Overview of the Climate

System
Lesson 1

Topic - 1
Energy & Balance

Earth
s Orbit

Tilt = 23.5

Inclination

Image Credit: Survey of Meteorology Online

Northern Hemisphere Winter

Image Credit: Survey of Meteorology Online

Equinoxes

Image Credit: Survey of Meteorology Online

Northern Hemisphere Summer

Image Credit: Survey of Meteorology Online

Solar Radiation
The average energy from the sun at the
mean radius of Earth is called Solar
Constant
S0 = 1368 Wm-2
Total energy received by the earth per
unit time = S0R2
Earth surface Area = 4R2
What is the average amount of energy
received by earth?

Albedo

Not all energy incident on earth is absorbed

A fraction is reflected or scattered
So the average flux is actually S(1-)/4
Earth
s mean albedo 0.3

Oceans
: 2-10%
Forest
: 6-18%
Cities
: 14-18%
Grass
: 7-25%
Soil
: 10-20%
Desert (Sand)
: 35-45%
Cloud (thin, thick, stratus)
: 30,60-70%
Ice
: 20-70%
Snow (Old)
: 40-60%
Snow (Fresh)
: 75-95%

Mars /2; Venus 2

Radiative Equilibrium
Solar Input

S0/4

Space

Reflected Shortwave

S0/4

S
Radiated
from
Ground
SOLAR

Ts

TERRESTRIAL

Surface

Radiative Equilibrium
Absorption at surface causes warming
up of surface until it radiates to space
as much energy as it absorbed
When surface reaches Ts , the amount
of energy S radiated per unit time is
given by Stefan
s Law S = Ts4 where
= 5.7 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4
If = 0, Incident Solar = S0/4, What is
Ts?

Seasonal Distribution
Maximum in January
3.5% variation due
to elliptic orbit

Black Body Radiation

Planck
s Law:

h = 6.62606896 x 10-34 J.s

k = 1.380 6504(24)1023 J.K-1
c = Speed of Light

Radiation Intensity
Sun
s Temperature : 6000 K
Earth
s Surface Temperature : 288 K

Distribution of Incident Solar

Insolation

Source: PhysicalGeography.net

However..

Effective Temperature Te
1
4
(1 ) S 0 = Te
4

(1 ) S 0
Te =

Using = 0.3, S0 = 1368 Wm-2, and = 5.7 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4

Te = 255 K

Other Planets

S0 = 2632 Wm-2
= 0.77
Te = 227 K

S0 = 1368 Wm-2
= 0.30
Te = 255 K

S0 = 589 Wm-2
= 0.24
Te = 211 K

Tm = 230 K

Tm = 250 K

Tm = 220 K

In reality

Actual Radiation incident on the surface

and Planck
s Law implies a lower
temperature than is actually seen on Earth
This difference is due to the presence of a
fluid on Earth
s surface
The Fluid (atmosphere & ocean) affects
things in 2 ways
1. Radiation can be absorbed by the fluid itself
2. The fluid can carry heat from one place to
another thereby affecting the balance

When the atmosphere absorbs

radiation: The Greenhouse Effect
Space

Solar Input

Reflected Shortwave

S0/4

S0/4

Radiated
to Space

Ta

SOLAR

A = Ta4
S = Ts4

Ts

Atmosphere

Radiated
from
Ground

Radiated
down to
Ground
Surface

TERRESTRIAL

1
S = (1 )S 0 + A
4

Radiation Balance at the Surface

(or) How can we alter Ts?

1
S = (1 )S 0 + A
4

S = T

4
s

Change S0
Change
Change A

Radiation Balance at the Top Of

the Atmosphere (TOA)

1
(1 )S0 = A
4
T

4
e

4
a

1
S = (1 )S 0 + A
4
4
4
4
4
Ts = Te + Ta = 2Te
1

Ts = 2 Te
4

Ts = 2 4 255 = 303K

A More Opaque Greenhouse

Space

Solar Input

Reflected Shortwave

A Radiated
to Space

S0/4
Atmosphere
Layer A

S0/4
Ta
Radiated
A
from A to B

Atmosphere
Layer B

B
Radiated
from B to A

Tb
S
Radiated
from
Ground

Surface

SOLAR

Ts

B
Radiated
down to
Ground

TERRESTRIAL

We can extend this to an infinite number of thin layers

The Leaky Greenhouse

Solar Input

S0/4

Reflected Shortwave

S0/4

1
(1 )S0 = A +(1 ) S
4
Space
(1-)S
Transmitted
A
through
Radiated
to Space

atmos.

