1.

SETS

1. INTRODUCTION

We start with the notion of an element or obje t under onsideration; e.g., an integer like 2, a
variable like x, a ve tor in a plane, represented by an arrow, et . A olle tion of su h obje ts forms
what we all a set. And the obje ts that omprise the olle tion are alled the elements or members
of that set. [Note: The idea of a set is not as simple as it may sound. To avoid logi al diÆ ulties
later, one must in fa t have to be quite pre ise in dening exa tly what a set is. For our purposes
however, we shall be ontent with our usual day-to-day pedestrian notion of a set℄.
A set may be denoted by an a tual enumeration of its members, su h as f1; 2; 3g, the set onsisting
of the rst three positive integers. [Q: How do you know that this is a set onsisting of the rst
three positive integers, and not a set onsisting of the numerals 1, 2, and 3?℄. A set may also
be denoted by a rule whi h distinguishes its members from the rest of the obje ts in the world,
i.e., S 1 = fz : jz j = 1g. This latter set is the unit ir le in the omplex plane. On the other
hand, a set's elements need not share a ommon hara teristi . For example, one an have a set
A = f; 1; x; banana; g. Sets will be usually symbolized by upper ase letters: A, B , X , , et .
When we used the word \ olle tion" above, we ta itly assumed that there are obje ts to olle t. But
in fa t, a olle tion, or a set may be empty. We thus denote the empty set by the symbol ? or f g;
it is also alled the null set. Sin e there is no restri tion as to what a set may ontain, then it may
ontain another set, e.g., f1; 2; f1; 2g; 3; f1; 2; 3g : : : g. Note very well that if N = f g, then N is
empty. However, M = f f g g is not empty. It is a set ontaining exa tly one element, ?, whi h is
the empty set f g. To avoid monotony and enhan e omprehensibility, we shall often refer to a set
of sets as a \ olle tion" of sets or, even better sounding, a \ lass" of sets.
An interesting problem whi h illustrates the logi al diÆ ulties that may rop up
in set theory is Russel's paradox: sin e a set may also ontain a set as one of its
elements, then it may very well ontain itself. A set whi h ontains itself is termed
abnormal, otherwise it is normal. Now onsider the set N of all normal sets. Is
it normal or abnormal? If N is normal, then it must belong to itself, sin e it is
the olle tion of all normal sets. But if N belongs to itself, then by denition N is
abnormal, in whi h ase it is not ontained in N . Hen e N does not ontain itself
and therefore it is normal, and therefore ontains itself...
We shall use the usual notations: if the element x is in the set A, we shall write x 2 A or, onversely,
A 3 x to mean that the set A ontains x. Set equality A = B means that all elements of A are also in
B and vi e versa. If the set B is in luded in A, we write B  A, whi h means that x 2 B ) x 2 A.
On the other hand, B  A allows for the possibility of the two sets being equal. These an also be
written in another way: A  B or A  B .
The important properties of set in lusion are:
1
2

(1) ?  A 8A;
(2) A  A 8A;
(3) A  B; B  A ) A = B ;
(4) A  B; B  C ) A  C:

To avoid logi al diÆ ulties, we shall assume that there exists a universal set U of whi h all sets we
shall dis uss are subsets. Furthermore, all statements made about sets are within the ontext of the
existen e of su h a universal set.
The power set of a set A, denoted by P(A), is dened as the olle tion of all the subsets of A.

