Invitational education is a general framework for thinking and acting about what is believed

to be worthwhile in schools. It centers on five basic principles: (1) people are able, valuable,
and responsible, and should be treated accordingly; (2) educating should be a collaborative,
cooperative activity; (3) the process is the product in the making; (4) people possess
untapped potential in all areas of worthwhile human endeavor; and (5) this potential can best
be realized by places, policies, programs, and processes specifically designed to invite
development, and by people who are intentionally inviting with themselves and others
personally and professionally. The publication consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1
introduces invitational education and explains how it serves as a vehicle for understanding
the influence of people, places, policies, programs, and procedures on students. Chapter 2
explores the three foundations of individual education: the perceptual tradition, self-concept
theory, and democratic practice. Chapter 3 examines the stance necessary to maintain an
inviting perspective and sets the stage for development of skills and the handling of
challenging situations. Chapter 4 discusses the craft of inviting as a complex process
requiring commitment, sensitivity, courage, and imagination, while chapter 5 looks at how
invitational education addresses difficult situations. Chapter 6 focuses on ways to develop
skill in applying invitational education, highlighting the importance of the person in the
process. Chapter 7 presents two models for next century schools; Chapter 8 looks at how a
school can systematically embody this approach. Appendix A provides practical suggestions
for the whole school in implementing the inviting approach; Appendix B lists inviting and
disinviting verbal and physical signals. (Contains 302 references.) (ND)

Chapter 34:

DEVELOPMENT OF BACKWARD CLASSES

General considerations programmes for bringing scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and other
backward classes to the level of the rest of the community are among the most significant
undertaken during the First and Second Plans. Success in fulfilling them is difficult to measure. It
involves far-reaching changes in social organisation and in social practices and is a test equally of
the progress achieved in improving the conditions of the sections of the community directly
affected and in reconstructing the structure of the Indian society itself, specially in rural areas.
Article 46 of the Constitution laid down the Directive Principle that the State shall promote with
special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in
particular, of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice
and all forms of exploitation. The Constitution also provided for certain reservations for scheduled
tribes and scheduled castes. These were limited, in the first instance, to a period of ten years but
by a recent amendment of the Constitution, these reservations have been extended by a further
period of ten years. Since such safeguards are a reflection of the economic and social conditions
of the groups concerned. Parliament's action has a twofold significance. Firstly, the problem of
raising the living standards of scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and other weaker sections of
the population is much more complex than had been earlier realised and calls for sustained
endeavour over a long period. Secondly, besides ensuring rapid and sustained growth for the
economy as a whole, at least during the next two or three Plans, measures for advancing the
economic' and social interests of scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and other weaker sections of
the community should be so intensified, that they do, in fact, reach a level of well-being
comparable with that of other sections of the population. Development programmes included in
the plans of States and the Centre for the Third Five Year Plan will need to be continually re-

assessed from fir's angle and steps taken to increase their total impact in various directions as the
Plan proceeds. This is a crucial task in the attempt to evolve an integrated society and a well-knit
economy for the country as a whole.
2. The lists of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were revised in 1956. On this basis,
according to the census of 1951, the total population of scheduled tribes was estimated at 22.5
million and that of scheduled castes at 55 million. The oooulation of 'denotified' tribes (formerly d
cribed as 'criminal' tribes) was reckoned at about 4 million. In different States, according to the
local conditions, certain other groups are also described as 'other backward classes' and special
steps are taken to safeguard their interests.
Development programmes for the welfare of backward classes, for which provision is made in the
Five Year Plans, are intended to supplement benefits accruing from programmes of development
in different fields such as agriculture, cooperation, irrigation, small industries, communications,
education, health, housing, rural water supply and others. One of the principal lessons of the past
decade is that for a variety of reasons, in the ordinary course, the weaker sections of the
population are not able to secure their fair share of the benefits of provisions made under different
heads. To enable them to do so, it is desirable that the normal patterns of assistance should
provide, wherever necessary, for an element of special consideration for the weaker sections and,
in particular, for the backward classes. It is observed that in a number of schemes formulated in
favour of backward classes, the financial resources provided for this section of the population are
proposed to be utilised in part to meet the cost of additional subsidy or other assistance to enable
the backward clashes to avail themselves of the general development programmes. This has the
effect of reducing the scope of additional development to be undertaken from the special
provisions made for the backward classes. The problem needs further consideration, since, on the
one hand, it is essential that the general development programmes should be so designed as to
cater adequately for the backward classes and, on the other, the special provisions in the Plan
should be used as far as possible for securing additional and more intensified development.
3. For programmes relating to the welfare of backward classes, a total outlay of Rs. 79 crores was
incurred in the Second Plan compared to Rs. 30 crores in the First Plan. The Third Plan at
present provides for programmes estimated to cost about Rs. 114 crores. The distribuiton of these
outlays among different sections is shown below :
(Rs. crores)

scheduled tribes
scheduled castes
denotified tribes
other backward classes
total

First Plan
outlay

Second Plan estimated

expenditure

1 Third Plan estimated cost

of programmes

19-83
7-08
1-10
2-03
30-04

43-00
27-66
2-89
5-86
79-41

60-43
40-40
4-00
9-04
113-87

In respect of scheduled tribes, besides the provisions in the plans of States which are intended to
benefit them in particular, developmental outlays of territories like NEFA, Nagaland, Manipur and
Tripura, are reckoned in the Third Plan at over Rs. 40 crores c'ompared to over Rs. 20 crores in
the Second Plan.
4. Of the outlay of Rs. 114 crores in the Third Plan, provided for the welfare of backward classes,
about Rs. 42 crores are intended for schemes of educational development, Rs. 47 crores for
economic uplift schemes and Rs. 25 crores for health, housing and other schemes. The problems
of scheduled castes and other backward classes are essentially those of economically weaker

sections of the community, who suffer also in larger or smaller measure from social disabilities.
Denotified tribes constitute a special group whose assimilation into the larger community presents
peculiar difficulties, but is nonetheless a matter of great urgency. In the context of a rapidly
developing economy, scheduled tribes can no longer remain in the isolation which characterised
them in the past and in many areas, with the onset of industrialisation and large irrigation and
power projects, they confront the most complex problems of adjustment and rehabilitation.
Although there are certain common considerations and approaches, scheduled tribes living in
different parts of the country vary a great deal among themselves, and the special conditions and
problems of different tribal groups have always to be kept in view.
II Scheduled Tribes
5. The broad policies to be followed for the development of tribal populations and tribal areas
have been reviewed recently by the Study Team on Social Welfare and Welfare of Backward
Classes set up by the Committee on Plan Projects, the Committee on Special Multipurpose Tribal
Blocks and the Central Advisory Board for Tribal Welfare and also in special studies in respect of
such tribal areas as NEFA and Nagaland. There is a broad consensus of opinion that while the
rest of the population of the country goes forward, and India and the world change so rapidly, the
tribal areas can scarcely remain in isolation. At the same time, it would be ah error to overadminister these areas in the name of development and, in particular, to send too many officials
and others to work amongst the tribal people. A middle way between these extreme positions has
to be found.
6. Development in such directions as education and provision of training facilities, improvement of
agriculture, building up of communications, improvement of health and medical facilities and
supply of drinking water are both essential and inevitable. In facilitating these developments, the
tribal people should be enabled to develop along the lines of their own genius, with genuine
respect and support for their own traditional arts and culture and without pressure or imposition
from outside. In tribal areas every effort should be made to train and build up a team of their own
people to do the work of administration and development. Some technical personnel from outside
would no doubt be needed, specially in the beginning, but the ami should be constantly to develop
local personnel both as official functionaries and as social workers. In determining the
development schemes to be implemented, as experience during recent years bears out, it is
desirable to avoid taking up too many small and isolated schemes which cannot have much
impact;instead the stress should be on a few programmes of basic importancfe which are
calculated to mitigate poverty, impart new skills, promote health and better living, improve
communications without upsetting the stability of social and cultural values, the pattern of
leadership and institutions and the scheme of obligations within the tribal community.
7. Execution of development programmes meets with several practical difficulties and limitations.
For instance, in the absence of adequate local personnel or effective means of communication
between personnel engaged in development work and the traditional leadership and institutions, it
may not always be easy to observe the various tribal policies outlined above. Nevertheless, these
policies provide general guidance in formulating and carrying out development programmes. It
was in view of the special character of the problems involved that Article 339 of the Constitution
provided for the setting up of a Commission within ten years of the commencement of the
Constitution to report on the administration of scheduled areas and the welfare of the scheduled
tribes in the States. The Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, which was set up in
April, 1960, has recently submitted an interim report based on its study of developments in nine
States (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pra-desh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab
and Rajas-than) and one Union Territory (Himachal Pradesh). In this report the Commission has
drawn urgent attention, amongst others, to the following important aspects :
(1) In most States the special protective machinery for safeguarding the interests of the tribal
people and protecting them from exploitation by outsiders has not worked satisfactorily. There
have been large-scale transfers of tribal land consequent upon the undesirable activities of

