GOOD EXAMPLE OF YOUR PROJECT FOR

MICRO CLIMATE AND HEAT COMFORT

2.0 - Climate and Built Environment

1|Page

2.1 - WEATHER PATTERNS

Trinidad lies between 10N to 11N latitude and 61W to 62W longitude. It is situated just 15 km
(9 miles) off the Venezuelan east coast.
This results in two distinct seasonal climate types: (i) Tropical Maritime and (ii) Modified Moist
Equatorial (Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Service 2011). Tropical Maritime climate occurs
between the months of January to early May, and is characterised by warm days and cool nights,
with occasional rainfall due to convective showers. Modified Moist Equatorial climate occurs
between the months of late May to December and is characterised by hot, humid days and nights,
low wind-speeds and significant rainfall. These two seasons are generally known as the dry and wet
seasons.
Some of the main influences on Trinidads climate include: The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), the Mid-Atlantic trough of low pressure, and the sub-tropical ridge of high pressure
(Bermuda-Azores High).
2.2 - SUN PATH
Sun path
Today
June 21
December 21
Annual variation
Equinox (March and September)

Fig. 2.1 Sun path diagram

Sunrise/sunset
Sunrise
Sunset
Time
00-02
03-05
06-08
09-11
12-14
15-17
18-20
21-23
2|Page

The solar azimuth angle runs from left to right, while the elevation angle runs from top to bottom as
illustrated in Fig. 2.1. So, for example, on June 21st, the sun rises from the North-East (azimuth=65)
at 5:41 am. Sunset occurs when the sun is at North-West (azimuth=290) at 6:28 pm. On that day,
the elevation angle is approximately 85 at noon.
Using these sun path diagrams, together with standard calculations of solar heat gain, one can
produce a fairly accurate prediction of the amount of solar heat a building envelope will be subjected
to, throughout an annual period. A similar type of study was done by Dr. Tawee Vechaphutti in
1987, who produced a table listing estimated solar heat gains of buildings situated in Thailand.
This is shown in Table 2.1 below.
Wall/Window
Ratio (%)
0
20
40
60
80
100

HEAT GAIN PER UNIT WALL AREA (W/m2)

hnorth
21.76
39.898
58.036
76.174
94.312
112.45

hsouth
27.20
51.642
76.084
100.526
124.968
149.41

heast
27.20
49.266
71.332
93.398
115.464
137.53

hwest
27.20
52.17
77.14
102.11
127.08
152.05

hnorth-east
24.48
43.526
62.572
81.618
100.664
119.71

hsouth-west
27.20
53.226
79.252
105.278
131.304
157.33

hsouth-east
27.20
50.718
74.236
97.754
121.272
144.79

hnorth-west
24.48
45.242
66.004
86.766
107.528
128.29

Table 2.1 Average Solar Heat Gains (Tawee Vechaphutti 1987)

2.3 BUILDING ORIENTATION

In order to provide optimum comfort in terms of building orientation, one of the fundamental energy
equations should be considered:

[1]

So, the larger the surface area of wall that the suns radiant heat shines on, the smaller the energy
received within the building.
However, if there are windows located in the wall receiving direct sunlight, then the heat entering
through the window will be far greater than the energy reduction achieved by the larger wall surface
area. This situation will be discussed in detail under Thermal Comfort, but for the purpose of
orientation, the thermal transmittance (u-value) of a double-glazed window is 2.80 W/m2K, while
the u-value of the wall is 0.32 W/m2K (which means less heat transmitted through the walls).
The above-mentioned factors, as well as the measures taken to create optimum comfort in the oneroom mansion, in the context of orientation, are illustrated on pages 3 and 4.
3|Page

Since the prevailing winds in Trinidad come from the North-East, and since the most advantageous
position for cool breezes is on gentle slopes, the one-room mansion is positioned accordingly.

4|Page

5|Page

6|Page

7|Page

8|Page

9|Page

Concrete Blocks

Sand Blinding

Reinforced Concrete

Back-fill/Hardcore

Polyethylene Membrane (d.p.m.)

