechols, Glenn
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Gary, Atlant, Evil Monkey, Gene Nygaard, UFu, Cbdorsett, Cyberman, K3wq, Rjwilmsi, Ademkader, Alfred Centauri, Kolbasz, Srl-
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E-Kartoffel, Yves-Laurent, Dancter, Thijs!bot, Frozenport, Jojan, Marek69, Zaiken, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Âme Errante, Ioeth,
JAnDbot, MER-C, CosineKitty, Hut 8.5, VoABot II, Kharkless, MartinBot, Aragorn450, Gzkn, Paulvermillion, Jim Swenson, Jennavecia,
Amikake3, Ulfbastel, Clarince63, Melsaran, Yk Yk Yk, KyleSinghSaini, SieBot, Flyer22, Richgoddard, Cameron7935, C4udy, ClueBot,
PaulLowrance, Heracletus, DragonBot, PixelBot, BOTarate, HumphreyW, DumZiBoT, Teslaton, Addbot, Mortense, Willking1979, Ele-
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206 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Colin Marquardt, Zoicon5, Omegatron, Robbot, Mintleaf, Everyking, Glogger, Hooperbloob, Gene Nygaard, Uncle G, Josh Parris,
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Patrick, Michael Hardy, Iluvcapra, Ahoerstemeier, Hpa, BAxelrod, Smack, Timwi, Pheon, Furrykef, Omegatron, Indefatigable, Pakaran,
Hankwang, Pigsonthewing, Peak, Academic Challenger, Rsduhamel, Pabouk, Giftlite, DocWatson42, DavidCary, Mintleaf, BenFrantz-
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purple wikiuser, Plugwash, Petersam, Mark R Johnson, Alansohn, Vslashg, Duffman, RPaschotta, Andrewpmk, SlimVirgin, !melquiades,
Kotasik, Hu, Benjamin.Heasly, Hessi, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, Gene Nygaard, Peter Hanes, Nuno Tavares, Mário, LOL,
Pol098, Walker44, Kristaga, MONGO, Kgrr, Pyrosim, Cbdorsett, Scm83x, Jwoodger, E090, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Joffan,
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ome83, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Crovax, Oh2mqk, Whosasking, Rmo13, Wolfmankurd, RussBot, Muchness, Peter S., Xihr,
Splash, JabberWok, BlongerBros, Hydrargyrum, Manop, Sixteen Left, Burek, Accurrent, Wiki alf, Razer64, Dhollm, Zephalis, Asbl, Eu-
rosong, Ke6jjj, Light current, Noclip, Open2universe, Knotnic, Nikkimaria, Pb30, Esprit15d, David Biddulph, Thesleepwalker, GrinBot,
Bo Jacoby, Cmglee, Sbyrnes321, DVD R W, CIreland, SmackBot, Tgoose, Bobet, Xephael, CelticJobber, Hydrogen Iodide, Fuchsia Groan,
Cutter, RichGibson, GraemeMcRae, Bromskloss, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Skizzik, JAn Dudík, Lindosland, PeterCooperJr, Blue-
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gram, Cybercobra, MichaelBillington, Kneale, Gurnec, Fitzhugh, Romanski, Daniel.Cardenas, Mostlyharmless, Ugur Basak Bot, Rklawton,
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Rettetast, Anaxial, R'n'B, Bjerke, SSSidhu, M samadi, Mange01, Ali, Poopface666, Nolaiz, Floaterfluss, Pcfjr9, Kraftlos, Robinparfitt,
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Alexjliu, Spinningspark, Insanity Incarnate, NMTPhysics, Tbmoney1000, Thunderbird2, Mr. PIM, Markwads, Bluemouse2306, Thomas
EL Smith, Kbrose, Bohemian simian, Caltas, Yintan, Ygramul, Permacultura, Bsherr, Antonio Lopez, Kielhofer, AMCKen, OscarJuan,
Kudret abi, Gomertrash, Dellr, Jjefferp, ClueBot, Rumping, Binksternet, Eric Wester, EoGuy, Thubing, Meekywiki, Uncle Milty, Tim-
mmmCam, Klenod, Sun Creator, Dirt Tyrant, Madkaugh, Jonverve, Fmiser, GeoffMacartney, DumZiBoT, JKeck, AlanM1, Avoided,
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Yobot, AnomieBOT, Götz, Jeni, Bently64, Ipatrol, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Foreman1280, Richard Jay Morris, Nifky?, Oshasafety,
Jeffrey Mall, Heddmj, Nasa-verve, WaysToEscape, Dave3457, Dogbert66, Jc3s5h, Euc, Oalp1003, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Princes-
sofLlyr, 10metreh, RedBot, SpaceFlight89, Dtrx, North8000, Vrenator, Fastilysock, Goph'r, Marie Poise, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Caf-
feein, Jaguarondi, EmausBot, Immunize, Mordgier, Dewritech, Roshamboz, O'DaveY, Wikipelli, BrianServis, Josve05a, Shofus, Don-
dervogel 2, H3llBot, Glockenklang1, ChemMater, Mltinus, Divineale, Mxctor, ClueBot NG, DieSwartzPunkt, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Kurtdebille, Rsercher, Kamerrill, BG19bot, Gurt Posh, Emayv, Yuanquan74, Daleshirk, J991, Planetary Chaos Redux, Mark Arsten,
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madillo, Kosher Fan, Pol098, Rjwilmsi, Bruce1ee, Lmatt, Splintercellguy, Toffile, Daniel C, Light current, Deville, Tevildo, Kle0012,