money-lenders, forest contractors and other exploiters. The reorganisation of forests and
enunciation of new policies have resulted in the curtailment of their rights in forests and in fishing
and hunting. In Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa industrial and other development schemes
have led to large-scale displacement of the tribal people. There is need, therefore, for
strengthening and in some cases for reorganising the administrative set up for the scheduled
areas.
(2) The requirements of personnel for working in tribal areas, specially Tribal Welfare Officers,
technical specialists and field level workers have not been adequately assessed. This factor is
responsible for a setback in the implementation of welfare schemes. Recruitment of personnel
without a long-term view of requirements has proved unsatisfactory. There has been a chronic
shortage of trained workers in the scheduled areas. Personnel who are to work in tribal areas
must be oriented to the tribal way of life and appreciation of the special disabilities from which the
tribal people suffer. Development activities more or less conceived on the lines of non-tribal areas
have generally failed to make adequate headway and impact on the tribal areas. There is need,
therefore, for a larger effort through special institutions and otherwise for giving orientation training
to personnel at various levels working in tribal areas. Difficulties such as the grant of requisite
allowances for personnel who have to work under difficult conditions have also to be resolved
satisfactorily.
(3) There are large number of problems emerging in tribal areas which call for scientific study and
evaluation, for instance, the impact of industrialisation in tribal areas, the rate of disposition of
land, prevalence of various systems of debt bondage, and social and economic effects on the
tribal people of specific development schemes and of institutions like ashram schools, forest
labourers' cooperative societies, grain goals, etc.
(4) Non-official voluntary organisations have a significant role in the development of tribal areas.
They should be adequately assisted on the basis of programmes which are carefully formulated
and coordinated with other activities.
The existing at Tangements have to be considered further in the light of the Commission's
recommendations and steps taken to improve upon them where necessary.
Programmes for The Third Plan
8. During the Second Plan a variety of development schemes have been undertaken in tribal
areas. Thus, the economic uplift programme has included schemes for land settlement, land
reclamation, distribution of seed and setting up of demonstration farms, establishment of service
cooperatives and forest labourers' cooperatives, and improvement of communications. In the
educational programme, stress has been laid on concessions in the form of stipends, freeships
and other grants, scholarships before and after matriculation, establishment of new
schools,ncluding ashram schools and training in agricultural and industrial crafts. Schemes for
supply of drinking water, for improvement of housing conditions and for setting up of dispensaries,
maternity and child welfare centres and mobile health units have also been undertaken.
9. In the light of the experience gained in the Second Plan, the general lines on which
programmes should be drawn up for the Third Plan were considered by a special working group.
It is proposed that economic uplift[ programmes should give priority to the economic rehabilitation
of persons engaged in shifting cultivation, working of forests through cooperatives composed of
members of scheduled tribes, and formation of multi-purpose cooperatives for meeting the credit
requirements of tribal agriculturists and artisans and for marketing their products. From the
provisions made under different heads, programmes should be undertaken in tribal areas for land
improvement, land reclamation and soil conservation, minor irrigation, supply of improved seeds,
manures, implements and bullocks, provision of facilities for training, demonstration of improved
practices, development of cattle, fisheries, poultry, piggeries and sheep-breeding, organisation of
training-cum^production centres and provision of assistance and advice to village artisans

engaged in cottage industries. In the programme for education, apart from primary schools to be
provided for under the general scheme, there should be assistance at the middle and secondary
stages for freeships and stipends and hostels. Scholarships and freeships should also be
provided for technical training. The main highways should be undertaken as part of the general
development programme and resources provided for scheduled tribes should be used, in
particular, for culverts, causeways and bridges needed for connecting inaccessible areas,
approach roads, jeepable forest roads and repairs to existing communications with remote and
inaccessible areas. In the medical and public health programme, the working group has
suggested priority for preventive measures for diseases common in each area, provision of
itinerant medical units, establishment of matenr'ty and child welfare centres and provision of
drinking water in difficult areas.
10. The plans of States have been generally drawn up in accordance with the suggestions
outlined above. They will, however, need to be reviewed from two aspects, namely :
(a) greater intensification in the light of the recommendations which may be made by the
Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, and (b) ensuring that the special provisions
are utilised as far as possible for additional programmes rather than merely for altering the
patterns of assistance made available to the backward classes under the general schemes of
development. As a rule, such concessions as are considered necessary in the interest of these
groups should be built into the schemes themselves and should not be denendent on resources
being diverted from the limited provisions made specifically for the welfare of backward classes.
11. The Plan provides for a large programme of tribal development blocks, which aim at intensive
and coordinated development in tribal areas on the general pattern of community development,
but modified to suit tribal conditions and supplemented by additional resources. In all, 43
development blocks came under this programme during the Second Plan. Each Block involved a
total outlay of Rs. 27 lakhs, Rs. 12 lakhs being found under Community Development and Rs. 15
lakhs by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The scheme has now been altered so as to provide for a
total outlay of Rs. 22 lakhs in stage I (the contribution of the Ministry of Home Affairs being; Rs. 10
lakhs), followed by a further period of five years under stage II for which an allotment of Rs. 10
lakhs will be made; Rs. 5 lakhs under Community Development and Rs. 5 lakhs from the Ministry
of Home Affairs. FoUowing the recommendations made by the Committee on Special Multipurpose Tribal Blocks, the scheme of Development in these areas has been made much more
flexible. The programme will now extend not only to scheduled areas but also to those blocks in
which the tribal population constitutes two-thirds or more of the total population. In place of the
schematic budget suggesting in detail the distribution of the available resources under different
heads, it is now proposed that about 60 per cent of the funds should be allotted for economic
uplift, 25 per cent for communications and 15 per cent for social services, with the suggestion that
for tackling effectively the problem of drinking water supply further resources might be secured
from the provision for economic uplift. The Third Plan provides in all for 300 tribal development
blocks.
12. As a result of recent discussions there is already a concensus of opwon as to the basic
conditions required for the successful execution of the programme for tribal development blocks.
These are, in particular, careful planning, coordination of activities, framing and orientation of
personnel to the needs of the tribal communities, special attention to the requirements of the
poorer and the more inaccessible areas, respect for tribal rights in land and forests and active
association of the traditional tribal organisations and leadership with the implementation of
development programmes. The programme for tribal development blocks is being implemented as
a Centrally sponsored scheme. Other development schemes in the same category are those
relating to cooperation, including forest cooperatives, and marketing-cum-consumer cooperatives,
award of post-matriculation scholarships, Tribal Research Institutes and training, research and
surveys.
13. As pointed out earlier, the programme for scheduled tribes will be reviewed after the final

proposals of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission become available. In this
connection, it may be stated that in its interim report, to nine States and one Union Territory, the
Commission has recommended a total outlay of about Rs. 73 crores as against the provision in
the Plan as at present formulated (including both State Plans and Centrally sponsored schemes)
of about Rs. 54 crores. The following table compares the present provisions in the Plan for all
States and Union Territories and those for areas considered in the interim report of the
Commission :
(Rs. crores)

education
economic uplift
health, housing and other
schemes
total

ll States and Union Territories nine State' and one Union Territory
provision in the Third Plan
provision in
outlay recommended
the Third Plan in the Interim RepOTt
Centre and t of he scheduled Areas
States
and Scheduled Tribes
Commission
14-48
12-26
15-38
37-12
34-39
48-07
9-55
6-99
9-45
61-15

53-64

72.90

The Commission has also indicated the possibility of additional areas being declared as
scheduled areas; for these, some supplementary resources may be required. The Commission's
proposals regarding development programmes, which will be considered carefully, may call for
some further resources. The precise additions needed in the provisions for scheduled tribes, the
extent to which the further outlays proposed under different heads can be met from the general
allotments made for them in the Plan and the respective contributions of the Centre and of
individual States will be considered in due course.
Problems of Development
14. As a result of work in the first two Plans and the reviews undertaken by expert committees
and others, the general patterns of development in tribal areas are fairly well established. It is of
course essential to strengthen the machinery for implementation. It is also necessary from time to
time to assess the progress which is realised. Objective evaluation is of great importance
because in a field as com-p'ex as the welfare of tribal populations, there is frequently a gap
between the policies which are enunciated and the manner in which effect is given to them in the
field. In the tribal areas, such a gap is not only undesirable in itself but may lead to frustration and
may cause serious social and psychological disturbances.
15. In carrying out programmes of development during the Third Plan, there are certain aspects
which need to be specially stressed. The principal economic problems of tribal populations centre
on lack of continuous employment and the prevailing indebtedness. In a real sense these are
interconnected problems. Tribal communities depend for their living almost entirely on agriculture
and forests. The importance of safeguarding their rights in land and in forests has been stressed
already. In some Stales, notably in Maharashtra and Gujarat, forests in scheduled areas are to a
large extent worked through forest labourers' cooperatives composed ot tribal people. These have
on the whole proved satisfactory, but care has to be taken to see that the workers are not
exploited either by subordinate officials of Forest Departments or by unscrupulous persons from
amongst the tribal people themselves. Invariably, social workers and officials of Tribal Welfare
Departments should be associated with the working of these cooperatives. In States in which
exploitation of forest resources is still being undertaken mainly through contractors, the existing
system should be replaced as early as possible.

16. To a large extent improvement in the economic conditions of scheduled tribes depends upon
the success with which levels of agriculture are raised. From this aspect, wherever settled
cultivation already exists, there should be the utmost stress on supply of improved seeds,
fertilisers and credit, increase of irrigation soil conservation and land reclamation, adoption of
better implements and technical guidance. Where shifting cultivation prevails, the transition to
settled agriculture is generally likely to be slow and long-drawn. In these areas, the primary aim
should be to ensure that shifting cultivation is carried out on a scientific basis so as to limit its
disadvantages and promote the fertility of the soil. The problems of changing over from shifting to
settled cultivation are now better appreciated than in the past; nevertheless they need to be
studied at first hand in each area jointly by agricultural and tribal experts and social workers
associated with them before the communities concerned are advised to change the practices
which they are accustomed to follow.
17. Among the tribal people there are many factors for favour of development along cooperative
lines. However, for cooperation to succeed in raising levels of income and increasing production,
it is essential that the problem of past indebtedness should be dealt with in a more basic way than
in the past. Some action has been recently taken in the States. For instance, in Andhra Pradesh
interest outstanding in January 1957 in favour of any creditor is discharged and only the principal
is payable. Interest rates are also regulated. Investigations into the extent of indebtedness among
scheduled tribes have been undertaken in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Madras,
Assam, Orissa and Himachal Pradesh and in the Lahaul and Spiti areas in the Punjab. The
problem as a whole needs fresh consideration. The available data might be considered by a
special committee with a view to evolving effective measures arid policies. These must include,
amongst others, provisions for liquidation and settlement of debts as well as regulation of the
terms and conditions for new loans. For the future, the main reliance will necessarily have to be
placed on rapid development of cooperative finance and marketing. In this connection the working
of schemes like the Andhra Scheduled Tribes Cooperative Finance and Development Corporation
snould be studied closely with a view to determining further directions of cooperative development
among scheduled tribes. It is important that cooperative organisations should be adapted to the
actual requirements of scheduled tribes and the conditions prevailing in different areas and that
rules and procedures should be greatly simplified. The Ministry of Home Affairs have recently
constituted a working group to consider how scheduled tribes and other backward classes should
be assisted to benefit fully from programmes of cooperative development during the Third Plan
and to suggest suitable types of cooperative organisation and the changes needed in rules and
bye-laws.
18. In tribal areas, as a rule, there is considerable under-employment. It is proposed that in the
rural worKs programmes to be undertaken during the Third Plan, the requirements of employment
in tribal areas during the long slack agricultural seasons should be specially kept in view.
19. In the plans of States there are several schemes for the promotion of cottage industries in
tribal areas. In the past, cottage industry programmes do not appear to have had a significant
impact. This may be due, in part, to the difficulty of selecting the industries to be developed on
economic lines, and in part to paucity or personnel and to lack of assured marketing and credit
facilities. As suggested by the Committee on Special Multi-purpose Tribal Blocks, it is essential to
study closely the arts and crafts which already exist in each area and to consider how these could
be developed and also the new crafts which could De introduced on an economically satisfactory
basis. In this connection, a further problem may be mentioned. In the tribal areas there is a very
large proportion of boys, roughly between the ages of 11 and 14 or 15 years, who have either not
gone to school at all or whose education has been discontinued. If facilities for imparting
vocational training of even a simple character could be developed in tribal areas, these boys
could be equipped for productive work.
20. In recent years, several large projects for the development of irrigation, power and industry
have been located in areas inhabited by tribal populations. As an immediate effect of these
projects, there has been a considerable measure of dislocation and uprooting. The number of
families required to be displaced on account of such projects has frequently run into thousands.

