ROADS IN BRITAIN

Motorways, marked in blue on maps, are limited-access multilane roads.

They cannot be used by student drivers, cyclists, moped riders, people
on horses, or hitchhikers. You must only overtake a car on its right-hand
side; the far right lane is only for overtaking and cannot be used by
trucks or cars pulling trailers. You can flash your lights, but you cannot
blow your car horn. The hard shoulders are only for emergencies such
as breakdowns. Emergency phones are placed at one-mile intervals and
posted arrows indicate the closest one. Motorways are marked with
cats eyes; white ones indicate the lane markings; yellow ones separate
the right-hand lane from the shoulder; and green ones mark the
entrance to a slip road.
A roads, marked in red on maps, are primary routes that range
from divided highways to slower two-lane roads. Along them you can
find chain restaruants, gas stations, and frequent lay-bys.
B roads, marked in yellow on maps, are secondary country roads with
one lane for each direction. Other roads, marked in white on maps,
are narrow so passing places are used to enable two-way traffic. You
can also encounter obstacles such as shallow unbridged fords,
unguarded railway crossings, and animals being herded along the road,
as well as people riding horses or bicycles. Minor roads are resurfaced
with gravel, so you have to drive carefully.

DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS OF PT SYSTEMS

In order to successfully compete with the private car, public transport
should provide certain conveniences such as direct routes to desired
destinations avoiding transfers whenever possible, acceptable service
frequency, reliable service with no delays, and travel times comparable to
those of the car. Public transport stations and stops should be
comfortable, clean and accessible, offering protection from the weather,
good waiting facilities and feeder or park-and-ride facilities if necessary.
They should be within easy walking distance for most potential users,
and have attractive, well lit and well maintained pedestrian access
routes. The image of public transport needs to be improved through
modern design of vehicles, well maintained and clean stations and stops,
better quality and comfort of ride as well as the attitude and helpfulness

of the staff. The system should be user friendly and offer detailed, up-todate, clear and readily available information. Security in public transport
facilities, including access routes, should be improved by better lighting,
more staff, and the use of closed circuit TV (CCTV) to protect the
passengers and make them feel safe.

LOGISTICS
Logistics is the organized movement of materials and, sometimes,
people. In 1991 the Council of Logistics Management, a trade
organization based in the United States, defined logistics as: "the
process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, effective
flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from point of
origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer
requirements." Some firms have their own logistics departments; others
contract with an outside party to perform specific logistics services.
Though logistics is generally associated with goods industries, service
industries also have logistic concerns (banks, TV networks, government
and non-profit organizations). The military has got some of the most
complicated logistic issues in wars and relief missions; the term logistics
itself comes from the military.

BRITISH AND AMERICAN POSTAL SERVICES

In Britain mail is delivered twice a weekday in urban areas, once a
weekday everywhere else, and once on Saturdays. First-class mail is
delivered the next day, second-class mail within 2-3 days, and there
are even urgent services. In America, there is normally only one
delivery a day and it is customary to put a return address in the top
left corner of the letter.
American zip code is not obligatory, but it helps with a faster delivery. It
consists of five digits, and they are currently adding four more digits
which give postmen more detailed information. British postcodes are
obligatory and consist of five to seven letters and digits. They even
indicate the individual postmans beat. Some British houses go by a
name (like Rose Cottage) and do not have a street number. It is
important to write the address carefully because many places have
similar names.