Ta

Atmosphere

S
Radiated
from
Ground

SOLAR

Ts

Radiated
down to
Ground
Surface

TERRESTRIAL

1
S = (1 )S 0 + A
4

TOA

Surface

1
(1 )S0 = A +(1 ) S
4

1
S = (1 )S 0 + A
4

At equilibrium, A = A
2
2
4
(1 )S 0 =
S = T =
Te
4(2 )
(2 )
4
s

2 4
Te
Ts =
(2 )

Composition of the Atmosphere

Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.93%
CO2 0.0367%
Neon 0.001818%
Helium 0.000524%
Methane 0.00017%
Krypton 0.00011%
Hydrogen 0.000055%
Water Vapour 0-5% of total atmospheric volume
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.00003%
Ozone (O3 ) 0 - 0.000001%
Several trace gases CFCs, CO, SO2 affect radiation

Absorption in the Atmosphere

Short wave Radiation

Image Credit: Wiki commons

Absorption in the Atmosphere

Long wave Radiation

Image Credit: Wiki commons

Gases and what wavelengths

they absorb

Image Credit: Wiki commons

Physical Properties of Air

Global mean surface pressure: 1013 hPa
(millibar)
Global mean density of air at surface: 1.235
Kgm-3
Mean free path (in lower 50Km) is small
enough that we can consider the atmosphere
to be a continuum fluid in local
thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE)
Dry air accurately obeys the perfect gas law

p=

Rg
ma

T = RT

v
d

Moist Air
mass of water vapour per unit volume of air

Partial Densities
mass of dry air per unit volume of air

e = v RvT
pd = d Rd T
p = pd + e

Partial Pressures

From Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

Saturation Vapour Pressure

Moisture decreases
with temperature
Tropics much more
moist
Colder world is drier

es = Ae

A = 6.11 hPa
= 0.067 C-1

Combination of
Rotational and
Vibrational
states leads to a
very complex
and irregular
absorption
spectrum for
water vapour
Further
broadening of
absorption lines
occurs Doppler and
Pressure
broadening

Stratospheric Ozone
O 2 + h O + O
O + O 2 + M O3 + M

Photo-dissociation
M is any air molecule
(Typically N2 or O2)

This ozone preferentially absorbs

somewhat longer wavelengths than O2

O 3 + h O 2 + O

Image credit: Dr. Jon Schrage, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Purdue University.

Temperature Profiles Vary by

Season and Location

Source: Washington & Parkinson

Three-Dimensional Climate
Modelling

Comparative Vertical
Temperature Profiles

A Radiative Equilibrium Profile

Convection

Stability & Instability

Buoyancy
Same density and from
hydrostatic balance have
same pressures
The acceleration of the fluid parcel is

= ( p E )
Not so the bottom layer!

b = g

( p E )

Stability
Suppose we displace (quickly)
the parcel at 1, T1 to height z2
The surroundings at z2
will have density

d
E = ( z2 ) 1 + z
dz E
Environmental
density gradient

g d
b=
z
1 dz E

positively
neutrally
negatively

buoyant if

dz E

>0
=0
<0

Stability (contd.)
If the parcel is positively buoyant, it will keep on
rising at an accelerating rate!
positively
neutrally
negatively

buoyant if

dz

>0
=0
<0

Therefore the parcel is unstable if

density increases with height!
Incompressible Only!

We can rewrite the stability condition in terms of

Temperature instead of density

Hydrostatic Balance
pT = p ( z + z )
= p ( z )+ p
Assuming z to be small

p
p = z
z

M = Az

Hydrostatic Balance (contd.)

Vertical forces (upward +ve)
1. Gravitational Force

Fg = gM = gAz
2. Pressure Force acting on top face

FT = ( p + p )A
3. Pressure Force acting on bottom

FB = pA
Assuming parcel is not accelerating

Fg + FB + FT = 0
p
+ g = 0
z

Hydrostatic
Balance

Hydrostatic Balance (contd.)

p
+ g = 0
z

Describes how pressure

decreases with height

p ( z ) = g dz

Mass per unit area

gM atm
ps =
Surface area of earth

Vertical Structure of
Pressure and Density

p
gp
= g =
z
RT

p, replaced by p, T

Assuming an isothermal atmosphere (T=T0)

p
gp
p
=
=
z
RT0
H
z
p( z ) = ps exp
H

where

or

RT0
H=
g

scale height

ps
z = H ln
p

Vertical Structure of
Pressure and Density (contd.)
For a non-isothermal atmosphere