Bamboo Flooring

10 | P a g e

Hollow Clay Block

Masonry Plaster

Timber Doors

Coconut Fibre

R.C. Ring Beam

Steel Windows
11 | P a g e

Glu-Lam Joists

Foam Concrete

Stone-Wool Ceiling

Metal Decking Sheets

Geomembrane

Roof Grass
12 | P a g e

2.11 EFFECT OF MATERIALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Most building construction materials are users of non-renewable energy and emitters of greenhouse
gases and other gaseous wastes (Kospomoulos, 2004). According to data from the Worldwatch
Institute, the construction of buildings consumes 40% of the stone, sand and gravel, 25% of the
timber and 16% of the water used annually in the world (Arena and de Rosa, 2003). Moreover, the
International Energy Agency estimates that $16 trillion of investment will be needed to meet the
world energy requirements from 2003 to 2030 (James Chalker, 2006).
In this section, the materials chosen to construct the one-room mansion will be assessed in terms of
their energy consumption or embodied energy, and their impact on natural resources. Embodied
energy can be split into (i) Energy consumed during production (ii) Energy needed for transportation
(iii) Energy required for installing onto building (B. V. Venkatarama Reddy, 2001).
The data in Table 2.2 was obtained from the international literature (SIA, CBPR) as presented in
Bikas, 2001.
Material

Embodied Energy
(MJ/kg)

Equivalent CO2
(gCO2/kg)

Equivalent SO2
(gSO2/kg)

Concrete
p.v.c. membrane
Clay block
Masonry plaster
Reinforcement steel
Aggregate (general)
Aluminium
Glu-lam
Polyethylene membrane
Light concrete
Glass

0.7
51.6
2.7
1.4
9.9
0.1
312.7
4.6
103
0.4
15.9

123
2043
247
181
474
11815
68
-

0.4
14.27
0.94
0.61
1.79
94.83
0.25
-

Table 2.2 Embodied energy of finite construction materials

Aluminium has the highest embodied energy, followed by the polyethylene and p.v.c. materials.
Obviously, the aggregates would have the lowest energy requirement although quarrying does have
significant negative impacts on the environment if it is not controlled.
In the context of the renewable materials chosen, the Coconut fibre has a significantly low embodied
energy value of 0.09 MJ/m3. Bamboo flooring has an embodied energy of 0.02 MJ/kg, and the
Softwood timber has an embodied energy of 0.3 MJ/kg. These values were obtained from
manufacturers and industry data.

13 | P a g e

2.12 - SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

Sick Building Syndrome has been defined as a generic term used to describe common symptoms
which, for no obvious reason, are associated with particular buildings (TSSA 2010).

Cases of this phenomenon may include: employees working

in an enclosed environment, students and teachers attending
schools, or any occupant who spends a considerable amount
of time within a building.

The indoor environment of a building is affected by its

ventilation, thermal insulation, acoustic comfort, lighting,
room and furniture layout, and ergonomic factors.

Ventilation Indoor air quality, which is determined by the number of air changes per hour, is
important to all occupants in buildings. Occupants of buildings with poor ventilation systems have
reported experiencing sore eyes, dry throats, coughing, burning lips, nausea and other symptoms of
sick building syndrome (Roy 2010).
Thermal Comfort An indoor building temperature above 25C can cause headaches and fatigue
while indoor temperature below 18C can cause chills and influenza like symptoms (Janis Jansz
2011). Excess indoor air humidity can result in fatigue, growth of fungi, and increased off-gassing
from building materials (Property Council of Australia 2009).
Acoustic Comfort Too much distracting noise interferes with short term memory processes, can
cause headaches and even personality changes as the building occupant becomes increasingly
frustrated and irritated with their inability to concentrate (Janis Jansz 2011).
Lighting Adequate natural lighting and proper artificial lighting configuration significantly
improves the occupants comfort and health. Inadequate lighting may cause headaches, eye strain
and other symptoms of sick building syndrome.
Other factors that have been identified as causes of sick building syndrome include: Office work,
Psychosocial factors, Building maintenance, Biological hazards, Fibre pollutants (e.g. formaldehyde
from chip board), Poor sanitation and poor management practices.
Serious legal implications can arise from sick building syndrome occurrences. Engineers, architects,
contractors, building owners, manufacturers, distributors and real estate brokers are all liable to be
sued when occupants of buildings can prove that they suffer from sick building syndrome.