SmackBot, Ssbohio, Macintosh User, Lindosland, Oli Filth, SchfiftyThree, Il palazzo, Scwlong, Dreadstar, RickO5, Rogerbrent, Dick-
lyon, Waggers, Chetvorno, TristanJ, Tbone2001, Cydebot, Martin Hedegaard, JAnDbot, Mytomi, Rich257, STBot, Glrx, Mange01,
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awb, Vcaeken, YSSYguy, Arjayay, Johnuniq, Rror, DOI bot, Fyrael, GyroMagician, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Valueyou, Materialscientist,
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EmausBot, Hanjifi, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, KLBot2, BrunoHaider and Anonymous: 37
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Patrick, JohnOwens, Lexor, David Martland, Glenn, Palfrey, Dysprosia, Furrykef, Omegatron, ThereIsNoSteve, Giftlite, DavidCary, Wolf-
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stad, Torquil, Mikm, Alfred Centauri, Kri, Krishnavedala, Borgx, PinothyJ, Toffile, Gaius Cornelius, Brandon, Mikeblas, Searchme, Light
current, Mickpc, Deville, Petri Krohn, LeonardoRob0t, Phil Holmes, RG2, Mejor Los Indios, EXonyte, KnightRider, Mitchan, Steve
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brent, Dicklyon, Kvng, Ss181292, Unmitigated Success, Myasuda, Paddles, Editor at Large, Epbr123, Sobreira, Bobblehead, Brichcja,
Majorly, Danroa, Lovibond, Ekkanant, JAnDbot, Xhienne, Drizzd, Time3000, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dics, Eus Kevin, Parijata, Kayau,
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Addbot, Howard Landman, Jojhutton, Redheylin, Parvejkhan, Nocal, Tide rolls, Gail, Legobot, Bdb112, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, B137,
Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Armstrong1113149, Pontificalibus, Christopherley, RibotBOT, Rb88guy, GliderMaven, ICEAGE,
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Catshome2000, Zueignung, Teapeat, Dweymouth, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Widr, Varun varshney12, OceanEngineerRI, Kizzlebot, JYBot,
Kroq-gar78, CsDix, My name is not dave, Quenhitran, Meteor sandwich yum, Monkbot and Anonymous: 221
9.2 Images
• File:1st_Order_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/1st_Order_Lowpass_Filter_
RC.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:555_Astable_Diagram.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/555_Astable_Diagram.svg License:
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• File:555_Bistable.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/555_Bistable.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: AbstractBeliefs
• File:555_Monostable.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/555_Monostable.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:555_Pinout.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/555_Pinout.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:75_Hz_HPF_on_Smaart.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/75_Hz_HPF_on_Smaart.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Binksternet
• File:7812_voltage_regulator.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/7812_voltage_regulator.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors: http://traveler.com.br/photos/matarese/photo/435-a-7812-voltage-regulator-chip/ Original artist:
Mataresephotos
• File:AFSK_1200_baud.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/AFSK_1200_baud.ogg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Active_Highpass_Filter_RC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Active_Highpass_Filter_RC.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by Toriicelli Original artist: Toriicelli
• File:Active_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Active_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Active_Lowpass_Filter_RC.svg Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:Amplifier_Circuit_Small.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Amplifier_Circuit_Small.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Twisp
• File:Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: File:Ebers-Moll model schematic (NPN).svg Original artist: Original uploader was Krishnavedala
at en.wikipedia derivative work: Inductiveload (talk)
• File:BJT_NPN_symbol.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/BJT_NPN_symbol.svg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Created by User:Omegatron
Original artist: Omegatron