2. Set Algebra

Given two sets, there are two basi binary operations that are dened, set union and set interse tion,
denoted by [ and \:
(5) A [ B := fx : x 2 A or x 2 B g
(6) A \ B := fx : x 2 A and x 2 B g:

If A \ B = ?, then A and B are said to be disjoint. Note that:

A  B () A [ B = B and
A  B () A \ B = A:

The operations of forming unions and interse tions are ommutative and asso iative
A [ B = B [ A; (A [ B ) [ C = A [ (B [ C )
A \ B = B \ A; (A \ B ) \ C = A \ (B \ C ):
These operations also obey the distributive laws:
(A [ B ) \ C = (A \ C ) [ (B \ C )
(A \ B ) [ C = (A [ C ) \ (B [ C ):
We dene set omplementation as follows: the omplement of a set A, denoted by A , is:
(7) A := fx : x 2= Ag:

[You should realize that, had we not assumed the existen e of the universal set U , of whi h A is a
subset, this denition would not make any sense.℄
Set omplementation has the following properties:
(A ) = A; ? = U; and U = ?
A [ A = U; A \ A = ? and A  B () B  A

(A [ B ) = A \ B and (A \ B ) = A [ B :
The last two equations are equivalent to De Morgan's rules in symboli logi :
 (a
b)   a _  b; and  (a _ b)   a
 b:
 3
Using the two basi operations dened above, one an dene still other operations. For example, we
an dene set dieren e and symmetri dieren e as:
(8) A B := A \ B = fx : x 2 A and x 2 = Bg
(9) A 4 B := (A B ) [ (B A):

We shall also use the notation

[i Ai
and \i Ai
to mean the union and interse tion, respe tively, of an arbitrary number (nite or innite) of sets
labelled by the index i. [i Ai means the set of elements belonging to at least one of the Ai 's, while
\i Ai means the set of elements belonging to every one of the Ai 's.
3. MAPPINGS AND FUNCTIONS

Let X and Y be two arbitrary sets. A rule asso iating a unique element y 2 Y with ea h element
x 2 X is alled a mapping of X into Y . Su h a mapping may be denoted by a symbol, say, f , in
whi h ase we write the usual notation y = f (x). X is then alled the domain of the mapping f ,
and we write X = Dom(f ), while Y is alled the o-domain of f . We usually use loosely the term
fun tion for f ; stri tly speaking, the \fun tion" is the triple (X; f; Y ) The notation f : X ! Y is
also used for the mapping f of X into Y , and we also write f : x 7! y for y = f (x).

Y
X f

0011
0011
y=f(x)
x
1100
In the mapping f : x 7! y, the element y 2 Y is the image of x 2 X under the mapping f , while x
is the pre-image of y 2 Y: Let M  X ; then the subset ff (x) : x 2 M g  Y is also alled the image
of M under the mapping f; and denoted by f [M ℄: The set of all the images of the elements of X is
the range of the fun tion f , denoted by Ran(f ), whi h may also be written as f [X ℄.
The omposite mapping of two mappings f : X ! Y and g : Y ! Z is the mapping g Æ f : X ! Z ,
given by g Æ f : x 7! g(f (x)).
The mapping f is an extension of g if Dom(f )  Dom(g), and f (x) = g(x) 8x 2 Dom(g). Conversely,
g is a restri tion of f . The restri tion of f to a domain M is denoted by f jM .
If no two distin t elements in X have the same image in Y under the mapping f : X ! Y , then
the mapping is said to be inje tive or one-one. If Y = f [X ℄, then f is said to be surje tive or onto.
If f is both inje tive and surje tive, then it is alled bije tive or a one-to-one orresponden e. If f
4

go f

f g

X f Y g g(f(x))
1
0
11
00
x 11
00
f(x) 0
1
00
11 Z

go f

is bije tive, then we an dene its inverse f 1 : Y ! X as f 1 : y 7! x; whenever f : x 7! y. But

even if the mapping is only inje tive, the idea of an inverse mapping f 1 : y 7! x still holds provided
that y 2 Ran(f ).
In a mapping f : X ! Y , f 1 (y) may not always exist; however, f 1 [M ℄; M  Y always exists. In
fa t, we have the theorem:
Theorem 1. The pre-image of the union of two sets is the union of the pre-images of the sets:
f 1 [A [ B ℄ = f 1 [A℄ [ f 1 [B ℄
.