Etforts are made to provide compensation in land or cash or both. It is important that the
compensation should be sufficient for ensuring effective rehabilitation. As far a? possible,
compensation should take the form of land. The productive value of the land which is given up
should be an important factor to be taken into account in determining the scale of allotment. It has
been observed that compensation taken in cash is soon squandered and frequently, where
compensation has taken the form of land, for a variety of reasons, satisfactory resettlement has
not been achieved. For a time unskilled work is available at the site of the project. When the
construction phase of the project is completed and the need is for skilled workers, there is little
scope for employing displaced tribal workers. In these, circumstances, the damage done to the
communities concerned as well as to the individuals is irreparabie and becomes, in turn, a source
of resentment. With rapid development during tlie Third and subsequent Plans, this problem is
likely to grow in magnitude and should be handled with extreme care. In determining locations of
projects, the possibility of avoiding eviction wholly or in part should be fully considered. When no
alternative exists, it is suggested that instead of dealing with the problem of eviction and
resettlement directly through their own officials or even through the normal revenue
administrations, the agency of Tribal Welfare Departments and of voluntary organisations should
be utilised. Responsible voluntary organisations, if taken into confidence at an early stage in the
project and provided with tlie necessary resources, can be most helpful in the task of arranging
the transfer of the population, resettlement and other rehabilitation measures. They should of
course be given a measure of discretion and flexibility in dealing with the problems which arise. It
has to be remembered that even though individuals have to be given compensation, in the
context of tribal life, chey do not and cannot stand alone, and it is no less important to sustain
their sense of belonging to a larger community with its own way of life and codes of behaviour and
organisation.
21. Tribal welfare programmes affect large numbers of people and the many new developments
now under way may produce results which may change fundamentally the character of tribal life
and institutions. The resulting problems cannot be dealt with satisfactorily without cadres of public
servants and social workers having intimate knowledge, imbued with sympathy, and trained in
carrying out the tasks allotted to them. Short-term assignments in tribal areas given to officials,
who are liable to transfer elsewhere are far from satisfactory. To bring the scheduled tribes to the
level of the rest of the population calls for sustained efforts for a generation or more on the part of
thousands of devoted public servants and social workers, who should be drawn more and more
from amongst the tribal people themselves. As a rule, although much has been accomplished
during the first two Plans, departments in the States set up for carrying out development
programmes among the tribal people are on the whole insufficiently equipped with personnel and
do not always enjoy the requisite support for undertaking the extraordinarily difficult tasks falling to
them. In these circumstances, having regard to the special responsibilities envisaged in the
Constitution, it might be worth considering whether the Central and State Government should now
cooperate in forming a special cadre comprising technical and other personnel for work in
scheduled areas and in other areas which have concentration of tribal populations. Such a cadre
could provide for personnel above the field level. As a rule, those belonging to the cadre could
work within their own States but, at the higher levels of responsibility, they could also be available
for work elsewhere. The most significant aspect, of course, is that a body of trained persons
would spend their entire period of service among the tribal people, so that their knowledge,
experience and sense of identification would become a vital factor in assuring rapid and
uninterrupted development. Along with measures taken to strengthen the public service, it is also
essential that as a matter of public policy strong voluntary organisations should be built up for
work among the tribal people.
Ill Scheduled Castes
22. As distinguished from scheduled tribes, scheduled castes are widely dispersed and, while
they form part of the general community, the social disabilities from which they suffer and their
economic weakness place them in a special category. The Constitution abolished 'untouchabihty'
and forbade its practice in any form, and the (Jntouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, made the
offence of 'untouchability' cognisable and punishable uniformly throughout the country. While they

have social problems which are peculiar to them, the economic problems of scheduled castes are
in the main common with those of other weaker sections of the community. The Third Plan
provides about Rs. 40 crores for special programmes relating to scheduled castes as compared
with outlays of about Rs. 28 crores in the Second Plan and nearly Rs. 7 crores in the First Plan.
About Rs. 30 crores have been provided for scheduled castes in the plans of States. About onehalf of this amount is for education schemes and the balance is divided almost equally between
(a) schemes for economic uplift and (b) health, housing and other schemes. These provisions are
intended to supplement benefits which should be available in an increasing measure to scheduled
castes from the general development programmes provided for in the Plan, especially since the
Plan places special emphasis on ensuring that the weaker sections of the community obtain their
due share of the benefits in each programme. The community development programme, the rural
works programme, schemes for land resettlement, the programme for village and small industries
and other schemes undertaken in the interest of agricultural labourers have the greatest
significance for raising the living standard of scheduled castes and other weaker sections of the
community.
23. During the First two Plans, the major stress in carrying out development programmes for
scheduled castes has been on education. Thus, as compared to 600,000 scholarships awarded to
scheduled caste students in 1956-57, the number in receipt of scholarships at the end of the
Second Plan is about 900,000. At the post-matriculation stage, the number of scholarship-holders
from among the scheduled castes has risen from less than 1100 at the beginning of the First Plan
to about 40,000 at the close of the Second Plan.
24. As explained already, programmes for scheduled castes included in the Third Plan are
intended to provide for certain special schems; they do not in any sense take the place of
development programmes undertaken for the community as a whole. In the field of education, the
main aims are to make available special scholarships based to the extent feasible, on suitable
merit-cum-means tests, provision of residential facilities at educational institutions as a rule in
mixed hostels, exemption from fees, and financial assistance for needy students. For promoting
economic uplift, stress is laid on allotment of land and assistance for settling as cultivators,
training in village and small industries and introduction of improved techniques in the traditional
crafts. While the bulk of the special allocations are made in the plans of States, the Ministry of
Home Affairs provide for the following Centrally sponsored schemes :

1. improvement of the working conditions of persons engaged in unclean occupations

including eradication of the practice of carrying night soil as head loads;

2. subsidies for housing for sweepers and scavengers;

3. provision of house sites for members of scheduled castes
a. who are engaged in unclean occupations, and
b. who are landless labourers;
4. award of post-matric scholarships; and
5. aid to voluntary organisations.
Under the general housing programmes, funds are earmarked for acquisition and development of
lands for granting house sites to agricultural workers amongst whom members of scheduled
castes form a considerable proportion.
25. Since members of scheduled castes generally live in small groups intermixed with the rest of

the population, their welfare and progress are bound uo to a large extent with those of the
community as a whole. Improvement in their living conditions and levels of income constitutes one
of the major tests of economic and social progress in the country. Since 1947 legislation has been
enacted for dealing with the social disabilities of the scheduled castes and, progressively, with the
support of public opinion, arrangements for enforcing the laws are being strengthened. Such
social disabilities as remain are in considerable degree due to economic backwardness.
Economic development programmes have, therefore, special urgency. In the measure in which,
as envisaged in the Third Plan, the benefits of various development programmes can be carried
effectively to the weaker sections of the community, scheduled castes will gain from these
programmes.
26. While assistance in education is given high priority in programmes for the welfare of backward
classes and regulations for recruitment to the public services provide for reservation of posts, it is
observed that frequently the prescribed proportions are not being reached. At the same time, in
some areas, persons belonging to backward classes who have received some measure of
education may be found among the unemployed. This is specially the case with persons whose
education fits them only for clerical and like positions. It is, therefore, necessary to place much
greater emphasis on technical and vocational training. As proposed in the Chapter on Education,
it is also necessary that schemes for scholarships and other assistance in education should be so
devised that promising students are effectively able to complete their studies and reach the stage
at which they are eligible for permanent employment. It would be desirable to select young
persons from amongst scheduled castes and from backward classes in general at an early
enough stage and to help them continuously through the entire educational career, with
assurance, wherever possible of employment at the end.
27. Voluntary organisations are given assistance for educating the public regarding the removal of
untouchability. Assistance for this purpose will be extended to them on a large scale in the Third
Plan. It is important that voluntary organisations should go beyond work relating to publicity and
propaganda and should actually establish or help to set up institutions such as schools, hospitals,
housing cooperatives, industrial centres, etc., and should assist in running them. Such centres will
provide an effective base for the work of voluntary organisations and will be of the greatest value
in the economic rehabilitation of scheduled castes and o^her sections of the population.
Annual reports of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes indicate the
progress made in dealing with the problem of scheduled castes. A general evaluation was also
attempted by the Study Team on Social Welfare constituted by the Committee on Plan Projects.
Specific problems have been studied by special committees or groups as, for instance, the recent
report of the committee appointed by the Central Advisory Boards on Harijan Welfare to consider
conditions of scavengers. There is need for fuller and more frequent evaluation of the impact of
development programmes on the conditions of scheduled castes, so that, in the light of
experience, new methods may be adopted and the existing arrangements strengthened.
IV Denotified Tribes
28. Since the denotification of tribes, formerly described as 'criminal', various schemes for their
rehabilitation and development have been taken up in the States. The Third Plan provides Rs. 4
crores as against the anticipated outlay during the First and the Second Plans of about Rs. 1
crore and Rs. 2.9 crores repec-tively. The repeal in 1952 of the Criminal Tribes Act, 1924,
embodies a fundamental change in the approach towards ex-criminal tribes from surveillance and
punishment to correction, rehabilitation and assimilation into the wider community. Although the
total population of these tribes is estimated at about 4 million, they are divided into a large number
of groups. each with its own local and traditional background and distinctive features. Some of
these tribes are also listed among scheduled castes. The rehabilitation of these tribes presents
many problems. Lacking in education, isolated from others, as a rule they are also inadequate as
cultivators, and age-old attitudes take time to change. On the whole, the economic development
programmes undertaken in recent years in the interest of the denotifled tribes have had very

limited impact except where groups of persons could be settled in colonies and developed into a
stable and fairly prosperous community. For economic, educational and social programmes to
succeed, it is essential that voluntary workers and organisations should be given a larger role.
Long years of patient work will be needed among these tribes before their innate fears are laid at
rest and confidence gained and the urge to build up a better social and economic life motivates a
sufficient number among them to leam new crafts become efficient cultivators and be integrated
with the rest of the population.
29. In view of the small results achieved thus far in rehabilitating denotified tribes, it is considered
that their needs should be studied in each area at close range and suitable programmes should
be formulated, keeping in view the long-term and complex nature of the problems
involved. The programmes could be drawn up broadly on the lines of the recommendations of the
Study Team set up by the Committee on Plan Projects, especially the following :