TRAFFIC CONGESTION
Traffic congestion is a road condition characterized by slower speeds, longer
trip times, and increased queuing. It occurs when roadway demand is greater than its
capacity. A period of extreme traffic congestion is colloquially known as a traffic jam.
Traffic congestion has several negative effects:
By increasing motorist stress and frustration, congestion can encourage road rage
and cause reduced health of motorists. Congestion wastes fuel and increases air
pollution due to increased idling, acceleration, and braking. Since drive time is a nonproductive activity, congestion reduces regional economic health by increasing drive
times. Traffic congestion, often bad enough to require drastic control measures, was
a feature of city life at least as early as Roman times. A basic cause, then as now,
was poor city planning, with roads laid out in such a way as to bring traffic from all
quarters to a central crossing point. In the 1st century BC Julius Caesar banned
wheeled traffic from Rome during the daytime, a measure gradually extended to
cities in the provinces. Late in the 1st century AD the emperor Hadrian was forced to
limit the total number of carts entering Rome. About 1500 Leonardo da Vinci,
envisioning a revolutionary solution to urban traffic problems then acute in the
crowded and busy Italian cities proposed separating wheeled and pedestrian traffic
by creating routes at different levels. Except for the railway, however, few segregated
route systems were established before the 20th century. Congestion was severe
enough in European cities of the 17th century to require ordinances prohibiting
parking on certain streets and establishing one-way traffic. The arrival of the railway
brought temporary relief to the growing problem of road traffic control, though it
created congestion at terminals inside cities. The automobile, with its increase first in
speed and then in numbers over horse-drawn transport, rapidly created a new
situation that was to become one of the characteristic problems of urban
industrialized society in the 20th century. One of the ways of alleviating traffic
congestion is the use of Park and ride facilities. They are public transport stations
that allow commuters to leave their personal vehicles in a parking lot and transfer to
a bus, rail system or carpool for the rest of their trip. The vehicle is stored in the lot
during the day and retrieved when the commuter returns. Park and rides are
generally located in the suburbs of metropolitan areas or on the outer edges of large
cities. Partly because of the concentration of riders, these terminals often have
express transit service, with a limited number of stops and often taking a faster route
if available, such as a high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane. The service may only take
passengers in one direction in the morning (typically toward a central business
district) and in the opposite direction in the evening, with no or a limited number of
trips available in the middle of the day. It is often not allowed to park at these
locations overnight. Overall, these attributes vary from region to region. Park and ride
schemes are often marketed as a way to avoid the difficulties and cost of parking
within the city center. Park and ride lots allow commuters to avoid the stress of
driving a congested part their journey and/or facing scarce, expensive downtown
parking. It is hoped that the lots will reduce both of these problems by making it
easier for people to take the bus or train into town. Sometimes, even these lots
become too busy, and people sometimes organize to carpool to the station to combat
crowding. In transportation engineering and transportation planning, a high-

occupancy vehicle lane (or HOV lane) is a lane for vehicles with a driver and one or
more passengers. Qualification for HOV status varies by locality, and may require
more than 2 people. When an automobile is used as an HOV, the group of people
using it is often called a carpool, though the term HOV includes buses and vans.
However, bus lanes may not necessarily be intended for use by carpools. An HOV or
carpool may be allowed to travel on special road lanes, usually denoted with a
diamond marking in the United States, on which single occupant vehicles are
prohibited, called carpool lanes or diamond lanes. In some cases, single occupant
vehicles are allowed provided that they are hybrid vehicles or use alternative fuels; in
some cases, motorcycles are allowed to use the lanes, as well. In some areas, such
as Southern California, the HOV lanes are full-time, while in others, such as the San
Francisco Bay Area, they are usable by other vehicles outside of peak hours.

MOBILE PHONES AND HEALTH

The use of mobile phones has escalated over the past two decades to
become essential part of business and society. The use of the mobile
phones and related technologies will continue to increase for the future.
There has also been a continuous public debate about possible health
risks related to the emission of radio frequency (RF) radiation from the
phones and from the base stations. For the general population the
higher-level radiation from the phones held near the head or other parts
of body represent a significantly greater risk than low-level whole body
exposures arising from base stations. There are direct thermal and nonthermal effects of the radiation, as well as indirect effects such as greater
risk of accidents while driving and using a mobile phone. Surprisingly,
current evidence suggests that the negative effects are similar whether
the phone is hand-held or hands-free. Despite the public concern about
the safety of the mobile phones, rather little research has been
published. Some of the reasons might be that it is only recently that
mobile phones have been widely used by the public; that people can
vary in their vulnerability to environmental hazards due to some genetic
factor or age; or that there are numerous other sources of RF radiation in
our environment. Therefore it is not possible at present to say with
certainty if mobile phones represent a health risk, but people should limit
their use out of precaution.