RT ( z )
H ( z) =
g

p
p
=
z
H (z )
dz
ln p =
+ constant
H ( z )
0
z

1 p ln p
1
=
=
p z
z
H ( z)
z dz

p ( z ) = ps exp

H
(
z
)
0

Vertical Structure of
Pressure and Density (contd.)
ps
z
( z) =
exp
RT0
H
z dz
ps

( z) =
exp

RT ( z )
H
(
z
)
0

Dry Convection in a
Compressible Atmosphere
Consider a parcel of ideal
gas (unit mass i.e V=1) to
which we add an amount of
heat Q
Since

1
1
dV = d = 2 d

p
pdV = 2 d

Q = cv dT + pdV
First Law of Thermodynamics

Using Equation of state

and simplifying

pdV =

Q = c p dT

dp

dp

+ RdT

Dry Convection (contd.)

Q = c p dT

dp

=0

dp = g E dz
dT
g
= = d
dz
cp
K-1
1005 JKg-1

For adiabatic motion

From Hydrostatic Equation

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

10 K/Km

Dry Convection (contd.)

dT
T2 = T1 +
z
dz E
At z2, the environmental density is

p2
2 =
RT2
The parcel however is at
Pressure p2
And Temperature

T p = T1 d z
Therefore Density is

p2
p =
RT p

Dry Convection (contd.)

unstable
neutral
stable

buoyant if

dT

dz E

< -d
= -d
> -d

A compressible atmosphere is unstable if temperature

decreases faster than the adiabatic lapse rate

The atmosphere at most

places and at most times is
stable to dry convection!

Stable!

Height

Unstable!

Temperature

Add Water and things get a little

more complicated.
H2O can change phase
Melting

Ice

Freezing

Evaporation

Water

Condensation

Water Vapour

Energy Absorbed
Energy Released

Phase Changes are accompanied by

release/absorption of energy

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Shallow & Deep Convection

Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

(contd.)
As the rising air parcel cools, what happens if it
cools to its dew point?
At that point, any further cooling will cause the water
vapour in the parcel to begin to condense, and to
release latent heat.
Release of latent heat partially offsets the cooling
due to expansion of the air parcel
If the parcel becomes saturated, any further lifting
will cause the parcel to cool at the moist adiabatic
lapse rate (also called the wet or saturated adiabatic
lapse rate)
The moist adiabatic lapse rate depends on the
temperature of the saturated air parcel
Warm saturated parcels contain a lot more moisture
than cold saturated parcels

Temperature profile from

radiative-convective calculations

Radiative Convective Equilibrium

(RCE)

Radiative Convective Equilibrium

(contd.)
Stable!

Height

Radiative processes cool

dthe troposphere and warm the
ground.
The primaryUnstable!
source of tropospheric cooling is infrared
emission (or radiative cooling) by water vapor and clouds.
The ground warming is due to solar heating and back radiation
from atmospheric water vapor and clouds.
Such a pattern of atmospheric cooling and surface warming
leads to superadiabatic lapse rates (temperature decreasing by
more than 9.8 K km1) and triggers atmospheric convection.
The ensuing vertical motions transport heat from the surface to
the atmosphere and restore the lapse rate to neutral (adiabatic).
The heat is released in the form of
latent heating during condensation or
sensible heat from turbulent eddies originating in the boundary
layer.

Temperature

Changing the RCE

Within the troposphere:
Longwave cooling exceeds solar heating: result a net cooling.
This is balanced by release of latent heating and convective
transport of sensible heat transfer from the surface.

At the surface:
Solar heating far exceeds longwave cooling
This radiative heating is balanced by convective transport of latent
and sensible heat from the surface to the atmosphere.

Surface radiative heating + Tropospheric radiative cooling

=0
Maintains radiation energy balance for the whole surfacetroposphere column
This radiation balance is perturbed by the addition of greenhouse
gases and aerosols.

Surface Convective Cooling + Tropospheric Convective

heating = 0
This balance is perturbed by land surface changes.

Global mean energy budget under present day climate conditions

Source: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

Energy Balance
The ground warms up by incoming
shortwave radiation and by the longwave
radiation emitted by atmospheric absorbers.
It loses heat through longwave radiation, and
also through latent heat flux (evaporation)
and sensible heat fluxes, both linked with the
phenomenon of convection.
The vertical profile of temperature in the
troposphere is determined by a combination
of radiative, convective, and advective
processes.