1. the need for a combined correctional and welfare approach for the rehabilitation of
denotified communities, which should be supported by a programme of social education;

2. formulation of special economic programmes which keep in view the character of the
population, in particular, their adventurous spirit and traditional skills;

3. organisation of industrial and other cooperatives;

4. provision of opportunities for employment in the public services supported by way of
additional training and orientation facilities; and

5. wherever the denotified tribes constitute a sizable population, cadres of trained workers,
who are familiar with their social and cultural background and can work closely with them
should be built up.
30. If the problems of the denotified tribes are to be approached in the manner suggested above,
special efforts will be needed for close study of the problems and attitudes of different sections
among denotified tribes. Investigations among denotified tribes have been undertaken hitherto in
an ad hoc manner, and in fact not enough is known about them and of the effects on them of
current social and economic developments. In view of the numbers involved and the extremely
difficult nature of the problems to be resolved, it is suggested that there should be systematic
planning of the studies required and, for this purpose, the assistance of schools of social work
and other institutions should be fully availed of. Official agencies concerned with the problems of
denotified tribes should be strengthened, and both voluntary organisations and research workers
should be closely associated with them. The objective of assimilation should guide the
programme of rehabilitation and development from the very start and progressive and forwardlooking elements among the denotified tribes themselves should be assisted and encouraged to
play an increasing part in this effort.

Chapter 34:
DEVELOPMENT OF BACKWARD CLASSES
General considerations programmes for bringing scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and
other backward classes to the level of the rest of the community are among the most
significant undertaken during the First and Second Plans. Success in fulfilling them is
difficult to measure. It involves far-reaching changes in social organisation and in social

practices and is a test equally of the progress achieved in improving the conditions of the
sections of the community directly affected and in reconstructing the structure of the
Indian society itself, specially in rural areas. Article 46 of the Constitution laid down the
Directive Principle that the State shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation. The Constitution also provided for certain reservations for scheduled tribes
and scheduled castes. These were limited, in the first instance, to a period of ten years but
by a recent amendment of the Constitution, these reservations have been extended by a
further period of ten years. Since such safeguards are a reflection of the economic and
social conditions of the groups concerned. Parliament's action has a twofold significance.
Firstly, the problem of raising the living standards of scheduled tribes, scheduled castes
and other weaker sections of the population is much more complex than had been earlier
realised and calls for sustained endeavour over a long period. Secondly, besides ensuring
rapid and sustained growth for the economy as a whole, at least during the next two or
three Plans, measures for advancing the economic' and social interests of scheduled
tribes, scheduled castes and other weaker sections of the community should be so
intensified, that they do, in fact, reach a level of well-being comparable with that of other
sections of the population. Development programmes included in the plans of States and
the Centre for the Third Five Year Plan will need to be continually re-assessed from fir's
angle and steps taken to increase their total impact in various directions as the Plan
proceeds. This is a crucial task in the attempt to evolve an integrated society and a wellknit economy for the country as a whole.
2. The lists of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were revised in 1956. On this basis,
according to the census of 1951, the total population of scheduled tribes was estimated at
22.5 million and that of scheduled castes at 55 million. The oooulation of 'denotified' tribes
(formerly d cribed as 'criminal' tribes) was reckoned at about 4 million. In different States,
according to the local conditions, certain other groups are also described as 'other
backward classes' and special steps are taken to safeguard their interests.
Development programmes for the welfare of backward classes, for which provision is
made in the Five Year Plans, are intended to supplement benefits accruing from
programmes of development in different fields such as agriculture, cooperation, irrigation,
small industries, communications, education, health, housing, rural water supply and
others. One of the principal lessons of the past decade is that for a variety of reasons, in
the ordinary course, the weaker sections of the population are not able to secure their fair
share of the benefits of provisions made under different heads. To enable them to do so, it
is desirable that the normal patterns of assistance should provide, wherever necessary, for
an element of special consideration for the weaker sections and, in particular, for the
backward classes. It is observed that in a number of schemes formulated in favour of
backward classes, the financial resources provided for this section of the population are
proposed to be utilised in part to meet the cost of additional subsidy or other assistance to
enable the backward clashes to avail themselves of the general development programmes.
This has the effect of reducing the scope of additional development to be undertaken from
the special provisions made for the backward classes. The problem needs further
consideration, since, on the one hand, it is essential that the general development
programmes should be so designed as to cater adequately for the backward classes and,
on the other, the special provisions in the Plan should be used as far as possible for
securing additional and more intensified development.
3. For programmes relating to the welfare of backward classes, a total outlay of Rs. 79
crores was incurred in the Second Plan compared to Rs. 30 crores in the First Plan. The
Third Plan at present provides for programmes estimated to cost about Rs. 114 crores. The
distribuiton of these outlays among different sections is shown below :

(Rs. crores)

scheduled tribes
scheduled castes
denotified tribes
other backward classes
total

First Plan
outlay

Second Plan estimated

expenditure

1 Third Plan estimated cost

of programmes

19-83
7-08
1-10
2-03
30-04

43-00
27-66
2-89
5-86
79-41

60-43
40-40
4-00
9-04
113-87

In respect of scheduled tribes, besides the provisions in the plans of States which are
intended to benefit them in particular, developmental outlays of territories like NEFA,
Nagaland, Manipur and Tripura, are reckoned in the Third Plan at over Rs. 40 crores
c'ompared to over Rs. 20 crores in the Second Plan.
4. Of the outlay of Rs. 114 crores in the Third Plan, provided for the welfare of backward
classes, about Rs. 42 crores are intended for schemes of educational development, Rs. 47
crores for economic uplift schemes and Rs. 25 crores for health, housing and other
schemes. The problems of scheduled castes and other backward classes are essentially
those of economically weaker sections of the community, who suffer also in larger or
smaller measure from social disabilities. Denotified tribes constitute a special group
whose assimilation into the larger community presents peculiar difficulties, but is
nonetheless a matter of great urgency. In the context of a rapidly developing economy,
scheduled tribes can no longer remain in the isolation which characterised them in the
past and in many areas, with the onset of industrialisation and large irrigation and power
projects, they confront the most complex problems of adjustment and rehabilitation.
Although there are certain common considerations and approaches, scheduled tribes
living in different parts of the country vary a great deal among themselves, and the special
conditions and problems of different tribal groups have always to be kept in view.
II Scheduled Tribes
5. The broad policies to be followed for the development of tribal populations and tribal
areas have been reviewed recently by the Study Team on Social Welfare and Welfare of
Backward Classes set up by the Committee on Plan Projects, the Committee on Special
Multipurpose Tribal Blocks and the Central Advisory Board for Tribal Welfare and also in
special studies in respect of such tribal areas as NEFA and Nagaland. There is a broad
consensus of opinion that while the rest of the population of the country goes forward, and
India and the world change so rapidly, the tribal areas can scarcely remain in isolation. At
the same time, it would be ah error to over-administer these areas in the name of
development and, in particular, to send too many officials and others to work amongst the
tribal people. A middle way between these extreme positions has to be found.
6. Development in such directions as education and provision of training facilities,
improvement of agriculture, building up of communications, improvement of health and
medical facilities and supply of drinking water are both essential and inevitable. In
facilitating these developments, the tribal people should be enabled to develop along the
lines of their own genius, with genuine respect and support for their own traditional arts
and culture and without pressure or imposition from outside. In tribal areas every effort
should be made to train and build up a team of their own people to do the work of
administration and development. Some technical personnel from outside would no doubt
be needed, specially in the beginning, but the ami should be constantly to develop local
personnel both as official functionaries and as social workers. In determining the

development schemes to be implemented, as experience during recent years bears out, it

is desirable to avoid taking up too many small and isolated schemes which cannot have
much impact;instead the stress should be on a few programmes of basic importancfe
which are calculated to mitigate poverty, impart new skills, promote health and better
living, improve communications without upsetting the stability of social and cultural
values, the pattern of leadership and institutions and the scheme of obligations within the
tribal community.
7. Execution of development programmes meets with several practical difficulties and
limitations. For instance, in the absence of adequate local personnel or effective means of
communication between personnel engaged in development work and the traditional
leadership and institutions, it may not always be easy to observe the various tribal policies
outlined above. Nevertheless, these policies provide general guidance in formulating and
carrying out development programmes. It was in view of the special character of the
problems involved that Article 339 of the Constitution provided for the setting up of a
Commission within ten years of the commencement of the Constitution to report on the
administration of scheduled areas and the welfare of the scheduled tribes in the States.
The Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, which was set up in April, 1960,
has recently submitted an interim report based on its study of developments in nine States
(Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pra-desh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab
and Rajas-than) and one Union Territory (Himachal Pradesh). In this report the
Commission has drawn urgent attention, amongst others, to the following important
aspects :
(1) In most States the special protective machinery for safeguarding the interests of the
tribal people and protecting them from exploitation by outsiders has not worked
satisfactorily. There have been large-scale transfers of tribal land consequent upon the
undesirable activities of money-lenders, forest contractors and other exploiters. The
reorganisation of forests and enunciation of new policies have resulted in the curtailment
of their rights in forests and in fishing and hunting. In Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
industrial and other development schemes have led to large-scale displacement of the
tribal people. There is need, therefore, for strengthening and in some cases for
reorganising the administrative set up for the scheduled areas.
(2) The requirements of personnel for working in tribal areas, specially Tribal Welfare
Officers, technical specialists and field level workers have not been adequately assessed.
This factor is responsible for a setback in the implementation of welfare schemes.
Recruitment of personnel without a long-term view of requirements has proved
unsatisfactory. There has been a chronic shortage of trained workers in the scheduled
areas. Personnel who are to work in tribal areas must be oriented to the tribal way of life
and appreciation of the special disabilities from which the tribal people suffer.
Development activities more or less conceived on the lines of non-tribal areas have
generally failed to make adequate headway and impact on the tribal areas. There is need,
therefore, for a larger effort through special institutions and otherwise for giving
orientation training to personnel at various levels working in tribal areas. Difficulties such
as the grant of requisite allowances for personnel who have to work under difficult
conditions have also to be resolved satisfactorily.
(3) There are large number of problems emerging in tribal areas which call for scientific
study and evaluation, for instance, the impact of industrialisation in tribal areas, the rate of
disposition of land, prevalence of various systems of debt bondage, and social and
economic effects on the tribal people of specific development schemes and of institutions
like ashram schools, forest labourers' cooperative societies, grain goals, etc.
(4) Non-official voluntary organisations have a significant role in the development of tribal
areas. They should be adequately assisted on the basis of programmes which are carefully

formulated and coordinated with other activities.