PROOF: We prove this by showing that the left side of the equation is a subset of the right side,
and vi e versa. Let x 2 f 1 [A [ B ℄. This means f (x) 2 A [ B , so that x must belong to f 1[A℄ or
f 1 [B ℄. Hen e, f 1 [A [ B ℄  f 1 [A℄ [ f 1 [B ℄.
Now suppose x 2 f 1[A℄ [ f 1 [B ℄. Then x must belong to f 1 [A℄ or f 1 [B ℄, whi h means that
f (x) must belong to A or B or, f (x) 2 A [ B . But this means that x 2 f 1 [A [ B ℄. Hen e,
f 1 [A℄ [ f 1 [B ℄  f 1 [A [ B ℄. :)
The next two theorems may be proven as exer ises:
Theorem 2. The pre-image of the interse tion of two sets is the interse tion of the pre-images of
the sets:
f 1 [A \ B ℄ = f 1 [A℄ \ f 1 [B ℄:

Theorem 3. The image of the union of two sets is the union of the images of the sets:
f [A [ B ℄ = f [A℄ [ f [B ℄:

In fa t, we have a whole slew of relations for the mapping f , whose proofs are left as exer ises:

?℄ = ?; f [X ℄  Y ;
f[
A  B ) f [A℄  f [B ℄;
f [[i Ai ℄ = [i f [Ai ℄;
f [\i Ai ℄  \i f [Ai ℄:
 5
And similarly, for the inverse mapping f 1 :

(10) f 1[?℄ = ?; f 1 [Y ℄ = X ;
(11) A  B ) f 1 [A℄  f 1 [B ℄;
(12) f 1 [[i Bi ℄ = [i f 1 [Bi ℄;
(13) f 1 [\i Bi ℄ = \i f 1 [Bi ℄;
(14) f 1 [B ℄ = f 1 [B ℄ :

4. SET PRODUCTS

Given two sets X and Y , we dene their produ t X  Y as the set of ordered pairs (x; y):

X Y := f(x; y) : x 2 X; y 2 Y g:
Generalizing this, if we have a olle tion of sets indexed by i, fXi g; i = 1 : : : ; n we dene the n-fold
produ t as the set of ordered n-tuples:
X1 


 Xn := f(x1 ; x2 ;


; xn ) : x1 2 X1 ; x2 2 X2 ;


; xn 2 Xn g:

Example 1: The \plane" is the set produ t R  R whose element is the ordered pair (x; y).
Example 2: A manifold is a set whi h has the property of ontinuity, or dierentiability; thus, we
may talk of a C k -manifold, where k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; 1. The ir le S 1 is a C 1 manifold. The produ t
S 1  R = f('; z ) :  2 S 1 ; z 2 Rg is the ordinary ylinder. The produ t S 1  S 1 = f(; ') :  2
S 1 ; ' 2 S 1 is the 2-torus; T 2 . A ylindri al band is the produ t of S 1  I; where I  R .
Can a manifold always be expressed as a produ t of two sets? The answer is \no". A ounter-
example is the well-known Mobius band. Lo ally, a se tion of the Mobius band is I  I; I  R .
Globally however the band annot be expressed as S 1  I be ause of the twist in it whi h makes
the band a non-orientable surfa e. Non-orientable manifolds like the Mobius band and the equally
notorious Klein bottle are taken as bre bundles whi h are the generalizations of set produ ts.