14 | P a g e

3.0 - Thermal Comfort

15 | P a g e

3.1 - THERMAL COMFORT PARAMETERS ASHRAE Standard 55-2010

Thermal comfort in the one-room mansion will be affected by the following factors:
Personal variables Activity, Clothing, Age and Gender
Physical variables Air temperature, Ventilation, Humidity and Surface temperature.
ASHRAEs Thermal Comfort Tool software enables users to calculate acceptable comfort
parameters in accordance with USGBCs LEED (http://www.ashrae.org/resources-publications/bookstore/thermal-comfort-tool). The following values can be obtained using this
software.
Design Temperature
(C)
21

Building Type
Living room

Air Change/hour
1

Bedroom

18

1/2

Bathroom

22

1/2

Offices (general)

20

Classroom

18

Shops

18

1/2

Restaurant

18

Hotel room

22

Factory

Building Type

16
Table 3.1 Typical Design Temperatures

Air-Supply
(litres/second per
person)

Residence, office,
8
shop
Restaurant
18
Kitchen
10 l/s per m2 floor
Toilets
10 l/s per m2 floor
Table 3.2 Fresh Air-Supply Rates

Fig. 3.1 ASHRAE Standard 55-2010 User Interface

16 | P a g e

3.2 - THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Table 3.3 indicates the thermal properties of the materials used in the one-room mansion. These
values would provide fairly accurate results when calculating the temperature gradients, dew
points, fabric heat gain, and the overall cooling load requirement of the one-room mansion.
Material

k - value
(W/mK)

rv - value u - value
(GNs/kgm) (W/m2K)

Rv value

Source
obtained

Hardcore fill / Earth

1.500

Industry

Sand
Polythene Sheet (0.06mm)
membrane
Reinforced Concrete - 2% Steel

1.700

Industry

Steel (Mild Structural)

60.000

Manufacturer

Coconut Fibre

0.045

Industry

Expanded Polystyrene Board

(EPS)
Medium Density Concrete (inner
leaf)

125
2.500

30 - 100

Manufacturer
L1&L2

0.040

100 - 600

L1&L2

1.130

30 - 100

L1&L2

Clay Block

0.160

25-100

Manufacturer

Plaster (Lightweight)

0.180

60

L1&L2

Double Glazing (air-filled)

Window - p.v.c. or wood (12mm)

2.8

L1&L2

Double Glazing (air-filled)

Window - metal (12mm)

3.4

L1&L2

Solid Wooden Door (25mm)

3.0

L1&L2

Glue-lam - Timber Plywood

1.200

1500 6000

CIBSE

Galvanized Steel

18.000

100

Manufacturer

Foamed Concrete or Fly-Ash

Concrete

0.340

Asphalt Coating

0.750

Mineral Wool Quilt

0.042

L1&L2

Drainage layer

0.190

930

Manufacturer

Polymer based Geotextile

0.500

167

Manufacturer

0.15 - 2.0

454

Industry

Soil with organic matter / Coconut

Fibre

Manufacturer
11

Industry

Table 3.3 - Thermal Properties of Materials used in the building

17 | P a g e

18 | P a g e

19 | P a g e

20 | P a g e

3.6 THERMAL BRIDGING

In the one-room mansion, thermal bridging occurs along the walls at the wall stiffeners and ring
beam locations as illustrated in Fig. 3.2. Both of these members are constructed using reinforced
concrete, with cement plaster on both sides.

Fig. 3.2 - Thermal Bridge Location 1

Calculating Structural Temperatures:
Layer
Outside Air
Boundary
Lightweight plaster
Boundary
Reinforced concrete
Boundary
Lightweight plaster
Boundary
Internal Surface
Inside Air

k
(W/mK)
0.18
2.50
0.18
-

L (m)
0.025
0.150
0.025
Rtotal

R
(m2K/W)
0.189
0.139
0.060
0.139
0.123
0.650

= R/Rt x t
(C)
3.200
2.351
1.016
2.351
2.082
-

Boundary
Temp. (C)
32.00
29.65
28.63
26.28
24.20

21 | P a g e

Hence, the Thermal transmittance of Thermal Bridge:

3.7 - CALCULATION OF TOTAL HEAT GAIN IN THE ROOM

U-VALUE OF GROUND FLOOR
Area of Floor = 35.812m2
Perimeter of Floor = 25.146m

Using Formula:
= 2.85
(

Using Formula:
Wall thickness = 0.2m

Thermal conductivity of ground = 1.5W/mK

Rsi = 0.123m2K/W

Rf = 1.057m2K/W
(

Rse = 0.189m2K/W

)
(

Since dt < B' use formula:

(

U-VALUE OF WALLS
Overall Areas
Wall Orientation
North
South
East
West

Blockwork Area (m2)

10.339
12.949
11.818
11.818
46.924

Window Area (m2)

2.88
2.16
5.04

Door Area (m2)

1.89
1.89

Using Formula:
Calculating Uwall
Component

Area (m2)

Blockwork
Window
Door

46.92
5.04
1.89
53.85

u-value
(Wm2/K)
0.32
2.80
3.00

A*u
15.02
14.11
5.67
34.80

Uwall = 34.80 53.85 = 0.646 Wm2/K

U-VALUE OF ROOF
22 | P a g e

Very little to no heat passes through a Green Roof so heat gains through the roof
are negligible

Note:

THERMAL BRIDGE
Wall stiffeners and Ring beam made of reinforced concrete which has a U-value = 1.538 Wm2/K

FABRIC HEAT GAIN

Using Formula: Pf = UAt
Component

U-value (Wm2/K)

Area
(m2)

temp.
(C)

Floor
Wall
Roof
Thermal bridge

0.358
0.646
0
1.538

35.812
53.854
35.812
13.669

11
11
11
11

Wall/Window Ratio
Heat gain / unit area

Hnorth
0
21.76

Hsouth
0
27.2

Heast
0
27.2

Hwest
0
27.2

Wall area (m2)

Total heat gain (W)

15.11
328.77

15.11
410.96

11.82
321.45

11.82
321.45

Pf (W)
141.03
382.69
0.00
231.25
754.97 Watts

VENTILATION HEAT GAIN

Using Formula: Pv = 0.33NVt
Number of air changes per hour = 1
Volume of room = 86.751m3
t = 11C
Pv = 0.33 x 1 x 86.751 x 11 = 314.906 Watts
SOLAR HEAT GAIN
Using Table 2.1 from Page 3

Psolar =

1,382.64 Watts

CASUAL HEAT GAIN

Source
2 avg. adults
Flourescent lamps over 29.73m2
Computer & printer
Stove
Refridgerator

Heat gain (W)

240
594.6
250
3500
150
23 | P a g e

Television

100
4834.6

Total

Watts

Note:
An incandescent lamp system over the same area would have an emmision of 1,189.2W
This would have increased the total Heat Gain to 5,429.2W !
3.8 - COOLING LOAD DESIGN
Total Heat Gain of room

=
=
=
=
=

Hfabric + Hventilation + Hsolar + Hcasual

754.97 + 314.91 + 1382.64 + 4834.6
7,287.12
J/s
7,287.12 x 60 x 60 J/h
26,233.63
kJ/h

Now: 12,000 Btu/h = 12,661 kJ/h

26,233.63kJ/h would require -

26,233.63 12,661
= 2.072003001
= 24,000 Btu Air conditioning unit

24 | P a g e

3.9 HEAT MEASURING DEVICES Thermal Imaging Cameras

A thermal imaging camera, or infrared camera, can provide valuable information during moisture
assessments, mitigation work, energy audits, roof and electrical system inspections and water damage
investigations (www.professionalbuildinginspector.com 2012).

Fig. 3.3 Thermal Imaging Camera

Since the human eye cannot see all the heat energy emitted by materials, thermal images help us see this
heat emitted from materials, allowing detection of any abnormalities in the building. The device works by
measuring the amount of radiation emitted by materials into the atmosphere and representing the
measurements graphically in a coloured image. Hot/warm objects will usually appear as bright yellow,
red or white colours on the camera, while colder objects will usually appear as dark blue, purple or green.
This technology can reveal the most significant amount of beneficial information pertaining to a building,
some of which are indicated in Fig. 3.4

25 | P a g e

Fig. 3.4 Infrared Images of Building defects

Through the use of an infrared camera, or thermal imaging device, one can easily identify and fix
heat related building problems. Without the use of this advanced technology, it would have
indeed been costly and time-consuming to conduct these exercises.

26 | P a g e