The existing at Tangements have to be considered further in the light of the Commission's
recommendations and steps taken to improve upon them where necessary.
Programmes for The Third Plan
8. During the Second Plan a variety of development schemes have been undertaken in
tribal areas. Thus, the economic uplift programme has included schemes for land
settlement, land reclamation, distribution of seed and setting up of demonstration farms,
establishment of service cooperatives and forest labourers' cooperatives, and
improvement of communications. In the educational programme, stress has been laid on
concessions in the form of stipends, freeships and other grants, scholarships before and
after matriculation, establishment of new schools,ncluding ashram schools and training in
agricultural and industrial crafts. Schemes for supply of drinking water, for improvement of
housing conditions and for setting up of dispensaries, maternity and child welfare centres
and mobile health units have also been undertaken.
9. In the light of the experience gained in the Second Plan, the general lines on which
programmes should be drawn up for the Third Plan were considered by a special working
group. It is proposed that economic uplift[ programmes should give priority to the
economic rehabilitation of persons engaged in shifting cultivation, working of forests
through cooperatives composed of members of scheduled tribes, and formation of multipurpose cooperatives for meeting the credit requirements of tribal agriculturists and
artisans and for marketing their products. From the provisions made under different
heads, programmes should be undertaken in tribal areas for land improvement, land
reclamation and soil conservation, minor irrigation, supply of improved seeds, manures,
implements and bullocks, provision of facilities for training, demonstration of improved
practices, development of cattle, fisheries, poultry, piggeries and sheep-breeding,
organisation of training-cum^production centres and provision of assistance and advice to
village artisans engaged in cottage industries. In the programme for education, apart from
primary schools to be provided for under the general scheme, there should be assistance
at the middle and secondary stages for freeships and stipends and hostels. Scholarships
and freeships should also be provided for technical training. The main highways should be
undertaken as part of the general development programme and resources provided for
scheduled tribes should be used, in particular, for culverts, causeways and bridges
needed for connecting inaccessible areas, approach roads, jeepable forest roads and
repairs to existing communications with remote and inaccessible areas. In the medical and
public health programme, the working group has suggested priority for preventive
measures for diseases common in each area, provision of itinerant medical units,
establishment of matenr'ty and child welfare centres and provision of drinking water in
difficult areas.
10. The plans of States have been generally drawn up in accordance with the suggestions
outlined above. They will, however, need to be reviewed from two aspects, namely :
(a) greater intensification in the light of the recommendations which may be made by the
Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, and (b) ensuring that the special
provisions are utilised as far as possible for additional programmes rather than merely for
altering the patterns of assistance made available to the backward classes under the
general schemes of development. As a rule, such concessions as are considered
necessary in the interest of these groups should be built into the schemes themselves and
should not be denendent on resources being diverted from the limited provisions made
specifically for the welfare of backward classes.
11. The Plan provides for a large programme of tribal development blocks, which aim at

intensive and coordinated development in tribal areas on the general pattern of community
development, but modified to suit tribal conditions and supplemented by additional
resources. In all, 43 development blocks came under this programme during the Second
Plan. Each Block involved a total outlay of Rs. 27 lakhs, Rs. 12 lakhs being found under
Community Development and Rs. 15 lakhs by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The scheme
has now been altered so as to provide for a total outlay of Rs. 22 lakhs in stage I (the
contribution of the Ministry of Home Affairs being; Rs. 10 lakhs), followed by a further
period of five years under stage II for which an allotment of Rs. 10 lakhs will be made; Rs. 5
lakhs under Community Development and Rs. 5 lakhs from the Ministry of Home Affairs.
FoUowing the recommendations made by the Committee on Special Multi-purpose Tribal
Blocks, the scheme of Development in these areas has been made much more flexible. The
programme will now extend not only to scheduled areas but also to those blocks in which
the tribal population constitutes two-thirds or more of the total population. In place of the
schematic budget suggesting in detail the distribution of the available resources under
different heads, it is now proposed that about 60 per cent of the funds should be allotted
for economic uplift, 25 per cent for communications and 15 per cent for social services,
with the suggestion that for tackling effectively the problem of drinking water supply
further resources might be secured from the provision for economic uplift. The Third Plan
provides in all for 300 tribal development blocks.
12. As a result of recent discussions there is already a concensus of opwon as to the basic
conditions required for the successful execution of the programme for tribal development
blocks. These are, in particular, careful planning, coordination of activities, framing and
orientation of personnel to the needs of the tribal communities, special attention to the
requirements of the poorer and the more inaccessible areas, respect for tribal rights in
land and forests and active association of the traditional tribal organisations and
leadership with the implementation of development programmes. The programme for tribal
development blocks is being implemented as a Centrally sponsored scheme. Other
development schemes in the same category are those relating to cooperation, including
forest cooperatives, and marketing-cum-consumer cooperatives, award of postmatriculation scholarships, Tribal Research Institutes and training, research and surveys.
13. As pointed out earlier, the programme for scheduled tribes will be reviewed after the
final proposals of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission become
available. In this connection, it may be stated that in its interim report, to nine States and
one Union Territory, the Commission has recommended a total outlay of about Rs. 73
crores as against the provision in the Plan as at present formulated (including both State
Plans and Centrally sponsored schemes) of about Rs. 54 crores. The following table
compares the present provisions in the Plan for all States and Union Territories and those
for areas considered in the interim report of the Commission :
(Rs. crores)

education
economic uplift
health, housing and other
schemes
total

ll States and Union Territories nine State' and one Union Territory
provision in the Third Plan
provision in
outlay recommended
the Third Plan in the Interim RepOTt
Centre and t of he scheduled Areas
States
and Scheduled Tribes
Commission
14-48
12-26
15-38
37-12
34-39
48-07
9-55
6-99
9-45
61-15

53-64

72.90

The Commission has also indicated the possibility of additional areas being declared as
scheduled areas; for these, some supplementary resources may be required. The
Commission's proposals regarding development programmes, which will be considered
carefully, may call for some further resources. The precise additions needed in the
provisions for scheduled tribes, the extent to which the further outlays proposed under
different heads can be met from the general allotments made for them in the Plan and the
respective contributions of the Centre and of individual States will be considered in due
course.
Problems of Development
14. As a result of work in the first two Plans and the reviews undertaken by expert
committees and others, the general patterns of development in tribal areas are fairly well
established. It is of course essential to strengthen the machinery for implementation. It is
also necessary from time to time to assess the progress which is realised. Objective
evaluation is of great importance because in a field as com-p'ex as the welfare of tribal
populations, there is frequently a gap between the policies which are enunciated and the
manner in which effect is given to them in the field. In the tribal areas, such a gap is not
only undesirable in itself but may lead to frustration and may cause serious social and
psychological disturbances.
15. In carrying out programmes of development during the Third Plan, there are certain
aspects which need to be specially stressed. The principal economic problems of tribal
populations centre on lack of continuous employment and the prevailing indebtedness. In
a real sense these are interconnected problems. Tribal communities depend for their living
almost entirely on agriculture and forests. The importance of safeguarding their rights in
land and in forests has been stressed already. In some Stales, notably in Maharashtra and
Gujarat, forests in scheduled areas are to a large extent worked through forest labourers'
cooperatives composed ot tribal people. These have on the whole proved satisfactory, but
care has to be taken to see that the workers are not exploited either by subordinate
officials of Forest Departments or by unscrupulous persons from amongst the tribal
people themselves. Invariably, social workers and officials of Tribal Welfare Departments
should be associated with the working of these cooperatives. In States in which
exploitation of forest resources is still being undertaken mainly through contractors, the
existing system should be replaced as early as possible.
16. To a large extent improvement in the economic conditions of scheduled tribes depends
upon the success with which levels of agriculture are raised. From this aspect, wherever
settled cultivation already exists, there should be the utmost stress on supply of improved
seeds, fertilisers and credit, increase of irrigation soil conservation and land reclamation,
adoption of better implements and technical guidance. Where shifting cultivation prevails,
the transition to settled agriculture is generally likely to be slow and long-drawn. In these
areas, the primary aim should be to ensure that shifting cultivation is carried out on a
scientific basis so as to limit its disadvantages and promote the fertility of the soil. The
problems of changing over from shifting to settled cultivation are now better appreciated
than in the past; nevertheless they need to be studied at first hand in each area jointly by
agricultural and tribal experts and social workers associated with them before the
communities concerned are advised to change the practices which they are accustomed to
follow.
17. Among the tribal people there are many factors for favour of development along
cooperative lines. However, for cooperation to succeed in raising levels of income and
increasing production, it is essential that the problem of past indebtedness should be dealt
with in a more basic way than in the past. Some action has been recently taken in the
States. For instance, in Andhra Pradesh interest outstanding in January 1957 in favour of
any creditor is discharged and only the principal is payable. Interest rates are also
regulated. Investigations into the extent of indebtedness among scheduled tribes have