5. PARTITIONS, EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS AND CLASSES

To partition a set means to de ompose the set into pairwise disjoint subsets whi h exhaust the set,
i.e., the union of the subsets equals the set. Obviously, unless the set has only one element, there is
more than one way to partition a set.
Example 3: A set X = fa; b; ; d; eg may be partitioned into ffa; dg; f ; b; egg; ff g; fa; eg; fd; bgg;
et .
Example 4: The set R 3 may be de omposed into subsets onsisting of planes normal to the x-axis.
Su h a partition is also alled a foliation of R 3 ; and ea h plane is alled a folium. Similarly, R 3 may
also be partitioned into a foliation onsisting of on entri spheres S 2 entered at the origin.
Denition: A (binary) relation in a set X is a verbal phrase or mathemati al symbol denoted by R
su h that for any ordered pair (x; y) 2 X  X , the statement x R y an be ategori ally lassied as
\true" or \false". The symbol x R y may be read as: the element x is related by the relation R to
the element y.
6
The assertion that x R y is false may also be written as x R= y.
Example 5: Take the relation > (\greater than") in the set of the real numbers R. For any x 2 R
and y 2 R , the statement x > y an be denitely lassied as either \true" or \false". But > is not
a relation in the set of omplex numbers C sin e it is meaningless in that set.
Denition: A relation R in a set X is alled an equivalen e relation in X (and denoted spe i ally
by ) if it satises the following three onditions:
1. x  x for every x 2 X (re exivity);
2. x  y ) y  x (symmetry);
3. x  y; y  z ) x  z (transitivity).
Let  be an equivalen e realtion in a set X . We shall denote [x℄ := fy 2 X : y  xg i.e., the
olle tion of elements of X whi h are related to x by the equivalen e relation . We all the set [x℄
the equivalen e lass of x.
Theorem 4. The distin t equivalen e lasses of X form a partition of X .

PROOF: Let  be an equivalen e relation in X . By re exivity, x 2 [x℄ for ea h x 2 X ; therefore ea h

equivalen e lass is non-empty, and the union of all the equivalen e lasses is equal to X . Hen e
the equivalen e lasses exhaust X . Next we show that the equivalen e lasses are pairwise disjoint,
by showing that no pair of lasses interse t unless they are identi al, i.e., the same. Let x1 and
x2 be elements of X , and let [x1 ℄ and [x2 ℄ be their equivalen e lasses whi h we suppose are not
disjoint. Then they have at least one ommon element, z . Hen e, z  x1 and z  x2 . By symmetry,
x2  z . Let y be an arbitrary element of [x2 ℄. Then y  x2 , and hen e, y  z by transitivity. But
this makes y  x1 by a se ond appli ation of transitivity. Thus, y 2 [x1 ℄, and we have shown that
y 2 [x2 ℄ ) y 2 [x1 ℄, or [x2 ℄  [x1 ℄.
Repeating the argument above, starting with y 2 [x1 ℄, it an be shown also that [x1 ℄  [x2 ℄.
Therefore, [x1 ℄ = [x2 ℄; and we have shown that any two equivalen e lasses are either disjoint or are
identi al. Hen e the distin t equivalen e lasses form a partition of X. :)
Example 6: Take the set R 3 , and dene the relation  as follows: Given P 2 R 3 and Q 2 R 3 ;
P  Q if (xP ; yP ) = (xQ ; yQ ) This is an equivalen e relation, and the equivalen e lasses are the
lines parallel to the z -axis.
Given an equivalen e relation  in a set X , we an dene the notion of a quotient set as the set of
all the equivalen e lasses of X indu ed by the equivalen e relation ; or X= = f[x℄ : x 2 X g: In
the pre eding example, the quotient set R 3 =  = R 2 whi h is the 2-plane. Sin e ea h equivalen e
lass is a line R, this is also written as R 3 =R = R 2

6. CARDINALITY and COUNTABILITY

Two sets X and Y are said to be numeri ally equivalent, or have the same ardinality if there is a
bije tion between them. In other words, the two sets have the same number of elements if there is
a one-to-one orresponden e between them. This is obvious for nite sets. We use this as denition
of numeri al equivalen e for innite sets.
A set X has a greater ardinality, ard X > ard Y than the set Y if there exists an inje tive map
from Y to X , but there is no inje tive map from X to Y .
 7
A set is said to be ountable if it is nite, or if there is a bije tion between itself and the set of
positive integers Z+ or the ounting numbers.
Example 7: The set of all integers Z is ountable, for we an set a bije tion between Z and Z+ as
follows:

Z: 0; 1; 1; 2; 2; : : :
Z+ : 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; : : : :
Example 8: The set of all positive even numbers is a subset of Z+ , and a proper one at that. Yet
they have the same ardinality, sin e we have the orresponden e n $ 2n.
Example 9: The set of perfe t squares is another proper subet of the ounting numbers; yet the
two sets have the same ardinality, sin e we have the bije tion n $ n2 .
Example 10: The set Q of rational numbers is ountable. We prove this. First, given a rational
number p=q, dene its height as h = jpj + q. Now, there is only one rational number with height
h = 1 : 0=1, three numbers with height equal to 2: 0=2; 1=1; 1=1; ve numbers with a height of
3: 0=3; 1=2; 1=2; 2=1; 2=1; et . We then prune the list by eliminating dupli ates in values, e.g.,
0=1; 0=2; 0=3; et ., whi h amount to 0; 1=2; 2=4; 3=6; et ., whi h amount to 1=2; et . The result is:

0
h=1:
1
1 1
h=2: ;
1 1
1 1 2 2
h=3: ; ; ;
2 2 1 1
1 1 3 3
h=4: ; ; ;
3 3 1 1
::::::
Clearly, one an devise a route a ross the rows and down the olumns of this table, at the same time
establishing a bije tion with the set Z+ . Hen e the set Q is ountable.
The ardinality of Z+ and all innitely ountable sets is denoted by 0 .
Example 11: The set R is un ountable. It is suÆ ient for us to prove that the open interval (0; 1)
is not ountable. Suppose the elements of the interval (0; 1) were ountable. Then we an put
the elements in a 1-to-1 orresponden e with the ounting numbers by listing them down in some
fashion:
1 : 0:213746692 : : :
2 : 0:001934206 : : :
3 : 0:802881890 : : :
4 : 0:592230864 : : :
:::::: :
This innite list ought to ontain all the elements of the interval (0; 1). Now we show that, in fa t,
this list is not omplete, by a tually onstru ting a number x = 0:x1 x2 x3 x4 : : : whi h is not in the
list. For x1 hoose any digit 0-9 not equal to 2. Then x annot be the same as item 1 in the list,
sin e they dier in the rst de imal digit. For x2 hose any digit 0-9 not equal to 0. Then x an
8
neither be equal to item 2 in the list sin e their se ond de imal digits are not the same. For x3
hoose any digit 0-9 ex ept 2. Then x an neither be equal to item 3, sin e their third de imal digits
are not the same.
We ontinue this indenitely, hoosing for the value of xn any digit other than the n-th de imal digit
of item n above. Then obviously, x annot be equal to any of the listed items, hen e, it is not in
the list, ontradi ting our assumption that the above list is exhaustive. This problem of an x whi h
is not in the list annot be eliminated by, say, in luding x in the list. For then, with x already in
the list, we an repeat the pro ess and ome out with yet another number y whi h again is not in
the list, and this pro ess an be repeated ad innitum. This leads us to two on lusions: The set
R is not ountable, and there exists non-rational, or irrational numbers. Thus we say that the set
R (and, therefore, the set I of irrational numbers are un ountably innite, or simply un ountable or
nondenumerable.
The ardinality of an un ountably innite set is denoted by .
Theorem 5. The set of all innite sequen es of 0 and 1 is un ountable.
PROOF: Exer ise. :)
Example 12: The set R has ardinality . So has the interval (0; 1) - i.e., the two sets are
numeri ally equivalent. For the proof, see the following gure. The interval (0; 1) has been bent
into a semi- ir le and pla ed tangent to the straight line representing R. The straight line OP Q
establishes the bije tion between the sets R and (0; 1).