THE STORY OF THE CHUNNEL & INLAND WATERWAYS

The Channel tunnel, also known as the chunnel, was opened on May,
6, 1994 by Queen Elizabeth II and President Mitterand, connecting
French Calais and English Folkstone under the sea. Several workers
were killed during the construction of the Britains biggest building project
in the 20th century. The project lacked the public support because people
thought it was uncomfortable and unnatural to travel in an underwater
train. However, travel time savings have made people accept the
Chunnel. Surprisingly there were no arguments about the language that
would be used to talk about the chunnel. A working compromise was
soon established combining English and French, for example, the
company that built the chunnel is called Transmanche Link (from French
La Manche). Modern Britain makes surprisingly little use of its many
inland waterways. In the twentieth century transport by land has almost
completely taken over. A few remaining barges are mostly used by
tourists. Several attempts were made to restore river transport, but they
all failed. It seems that the British people have lost the habit of travelling
this way. The vast majority of the canals that were once vital to the
countrys economy is no longer in use or is only used by leisure industry
for boating holidays.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS
As gas prices rise, the price points for alternative fuel options that don't
use natural resources or harm the environment are steadily being
lowered. New alternative fuels are appearing fast, and it is important to
understand which ones may be right for your vehicle and driving needs.
Biodiesel can be made from animal fats, algae, or from recycled
vegetable oils and can usually run in any diesel car or truck with little or
no modification to the engine. Biodiesel is a carbon neutral fuel which
burns cleaner than fossil fuel diesel, but it also releases more nitrous
oxide than regular diesel, a factor in smog.
Ethanol is usually made from fibrous materials or from the
starch or sugar. It burns cleaner than gasoline while reducing
greenhouse gases, and is already in use.
Vegetable oil, both unused and used, can power a diesel engine after
just a few simple modifications. It must be put through a conversion
system so that it is heated to the appropriate temperature to properly
run an engine.
Electric vehicles don't produce tailpipe emissions, though the
generators do emit minimal pollutants. There were over 55,000 FullElectric Vehicles in 2004, and this doesn't even include hybrids! Annual

growth has skyrocketed since then at an approximate growth rate of

39%.
Hydrogen currently isn't powering any consumer vehicles, though
many city bus systems use it. The U.S. government is working towards
overcoming the cost and production challenges and anticipates progress
sometime soon.
Compressed Natural Gas is clear, odorless, and non-corrosive. It is
produced at a relatively low cost and is cleaner burning than gasoline or
diesel fuel.
HISTORY OF RAILWAYS
Why did railways develop?
Railways are not a modern invention as most of us think. The idea of
transporting things and people on rails has been around for a long time.
A basic form of the railway, the rutway, existed in ancient Greek and
Roman times. Hand propelled tubs known as "hunds" undoubtedly
existed in the provinces surrounding/forming modern day Germany by
the mid-16th century. This technology was brought to the UK by German
miners. Between October 1603 and the end of September 1604,
Huntingdon Beaumont, built the first recorded above ground early
railway/wagonway. Early rails were made of wood, stone or metal, and
railway wagons were pulled by horses, some were even wind powered
and had sails. At the start of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, people
needed to transport raw materials such as coal, so they created a
network of canals and rail links between towns. But canals and
horsepower were a very slow way to move things around the country, so
the speed of railway wagons needed to be increased.
How did steam engines help?
By 1800 many industries were using steam engines, designed by James
Watt (from where we get the electrical measurement - Watt). Richard
Trevithick, a Cornish engineer, refined Watts invention and after failing to
build a steam powered road vehicle, he designed the first locomotive for
an Iron Works in Wales. He called it a 'puffer' because of the noise it
made, and on its first journey it travelled at almost 8 km/h an hour!
Unfortunately, it was so heavy that it broke the rails - it only made three
journeys. But it had shown that steam engines could be used to move
trains, and speeds began to increase.
When was the first accident?
By 1829 locomotives were travelling at speeds of over 45km/h and the
first public railway had been opened, the Stockton and Darlington
Railway. The most famous early locomotive was The Rocket by Robert