been undertaken in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Assam, Orissa and
Himachal Pradesh and in the Lahaul and Spiti areas in the Punjab. The problem as a whole
needs fresh consideration. The available data might be considered by a special committee
with a view to evolving effective measures arid policies. These must include, amongst
others, provisions for liquidation and settlement of debts as well as regulation of the terms
and conditions for new loans. For the future, the main reliance will necessarily have to be
placed on rapid development of cooperative finance and marketing. In this connection the
working of schemes like the Andhra Scheduled Tribes Cooperative Finance and
Development Corporation snould be studied closely with a view to determining further
directions of cooperative development among scheduled tribes. It is important that
cooperative organisations should be adapted to the actual requirements of scheduled
tribes and the conditions prevailing in different areas and that rules and procedures
should be greatly simplified. The Ministry of Home Affairs have recently constituted a
working group to consider how scheduled tribes and other backward classes should be
assisted to benefit fully from programmes of cooperative development during the Third
Plan and to suggest suitable types of cooperative organisation and the changes needed in
rules and bye-laws.
18. In tribal areas, as a rule, there is considerable under-employment. It is proposed that in
the rural worKs programmes to be undertaken during the Third Plan, the requirements of
employment in tribal areas during the long slack agricultural seasons should be specially
kept in view.
19. In the plans of States there are several schemes for the promotion of cottage industries
in tribal areas. In the past, cottage industry programmes do not appear to have had a
significant impact. This may be due, in part, to the difficulty of selecting the industries to
be developed on economic lines, and in part to paucity or personnel and to lack of assured
marketing and credit facilities. As suggested by the Committee on Special Multi-purpose
Tribal Blocks, it is essential to study closely the arts and crafts which already exist in each
area and to consider how these could be developed and also the new crafts which could
De introduced on an economically satisfactory basis. In this connection, a further problem
may be mentioned. In the tribal areas there is a very large proportion of boys, roughly
between the ages of 11 and 14 or 15 years, who have either not gone to school at all or
whose education has been discontinued. If facilities for imparting vocational training of
even a simple character could be developed in tribal areas, these boys could be equipped
for productive work.
20. In recent years, several large projects for the development of irrigation, power and
industry have been located in areas inhabited by tribal populations. As an immediate effect
of these projects, there has been a considerable measure of dislocation and uprooting.
The number of families required to be displaced on account of such projects has
frequently run into thousands. Etforts are made to provide compensation in land or cash
or both. It is important that the compensation should be sufficient for ensuring effective
rehabilitation. As far a? possible, compensation should take the form of land. The
productive value of the land which is given up should be an important factor to be taken
into account in determining the scale of allotment. It has been observed that compensation
taken in cash is soon squandered and frequently, where compensation has taken the form
of land, for a variety of reasons, satisfactory resettlement has not been achieved. For a
time unskilled work is available at the site of the project. When the construction phase of
the project is completed and the need is for skilled workers, there is little scope for
employing displaced tribal workers. In these, circumstances, the damage done to the
communities concerned as well as to the individuals is irreparabie and becomes, in turn, a
source of resentment. With rapid development during tlie Third and subsequent Plans, this
problem is likely to grow in magnitude and should be handled with extreme care. In
determining locations of projects, the possibility of avoiding eviction wholly or in part
should be fully considered. When no alternative exists, it is suggested that instead of
dealing with the problem of eviction and resettlement directly through their own officials or

even through the normal revenue administrations, the agency of Tribal Welfare
Departments and of voluntary organisations should be utilised. Responsible voluntary
organisations, if taken into confidence at an early stage in the project and provided with
tlie necessary resources, can be most helpful in the task of arranging the transfer of the
population, resettlement and other rehabilitation measures. They should of course be
given a measure of discretion and flexibility in dealing with the problems which arise. It
has to be remembered that even though individuals have to be given compensation, in the
context of tribal life, chey do not and cannot stand alone, and it is no less important to
sustain their sense of belonging to a larger community with its own way of life and codes
of behaviour and organisation.
21. Tribal welfare programmes affect large numbers of people and the many new
developments now under way may produce results which may change fundamentally the
character of tribal life and institutions. The resulting problems cannot be dealt with
satisfactorily without cadres of public servants and social workers having intimate
knowledge, imbued with sympathy, and trained in carrying out the tasks allotted to them.
Short-term assignments in tribal areas given to officials, who are liable to transfer
elsewhere are far from satisfactory. To bring the scheduled tribes to the level of the rest of
the population calls for sustained efforts for a generation or more on the part of thousands
of devoted public servants and social workers, who should be drawn more and more from
amongst the tribal people themselves. As a rule, although much has been accomplished
during the first two Plans, departments in the States set up for carrying out development
programmes among the tribal people are on the whole insufficiently equipped with
personnel and do not always enjoy the requisite support for undertaking the
extraordinarily difficult tasks falling to them. In these circumstances, having regard to the
special responsibilities envisaged in the Constitution, it might be worth considering
whether the Central and State Government should now cooperate in forming a special
cadre comprising technical and other personnel for work in scheduled areas and in other
areas which have concentration of tribal populations. Such a cadre could provide for
personnel above the field level. As a rule, those belonging to the cadre could work within
their own States but, at the higher levels of responsibility, they could also be available for
work elsewhere. The most significant aspect, of course, is that a body of trained persons
would spend their entire period of service among the tribal people, so that their
knowledge, experience and sense of identification would become a vital factor in assuring
rapid and uninterrupted development. Along with measures taken to strengthen the public
service, it is also essential that as a matter of public policy strong voluntary organisations
should be built up for work among the tribal people.
Ill Scheduled Castes
22. As distinguished from scheduled tribes, scheduled castes are widely dispersed and,
while they form part of the general community, the social disabilities from which they
suffer and their economic weakness place them in a special category. The Constitution
abolished 'untouchabihty' and forbade its practice in any form, and the (Jntouchability
(Offences) Act, 1955, made the offence of 'untouchability' cognisable and punishable
uniformly throughout the country. While they have social problems which are peculiar to
them, the economic problems of scheduled castes are in the main common with those of
other weaker sections of the community. The Third Plan provides about Rs. 40 crores for
special programmes relating to scheduled castes as compared with outlays of about Rs.
28 crores in the Second Plan and nearly Rs. 7 crores in the First Plan. About Rs. 30 crores
have been provided for scheduled castes in the plans of States. About one-half of this
amount is for education schemes and the balance is divided almost equally between (a)
schemes for economic uplift and (b) health, housing and other schemes. These provisions
are intended to supplement benefits which should be available in an increasing measure to
scheduled castes from the general development programmes provided for in the Plan,
especially since the Plan places special emphasis on ensuring that the weaker sections of
the community obtain their due share of the benefits in each programme. The community

development programme, the rural works programme, schemes for land resettlement, the
programme for village and small industries and other schemes undertaken in the interest
of agricultural labourers have the greatest significance for raising the living standard of
scheduled castes and other weaker sections of the community.
23. During the First two Plans, the major stress in carrying out development programmes
for scheduled castes has been on education. Thus, as compared to 600,000 scholarships
awarded to scheduled caste students in 1956-57, the number in receipt of scholarships at
the end of the Second Plan is about 900,000. At the post-matriculation stage, the number of
scholarship-holders from among the scheduled castes has risen from less than 1100 at the
beginning of the First Plan to about 40,000 at the close of the Second Plan.
24. As explained already, programmes for scheduled castes included in the Third Plan are
intended to provide for certain special schems; they do not in any sense take the place of
development programmes undertaken for the community as a whole. In the field of
education, the main aims are to make available special scholarships based to the extent
feasible, on suitable merit-cum-means tests, provision of residential facilities at
educational institutions as a rule in mixed hostels, exemption from fees, and financial
assistance for needy students. For promoting economic uplift, stress is laid on allotment
of land and assistance for settling as cultivators, training in village and small industries
and introduction of improved techniques in the traditional crafts. While the bulk of the
special allocations are made in the plans of States, the Ministry of Home Affairs provide for
the following Centrally sponsored schemes :
1. improvement of the working conditions of persons engaged in unclean
occupations including eradication of the practice of carrying night soil as head
loads;
2. subsidies for housing for sweepers and scavengers;
3. provision of house sites for members of scheduled castes
a. who are engaged in unclean occupations, and
b. who are landless labourers;
4. award of post-matric scholarships; and
5. aid to voluntary organisations.
Under the general housing programmes, funds are earmarked for acquisition and
development of lands for granting house sites to agricultural workers amongst whom
members of scheduled castes form a considerable proportion.
25. Since members of scheduled castes generally live in small groups intermixed with the
rest of the population, their welfare and progress are bound uo to a large extent with those
of the community as a whole. Improvement in their living conditions and levels of income
constitutes one of the major tests of economic and social progress in the country. Since
1947 legislation has been enacted for dealing with the social disabilities of the scheduled
castes and, progressively, with the support of public opinion, arrangements for enforcing
the laws are being strengthened. Such social disabilities as remain are in considerable
degree due to economic backwardness. Economic development programmes have,
therefore, special urgency. In the measure in which, as envisaged in the Third Plan, the
benefits of various development programmes can be carried effectively to the weaker

sections of the community, scheduled castes will gain from these programmes.
26. While assistance in education is given high priority in programmes for the welfare of
backward classes and regulations for recruitment to the public services provide for
reservation of posts, it is observed that frequently the prescribed proportions are not
being reached. At the same time, in some areas, persons belonging to backward classes
who have received some measure of education may be found among the unemployed. This
is specially the case with persons whose education fits them only for clerical and like
positions. It is, therefore, necessary to place much greater emphasis on technical and
vocational training. As proposed in the Chapter on Education, it is also necessary that
schemes for scholarships and other assistance in education should be so devised that
promising students are effectively able to complete their studies and reach the stage at
which they are eligible for permanent employment. It would be desirable to select young
persons from amongst scheduled castes and from backward classes in general at an early
enough stage and to help them continuously through the entire educational career, with
assurance, wherever possible of employment at the end.
27. Voluntary organisations are given assistance for educating the public regarding the
removal of untouchability. Assistance for this purpose will be extended to them on a large
scale in the Third Plan. It is important that voluntary organisations should go beyond work
relating to publicity and propaganda and should actually establish or help to set up
institutions such as schools, hospitals, housing cooperatives, industrial centres, etc., and
should assist in running them. Such centres will provide an effective base for the work of
voluntary organisations and will be of the greatest value in the economic rehabilitation of
scheduled castes and o^her sections of the population.
Annual reports of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes indicate
the progress made in dealing with the problem of scheduled castes. A general evaluation
was also attempted by the Study Team on Social Welfare constituted by the Committee on
Plan Projects. Specific problems have been studied by special committees or groups as,
for instance, the recent report of the committee appointed by the Central Advisory Boards
on Harijan Welfare to consider conditions of scavengers. There is need for fuller and more
frequent evaluation of the impact of development programmes on the conditions of
scheduled castes, so that, in the light of experience, new methods may be adopted and the
existing arrangements strengthened.
IV Denotified Tribes
28. Since the denotification of tribes, formerly described as 'criminal', various schemes for
their rehabilitation and development have been taken up in the States. The Third Plan
provides Rs. 4 crores as against the anticipated outlay during the First and the Second
Plans of about Rs. 1 crore and Rs. 2.9 crores repec-tively. The repeal in 1952 of the
Criminal Tribes Act, 1924, embodies a fundamental change in the approach towards excriminal tribes from surveillance and punishment to correction, rehabilitation and
assimilation into the wider community. Although the total population of these tribes is
estimated at about 4 million, they are divided into a large number of groups. each with its
own local and traditional background and distinctive features. Some of these tribes are
also listed among scheduled castes. The rehabilitation of these tribes presents many
problems. Lacking in education, isolated from others, as a rule they are also inadequate as
cultivators, and age-old attitudes take time to change. On the whole, the economic
development programmes undertaken in recent years in the interest of the denotifled
tribes have had very limited impact except where groups of persons could be settled in
colonies and developed into a stable and fairly prosperous community. For economic,
educational and social programmes to succeed, it is essential that voluntary workers and
organisations should be given a larger role. Long years of patient work will be needed
among these tribes before their innate fears are laid at rest and confidence gained and the