0 1
O

P
Q R

The example an be generalized into the numeri al equivalen e of R and any subset of R whi h
ontains an open interval; but this would make use of the Cantor-Bernstein Theorem whi h says
that if X  A  Y and Y  B  X; then X  Y .
Re all that given a set X , we dened its power set, P(X ); as the olle tion of all the subsets of X :
P(X ) := fS : S  X g.
Example 13: Let X = fa; b; g. Then P(X ) = f?; fag; fbg; f g; fa; bg; fa; g; fb; g; X g. If
ard Z = n, where n is nite, what is ard P(Z )?
We now have a hierar hy of ardinal numbers:
1 < 2 < 3 < : : : < 0 <
Two questions that arise are: a) are there ardinal numbers greater than ? and b) is there a
ardinal number between 0 and ? The answer to the rst question is \yes", sin e ard P(R ) = 2 .
The se ond is still an open question. George Cantor (1845-1918) believed that there is none. This
assertion is alled Cantor's ontinuum hypothesis (CH). Kurt Godel in 1940 showed that CH is
onsistent with the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory in the sense that its negation annot be
 9
proved, starting from the ZF axioms. Subsequently, however, Paul Cohen showed that CH itself
annot be proved either, starting from the same axioms. Thus, the most that an be said at present
is that CH is independent of the ZF axioms.
But what is known is that 20 = . Thus, ard P(Z) = 20 = . Thus, we nally have the hierar hy:
1 < 2 < 3 < : : : < 0 < < 2 < 22 < : : :

Lemma 1. There exists no bije tive mapping between a set X and P(X ).
PROOF : We will suppose that there is a bije tion
a $ A; b $ B; $ C; :::
between all the elements a; b; ; : : : of X , and all the elements A; B; C; : : : of P(X ), and arrive at a
ontradi tion. In the orresponden e a $ A, we say that the subset A is asso iated with the element
a. We now dene Z to be the set of elements of X whi h do not belong to their asso iated subsets.
More pre isely, we pla e a in Z if a $ A, but a 62 A. Clearly, Z  X , and therefore an element of
P(X ). Now let z be the element of X asso iated with Z . Is z in Z ? If z 2 Z , then z 62 Z , sin e by
onstru tion, Z ontains only those elements whi h do not belong to their asso iated subsets. On
the other hand, if z 62 Z , then z 2 Z sin e Z ontains pre isely those elements whi h do not belong
to their asso iated subsets. In either ase, z 2 Z and z 62 Z at the same time, whi h is impossible.
Hen e there is no su h element z whi h is asso iated with Z . :)
Theorem 6. ard P(X ) > ard X

PROOF: It is lear that ard P(X ) annot be less than ard X sin e the singletons of X like fxg,

form a subset of P(X ) whi h already is in one-to-one orresponden e with X . Thus we need to show
only that ard P(X ) 6= ard X , whi h the pre eding lemma establishes. :)

Example 14: One further example is worth mentioning here be ause, although its origin is in
the remote res esses of pure mathemati s, it has gured quite prominently in physi s in the last
two de ades, parti ularly in the study of haoti phenomena, strange attra tors and fra tals. One
may have the (mistaken) notion that sets of dis rete points (nite or innite) are ountable, while
un ountability holds only for \ ontinuous" sets like open intervals. This example will lay that notion
to rest. We refer to the famous Cantor set:
Starting with the interval F0 = [0; 1℄, remove the middle third ( 13 ; 23 ); giving us F1 = [0; 31 ℄ [ [ 32 ; 1℄:
Then from F1 delete the middle thirds ( 19 ; 29 ) and ( 97 ; 89 ); letting F2 denote the remaining losed set,
et :
We have the following de reasing sequen e of sets:
F0  F1  F2 


 Fn 



The antor set is then dened to be the interse tion
\1
F = Fn
n=0
How many points does the Cantor set have? To begin with, it is obvious that it ontains the points
0; 1; 13 : 32 ; 19 ; 29 ; 97 ; 89 ; : : : ; the end-points of the deleted intervals. But in fa t, F ontains a lot
10

F0
0 1

0 1/3 2/3 1
F1

0 1/9 2/9 3/9 6/9 7/9 8/9 1

F2

0 1
F3

of other points. To see this, let any x 2 [0; 1℄ be written in ternary notation:
+ 22 + 33 +