Stephenson. In 1833 it won a competition organized by the owners of the

Manchester and Liverpool railway, to find the best locomotive for their
new line. Unfortunately, during the competition, a Member of Parliament
wasn't careful as he crossed the tracks and The Rocket knocked him
down. He died later. This was one of the first train accidents in history.
What was the Golden Age of Steam?
The next 130 years can be described as a Golden Age of Steam.
Railways were built all over the world, and the size, speed and comfort of
trains continued to increase. By 1870 it was possible to cross America by
train, and the building of railways in many other countries allowed people
and progress to move quickly across the world.
There were famous trains and famous journeys. The Orient Express
started in 1883 and carried people in luxury through more than 13
countries between France and Turkey. The Flying Scotsman travelled
non-stop from London to Edinburgh, between 1928 and 1963, and
reached speeds of over 130 km/h. The Trans-Siberian railway was
finished in 1916, and is still the longest railway line in the world. It goes
between St. Petersburg and Vladivostok, is over 9000 km long and even
today the journey takes over a week.
The fastest steam train in the world was The Mallard. This locomotive
travelled up and down the east coast of England between London and
York, and in 1938 reached 202 km/h.
What replaced steam engines?
Although it is still possible to travel on the Trans-Siberian railway, and
take the Orient Express from Paris to Vienna, steam trains such as the
Mallard or Flying Scotsman, have not travelled regularly for almost 30
years in many countries. Diesel powered locomotives or trains running
on electrified lines now run on most railways. Modern trains are cleaner
and much faster than steam engines but many people still miss the
puffing sound and the romance of steam.
How fast can trains travel now?
Quite a few countries now use high speed trains. The famous Bullet Train
in Japan and the TGV in France can both carry passengers at speeds of
over 300km/h. Journey times are now much shorter, and trains can travel
on some unusual routes; up hills, through mountains, even under the
sea. Euro-tunnel was opened in 1994 and connects Britain to France
through a railway that goes under the sea.
How can trains further develop?
The future of train travel could be in Maglev trains. These trains are
supported by electro-magnets and hover off the ground. Some countries
are already using this technology in cities, and others are planning to use
it on longer journeys. At the moment they can go more than 500km/h, but
some engineers think speeds of over 1000 km/h are possible some

even think they could be used to launch space shuttles! Trains have
come a long way since Richard Trevithicks puffer.

WHAT IS ITS?
Intelligent transportation system or ITS is one of many possible
approaches to solving the difficult problems of surface transportation.
The current demand for mobility has exceeded the available capacity. In
the past the problem was handled by designing and building new roads,
or light rail to increase capacity, but now it has become hard to further
expand the system. It has become clear that the only solution is to make
the current system more efficient. ITS should reduce the accidents, traffic
congestion, fuel cost and pollution, and improve navigational
performance and driver efficiency by applying advanced information
processing, communications, sensing and computer control
technologies. ITS improves safety by providing the driver with timely and
accessible information on traffic regulations, alternative routes,
avoidance of dangerous situations and safety advisory. Another
advantage of ITS is that it is cheaper than traditional solutions. ITS is
divided into six technology areas: travel information, vehicle control,
commercial vehicle operations, traffic management, rural transportation
and public transportation.