urge to build up a better social and economic life motivates a sufficient number among
them to leam new crafts become efficient cultivators and be integrated with the rest of the
population.
29. In view of the small results achieved thus far in rehabilitating denotified tribes, it is
considered that their needs should be studied in each area at close range and suitable
programmes should be formulated, keeping in view the long-term and complex nature of
the problems
involved. The programmes could be drawn up broadly on the lines of the
recommendations of the Study Team set up by the Committee on Plan Projects, especially
the following :
1. the need for a combined correctional and welfare approach for the rehabilitation of
denotified communities, which should be supported by a programme of social
education;
2. formulation of special economic programmes which keep in view the character of
the population, in particular, their adventurous spirit and traditional skills;
3. organisation of industrial and other cooperatives;
4. provision of opportunities for employment in the public services supported by way
of additional training and orientation facilities; and
5. wherever the denotified tribes constitute a sizable population, cadres of trained
workers, who are familiar with their social and cultural background and can work
closely with them should be built up.
30. If the problems of the denotified tribes are to be approached in the manner suggested
above, special efforts will be needed for close study of the problems and attitudes of
different sections among denotified tribes. Investigations among denotified tribes have
been undertaken hitherto in an ad hoc manner, and in fact not enough is known about
them and of the effects on them of current social and economic developments. In view of
the numbers involved and the extremely difficult nature of the problems to be resolved, it
is suggested that there should be systematic planning of the studies required and, for this
purpose, the assistance of schools of social work and other institutions should be fully
availed of. Official agencies concerned with the problems of denotified tribes should be
strengthened, and both voluntary organisations and research workers should be closely
associated with them. The objective of assimilation should guide the programme of
rehabilitation and development from the very start and progressive and forward-looking
elements among the denotified tribes themselves should be assisted and encouraged to
play an increasing part in this effort.

NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES (NCSS) first published national curriculum
standards in 1994. Since then, the social studies standards have been widely and successfully used
as a framework for teachers, schools, districts, states, and other nations as a tool for curriculum
alignment and development. However, much has changed in the world and in education since these
curriculum standards were published. This revision aims to provide a framework for teaching,
learning, and assessment in social studies that includes a sharper articulation of curriculum
objectives, and reflects greater consistency across the different sections of the document. It
incorporates current research and suggestions for improvement from many experienced practitioners.
These revised standards reflect a desire to continue and build upon the expectations established in
the original standards for effective social studies in the grades from pre-K through 12.

The approach originally taken in these curriculum standards has been well received in the United
States and internationally; therefore, while the document has been revised and updated, it retains the
same organization around major themes basic to social studies learning. As in the original document,
the framework moves beyond any single approach to teaching and learning and promotes much more
than the transmission of knowledge alone. These updated standards retain the central emphasis of
the original document on supporting students to become active participants in the learning process.
What Is Social Studies and Why Is It Important?
National Council for the Social Studies, the largest professional association for social studies
educators in the world, defines social studies as:

the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence.
Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon
such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy,
political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the
humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help
young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a
culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world. 1
The aim of social studies is the promotion of civic competencethe knowledge, intellectual
processes, and democratic dispositions required of students to be active and engaged participants in
public life. Although civic competence is not the only responsibility of social studies nor is it exclusive
to the field, it is more central to social studies than to any other subject area in schools. By making
civic competence a central aim, NCSS has long recognized the importance of educating students who
are committed to the ideas and values of democracy. Civic competence rests on this commitment to
democratic values, and requires the abilities to use knowledge about ones community, nation, and
world; apply inquiry processes; and employ skills of data collection and analysis, collaboration,
decision-making, and problem-solving. Young people who are knowledgeable, skillful, and committed
to democracy are necessary to sustaining and improving our democratic way of life, and participating
as members of a global community.

The civic mission of social studies demands the inclusion of all studentsaddressing cultural,

linguistic, and learning diversity that includes similarities and differences based on race, ethnicity,
language, religion, gender, sexual orientation, exceptional learning needs, and other educationally
and personally significant characteristics of learners. Diversity among learners embodies the
democratic goal of embracing pluralism to make social studies classrooms laboratories of democracy.

In democratic classrooms and nations, deep understanding of civic issuessuch as immigration,

economic problems, and foreign policyinvolves several disciplines. Social studies marshals the
disciplines to this civic task in various forms. These important issues can be taught in one class, often
designated social studies, that integrates two or more disciplines. On the other hand, issues can
also be taught in separate discipline-based classes (e.g., history or geography). These standards are
intended to be useful regardless of organizational or instructional approach (for example, a problemsolving approach, an approach centered on controversial issues, a discipline-based approach, or
some combination of approaches). Specific decisions about curriculum organization are best made at
the local level. To this end, the standards provide a framework for effective social studies within
various curricular perspectives.
What is the Purpose of the National Curriculum Standards?
The NCSS curriculum standards provide a framework for professional deliberation and planning about
what should occur in a social studies program in grades pre-K through 12. The framework provides
ten themes that represent a way of organizing knowledge about the human experience in the world.
The learning expectations, at early, middle, and high school levels, describe purposes, knowledge,
and intellectual processes that students should exhibit in student products (both within and beyond
classrooms) as the result of the social studies curriculum. These curriculum standards represent a
holistic lens through which to view disciplinary content standards and state standards, as well as other
curriculum planning documents. They provide the framework needed to educate students for the
challenges of citizenship in a democracy.

The Ten Themes are organizing strands for social studies programs. The ten themes are:
1 CULTURE
2 TIME, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE
3 PEOPLE, PLACES, AND ENVIRONMENTS
4 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND IDENTITY
5 INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, AND INSTITUTIONS
6 POWER, AUTHORITY, AND GOVERNACE
7 PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION
8 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY
9 GLOBAL CONNECTIONS
10 CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICES
The themes represent strands that should thread through a social studies program, from grades pre-K
through 12, as appropriate at each level. While at some grades and for some courses, specific
themes will be more dominant than others, all the themes are highly interrelated. To understand
culture (Theme 1), for example, students also need to understand the theme of time, continuity, and
change (Theme 2); the relationships between people, places, and environments (Theme 3); and the
role of civic ideals and practices (Theme 10). To understand power, authority, and governance
(Theme 6), students need to understand different cultures (Theme 1); the relationships between
people, places, and environments (Theme 3); and the interconnections among individuals, groups,
and institutions (Theme 5). History is not confined to TIME, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE (Theme 2)

because historical knowledge contributes to the understanding of all the other themes; similarly,
geographic skills and knowledge can be found in more than (Theme 3).

The thematic strands draw from all the social science disciplines and other related disciplines and
fields of study to provide a framework for social studies curriculum design and development. The
themes provide a basis from which social studies educators can more fully develop their programs by
consulting the details of national content standards developed for history, geography, civics,
economics, psychology, and other fields,2 as well as content standards developed by their states.
Thus, the NCSS social studies curriculum standards serve as the organizing basis for any social
studies program in grades pre-K through 12. Content standards for the disciplines, as well as other
standards, such as those for instructional technology,3 provide additional detail for curriculum design
and development.
The Learning Expectations provide illustrations of what students learn at each level in the social
studies curriculum. The language of the Learning Expectations is aimed at teachers and seeks to
capture the expectations of over-arching, long-range outcomes. At each level (early years, middle,
and high school), the Learning Expectations present key questions for exploration related to each
theme.* The Learning Expectations also provide illustrations of the types of purposes, knowledge, and
intellectual processes that students should demonstrate in student products. The purposes identify the
reasons why it is important to study each theme. Learners build knowledge as they work to integrate
new information into existing cognitive constructs, and engage in processes that develop their abilities
to think, reason, conduct research and attain understanding as they encounter new concepts,
principles, and issues. An appendix highlights Essential Social Studies Skills and Strategies (see
pages 163-166) for learners. Students represent what they learn in products that demonstrate their
ability to use information accurately, and that reflect the thinking and research skills acquired in the
process of learning. Students should learn both to conceive and implement self-directed projects and
to participate in group projects. The development of the writing skills of students is an important
objective of the products, which also include visual presentations. As a whole, the standards are a
framework for education for citizenship in a democracy, and provide students with the democratic
dispositions, values, and attitudes needed for civic engagement.
Snapshots of Practice provide educators with images of how the standards might look when
enacted in classrooms.** Typically a Snapshot illustrates a particular Theme and one or more
Learning Expectations; however, the Snapshot may also touch on other related Themes and Learning
Expectations. For example, a lesson focused on the Theme of TIME, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE in
a world history class dealing with early river valley civilizations would certainly engage the theme
of PEOPLE, PLACES, AND ENVIRONMENTS as well as that of TIME, CONTINUITY, AND
CHANGE. These Snapshots also suggest ways in which Learning Expectations shape practice,
emphasize skills and strategies, and provide examples of both ongoing and culminating assessment.
Who Can Use the Social Studies Standards?
The social studies curriculum standards offer educators, parents, and policymakers the essential
conceptual framework for curriculum design and development to prepare informed and active citizens.
The standards represent the framework for professional deliberation and planning of the social studies
curriculum for grades from pre-K through 12. They address overall curriculum development; while
specific discipline-based content standards serve as guides for specific content that fits within this
framework. Classroom teachers, teacher educators, and state, district, and school administrators can
use this document as a starting point for the systematic design and development of an effective social
studies curriculum for grades from pre-K through 12.