+ nn +


;
a1 a a a
x=
3 3 3 3
where ea h an an take on the values 0, 1 or 2. It is easy to see then that a point x is in F - but
not as an end point - only if none of the numbers aP 0 ; a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ; : : : is 1. Hen e, the point x is
in F i it has a ternary expansion of the form x = 1 n=1 2bn=3n; where bn = 0; 1: In other words,
there is a bije tion between the Cantor set F and the set of innite sequen es of 0 and 1. But this
set is un ountable by Theorem 5 above.
As a matter of fa t, although F  [0; 1℄, one an onstru t dire tly a bije tion between F and [0; 1℄,
whi h means that F has the same ardinality as [0; 1℄. Sin e a point in F is dened by a sequen e
(bn ) of 0 and 1 above, then one an dene a number:
+ 22 + 33 +


+ nn +


;
b1 b b b
y=
2 2 2 2
where ea h bn is either 0 or 1. But y is pre isely the binary expansion of a point in [0; 1℄.
Now, F ontains no open interval, for, if su h an interval exists then, for any n, it must be in luded
in one of the disjoint sub-intervals of Fn , and its length is at most ( 13 )n . Here one has an example
of a set ontaining no open interval, yet has ardinality . One an also show that F has vanishing
length. If we al ulate the total length of the deleted segments, we nd:
1  2  1  2 2 1  2 3 1
Ld =
3
+
3 3

+ 3
3 + 3
3 +


= 1:
Hen e, the deleted segments, F , has the full measure, and therefore the Cantor set F has a total
length of 0.
Finally, it an be shown that F is not exa tly 0-dimensional like a dis rete set of points, but neither
is it 1-dimensional be ause it ontains no open interval. It has a Hausdor dimension of log 2= log 3.

7. ORDER RELATIONS

Denition: A binary relation R on a set X is alled a partial ordering relation if

1. xRx 8x 2 X (ref lexivity);
2. xRy and yRx ) y = x (antisymmetry);
3. xRy and yRz ) xRz (transitivity);
 11
A set X together with su h a relation is alled a partially ordered set, sometimes alled a poset.
A partial ordering relation is usually denoted by the symbol  ( orrespondingly, ). One ought to
be warned however, that these symbols do not always arry the meaning they have -e.g., \less than
or equal to", \greater than or equal to" - when they are used on real numbers.
To be more pre ise, we shall write x < y when x  y and x 6= y; similarly, y > x when y  x and
y 6= x.
Example 15: If X = R , then the usual 3:14159625  7 is an ordering relation.
Example 16: Any arbitrary set X an be partially ordered trivially by setting x  y i x = y.
Example 17: In the set Z+ , let m  n denote m divides n.
Example 18: Let A; B 2 P(X ); and dene A  B as A  B ; this is a partial ordering in P(X ).
If, to the denition above, we append the ondition:
4. Any two elements of X are omparable.
then R is alled a total order relation, and the set X be omes a totally ordered set.
Let X be a poset. An element x in P  X is said to be maximal element of P if, for any y 2 P ,
y  x implies y = x; and minimal if y  x implies y = x:
Example 19: Example (17) has no maximal element. The minimal element is 1:
Example 20: In Example (18), the maximal element is X itself. The minimal element is ?.
Let A be a non-empty subset of the poset X . An element x 2 X is alled a lower bound of A if
x  a 8a 2 A; and it is alled the greatest lower bound or glb of A if it is the maximal element of
the set of all lower bounds of A.
Similarly, an element y 2 X is alled an upper bound of A if a  y 8a 2 A; and it is alled the least
upper bound or lub of A if it is the minimal element of the set of all upper bounds of A.
When we onsider the set R with its usual order relation, we shall use the term supremum for the
lub and inmum for the glb of a subset of R.
Example 21: Consider the interval I = [0; 1)  R ; with the order relations < and > having their
usual meaning. Then inf I = 0; and sup I = 1: Note that 0 is in I; while 1 is not. Hen e 0 is the
minimal element of I or min I = 0, while I has no maximal element.