State governments and departments of education can use the standards to:

Review and evaluate current state curriculum guidelines or frameworks;

Guide standards-based education by clarifying long-range goals and expectations; and
Develop a state curriculum framework that focuses both on short-range content goals and longrange social studies goals.
School districts and schools can use the standards to:
Review and evaluate current social studies curriculum with a view toward long-range goals;
Provide a framework for pre-K-12 curriculum development;

**Almost all of these Snapshots were crafted by the Task Force members, or (in the case of
Snapshots reproduced from the earlier standards) by members of the Task Force that developed
the standards published in 1994. The basis for the creation of Snapshots has been the personal
experiences of members of the Task Forces as teachers, teacher educators, and supervisors.
The Snapshots are designed to reflect the various ways in which performance indicators can be
used in actual practice.
Provide ideas for instruction and assessment; and
Serve as the basis for professional development experiences.
Individual teachers can use the standards to:
Evaluate current curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices;
Provide learning expectations for units and courses that are consistent with long-range social
studies goals within and across grade levels; and
Acquire ideas and examples for alignment of learning expectations, instruction, and assessment.
Teacher educators can use the standards to:
Guide the development of pre-service and in-service teacher education programs and courses;
Provide professional support for the advocacy of social studies;
Introduce pre-service and in-service teachers to the nature and purpose of social studies;
Enable pre-service and in-service teachers to plan instruction consistent with long-range purposes
of social studies; and
Assess instructional planning and supervise the teaching of pre-service and in-service teachers.
Parents and community members can use the standards to:
Understand how social studies develops civic competence for the benefit of both the individual and
society;
Advocate for social studies teaching and learning in grades from pre-K through 12;
Assess the quality of social studies education in local school districts; and
Assess childrens development as social studies learners.
The publications of National Council for the Social Studies, including its journals Social
Education and Social Studies and the Young Learner (for grades K-6), as well as books, regularly
include lesson plans and other guidelines for implementing the social studies standards. A video
library providing snapshots of the social studies standards in actual classrooms and linked to
standards themes, which was produced by WGBH Educational Foundation, can be accessed at the
Annenberg Media website at www.learner.org/resources/series166.html.
How Do Content Standards Differ from Curriculum Standards? What is the Relationship
Between Them?
Content standards (e.g., standards for civics, history, economics, geography, and psychology) provide
a detailed description of content and methodology considered central to a specific discipline by
experts, including educators, in that discipline. The NCSS curriculum standards instead provide a

set of principles by which content can be selected and organized to build a viable, valid, and
defensible social studies curriculum for grades from pre-K through 12. They are not a substitute
for content standards, but instead provide the necessary framework for the implementation of content
standards. They address issues that are broader and deeper than the identification of content specific
to a particular discipline. The ten themes and their elaboration identify the desirable range of social
studies programs. The detailed descriptions of purposes, knowledge, processes, and products identify
the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that social studies programs should provide students as part of
their education for citizenship. The social studies curriculum standards should remind curriculum
developers and others of the overarching purposes of social studies programs in grades pre-K
through 12: to help young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as
citizens of a culturally diverse democratic society in an interdependent world.

Since standards have been developed both in social studies and in many of the individual disciplines
that are integral to social studies, one might ask: What is the relationship among these various sets of
standards? The answer is that the social studies standards address overall curriculum design and
comprehensive student learning expectations, while state standards and the national content
standards for individual disciplines (e.g., history, civics and government, geography, economics, and
psychology)4 provide a range of specific content through which student learning expectations can be
accomplished. For example, the use of the NCSS standards might support a plan to teach about the
topic of the U.S. Civil War by drawing on three different themes: Theme 2 TIME, CONTINUITY, AND
CHANGE; Theme 3 PEOPLE, PLACES, AND ENVIRONMENTS; and Theme 10 CIVIC IDEALS AND
PRACTICES. National history standards and state standards could be used to identify specific
content related to the topic of the U.S. Civil War.
The civic mission of social studies requires more than the acquisition of content. Since social studies
has as its primary goal the development of a democratic citizenry, the experiences students have in
their social studies classrooms should enable learners to engage in civic discourse and problemsolving, and to take informed civic action. The national curriculum standards for social studies
present purposes worth caring about, processes worth engaging in, and knowledge worth learning.
They provide the essential framework needed to educate young people for the challenges of
citizenship.
Notes
1. The definition was officially adopted by National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) in
1992. See National Council for the Social Studies, Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum
Standards for Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: NCSS, 1994): 3.

For national history standards, see National Center for History in the Schools
(NCHS), National Standards for History: Basic Edition (Los Angeles: National Center for
History in the Schools, 1996); information is available at the NCHS website
at nchs.ucla.edu/standards/. For national geography standards, see Geography Education
Standards Project, Geography for Life: National Geography Standards (Washington, D.C.:
National Geographic Research and Exploration, 1994); information is available
at www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/standards/. For national standards in civics
and government, see Center for Civic Education, National Standards for Civics and
Government (Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 1994); information is available
at www.civiced.org/standards. For national standards in economics, see Council for
Economic Education (formerly National Council on Economic Education), Voluntary
National Content Standards in Economics (New York: National Council on Economic

Education, 1997); information is available at www.councilforeconed.org/ea/program.php?

pid=19. For psychology, high school psychology content standards are included in the
American Psychological Associations national standards for high school psychology
curricula. See American Psychological Association, National Standards for High School
Psychology Curricula (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2005);
information is available at www.apa.org/education/k12/national-standards.aspx.
National Educational Technology Standards have been published by the International
Society for Technology in Education, Washington, D.C. These standards and regular updates
can be accessed at www.iste.org.
See note 2 above.

Continuous and comprehensive evaluation is an education system newly introduced

by Central Board of Secondary Education in India, for students of sixth to tenth grades. The main
aim of CCE is to evaluate every aspect of the child during their presence at the school. This is
believed to help reduce the pressure on the child during/before examinations as the student will
have to sit for multiple tests throughout the year, of which no test or the syllabus covered will be
repeated at the end of the year, whatsoever. The CCE method is claimed to bring enormous
changes from the traditional chalk and talk method of teaching, provided it is implemented
accurately.
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview
1.1 New scheme of evaluation

2 Pattern of education

3 Outcome and Effect

4 Sources and external links

Overview[edit]

New scheme of evaluation[edit]

As a part of this new system, student's marks will be replaced by grades which will be evaluated
through a series of curricular and extra-curricular evaluations along with academics. The aim is
to reduce the workload on students and to improve the overall skill and ability of the student by

means of evaluation of other activities. Grades are awarded to students based on work
experience skills, dexterity, innovation, steadiness, teamwork, public speaking, behavior, etc. to
evaluate and present an overall measure of the student's ability. This helps the students who are
not good in academics to show their talent in other fields such as arts, humanities, sports, music,
athletics,

Pattern of education[edit]
Unlike CBSE's old pattern of only one test at the end of the academic year, the CCE conducts
several. There are two different types of tests. Namely, the formative and the summative.
Formative tests will comprise the student's work at class and home, the student's performance in
oral tests and quizzes and the quality of the projects or assignments submitted by the child.
Formative tests will be conducted four times in an academic session, and they will carry a 40%
weightage for the aggregate. In some schools, an additional written test is conducted instead of
multiple oral tests. However, at least one oral test is conducted.
The summative assessment is a three-hour long written test conducted twice a year. The first
summative or Summative Assessment 1 (SA-1) will be conducted after the first two formatives
are completed. The second (SA-2) will be conducted after the next two formatives. Each
summative will carry a 30% weightage and both together will carry a 60% weightage for the
aggregate. The summative assessment will be conducted by the schools itself. However, the
question papers will be partially prepared by the CBSE and evaluation of the answer sheets is
also strictly monitored by the CBSE. Once completed, the syllabus of one summative will not be
repeated in the next. A student will have to concentrate on totally new topics for the next
summative.
At the end of the year, the CBSE processes the result by adding the formative score to the
summative score, i.e. 40% + 60% = 100%. Depending upon the percentage obtained, the board
will deduce the CGPA and thereby deduce the grade obtained. In addition to the summative
assessment, the board will offer an optional online aptitude test that may also be used as a tool
along with the grades obtained in the CCE to help students to decide the choice of subjects in
further studies. The board has also instructed the schools to prepare the report card and it will be
duly signed by the principal, the student and the Board official.
Often during the evaluation of Social Science papers, the following concepts are observed.

Investigation of the situation - What is the question and what is to be explained.

Deductive Method - What does the student know and how can he use it to explain a
situation.

Co-relation with a real life situation - Whether the situation given matches any real life
situation, like tsunamis, floods, tropical cyclones, etc.

Usage of Information Technology - Can the problem be solved with the use of IT? If yes,
how?

In addition to that, various assignments can be given such as projects, models and charts, group
work, worksheet, survey, seminar, etc. The teacher will also play a major role. For example, they
give remedial help, maintain a term-wise record and checklists, etc.

Outcome and Effect[edit]

The outcome of this system of CCE at the initial level varies. Though most of the schools
implemented it quickly, teachers and students who were more connected to the older system of
evaluation and examination faced difficulties coping with the changes. The main aim of CCE
being to reduce the pressure, so as to allow a the majority of students who are unable to
effectively participate in the educational system and leave it dejected and with low self
confidence, instead of celebrating the success and glory of a minuscule few who, owing to their
socio-cultural milieu, were able to take advantage of the previous system. Some point out that
the process of continuous learning actually focuses more on projects, activities, than actual
learning. The workload is nowhere reduced in truth, because even though the exams have been
cut off, students wrestle with time and effort making projects and preparing for oral tests all the
year round. Even if the syllabus is not covered, one needs to have to participate in activities. But
the outcomes by this method were projected to be better that the rote learning of the previous
system which placed an undue emphasis on memory and facts instead of understanding and
creating a learning environment. Ask any student for further reference. Some students will
appreciate it and some strongly depreciated it.

Sources and external links[edit]

Official website for CCE

Official website for CBSE

Additional subjects offered by the CBSE for CCE students