Opening the Oak-Coffins

15

IV. MACRO-CHRONOLOGIES
As to macro-chronology, Period I traditionally contains
two type and style horizons. The first one is termed
Frdrup, after a heavy hoard from Sor County with
massive, likely ceremonial shaft-hole axes and related
club-head (AK II 1178); this horizon is roughly equivalent to Central European Phase Reinecke A2, or the
end of Frhbronzezeit (Early Bronze Age). The
second horizon is termed Valsmagle, after two rich
hoards, also from Sor County (AK II 1097 & 1098),
and is roughly equivalent to Central European Reinecke B, or early Hgelgrberkultur/Barrow Grave
Culture. In fact, these horizons is more or less what S.
Mller already a century ago called Temporal groups
1 & 2, proceeding groups 3 & 4, which correspond to
Period II in standard - i.e., Montelian - terminology (cf.
Mller 1909). The Valsmagle phase (sometimes even
called Period IIA/IIa) is somewhat similar in character to the bronze artefact milieu of Period II (Kersten
1935; cf. Lomborg 1968).
Incidentally, the term hoard (cf. German Hort)
is used commonly in archaeological literature regarding packed treasure-like deposits, in particular when
discussing typological and chronological issues. Deposits is a broader terms, with a particular reference
to the very act and explanation thereof.
The beginning of the Nordic Early Bronze Age
(Period I) is cross-dated with Central Europe (dendro-dates, etc.) to post-19th century BC (cf. Randsborg
1991a; Danish C14-dates by the early-mid 1990s are
listed however indiscriminately in Vandkilde 1996a;
1996b, 165f.). The transition between Period II and
III is, as already mentioned, fixated around 1330 BC,
or, at 1300 BC the latest. The early part of Period III
(where composition and richness of grave goods resemble that of Period II) is dated to the latest 14th and
the 13th centuries BC, at least the first half of the latter.
The latter part of Period III - where the composition
of grave-goods begins to take on the scant character of
the Late Bronze Age (Period IV onwards) - probably
ends around 1100 BC, to judge by cross-datings from
Central Europe and the Mediterranean (supported by
dendro-dates, etc.), Carbon-14 dates, etc.
In fact, 1200 BC is an important caesura across
Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Near East, in-

cluding the fall of the palaces of the Southeast and

transformations in the rest of Europe. In terms of Central European chronology, Period III is contemporary
with Phase Reinecke D = Mller-Karpe Phase D, and
with Mller-Karpe Phase Ha A1 - Phases MllerKarpe Ha A2 and Ha B1 being contemporary with
Period IV (Randsborg 1968; 1972; 1991a; Thrane
1975, and earlier).

FROM LATE NEOLITHIC

TO PERIOD I

The transition between the Late Neolithic and the

Early Bronze Age/Period I of the latter is rather well
defined through the work of H. Vandkilde, who is employing classical seriation of finds and artefact types
on the basis of correspondence analyses (Vandkilde
1996b, 148 Fig. 135). In complexity, she both challenges and resembles the older work of R. Hachmann
(Hachmann 1957). The assemblages are primarily
hoards or depositions of coppers (Late Neolithic) and
bronzes (Bronze Age). In fact, hoards of metal artefacts characterize the entire Bronze Age. It should
be noted though that some of the hoards are found
rather far away from the mainly Old Danish corelands of the Nordic Bronze Age and that several are
not certain. Flat axes of a long series of types play a
major role in Vandkildes work.
In Vandkildes seriation, the borderline between
the Late Neolithic and Period I is quite clear. At the
end of the Late Neolithic is the Pile hoard, Skne and
the famous Gallemose hoard, Randers County, both
with a wide array of artefact sub-types, the latter find
even with symbolic copper editions of the ends of
yokes, likely for chariots (Randsborg 1992).
Relatively clear is a division of Period I into two
groups of finds and artefact types (IA and IB). Spearheads of type Bagterp, named after a rich hoard from
Hjrring County (Hachmann 1957, Taf. 27: 7-11 &
13-17), make up a transitional type between the two
milieus. The separation of the two phases only becomes clearer if - for the experiment - the Bagterp
type of spearhead is omitted from the seriation chart

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(cf. Vandkilde 1996b, 148 Fig. 135; and below). The

early phase comprises the wellknown hoards from
Torsted, Ringkbing County (cf. Becker 1964), with
eponym spearheads and flanged axes, and Virring,
Randers County, with, among others, similar and related artefacts ( Jacob-Friesen 1967, Taf. 12). The late
phase comprises daggers of so-called Sgel-Wohlde
types, named after northwest German grave finds,
and, seemingly, likely ceremonial shaft-hole axes of
Frdrup-type, named after a famous hoard from Sor
County (AK 1178). The Bagterp find per se may also
belong to this phase.
Imported full metal hilted swords of so-called
Haidsmson-Apa types, from the Middle Danubian
region, provide the inspiration for the ornamentation
on the Frdrup axes as well as the Bagterp spearheads.
Both Haidsmson-Apa swords and daggers, and
imitations, have an eastern distribution in Denmark
(Vandkilde 1996b, Fig. 239) (cf. Fig. 9:1, Rastorf, Pln
County, Holstein for an imitation). With the two Valsmagle hoards, Sor County (AK 1097 & 1098), at
the close of the above seriation, in addition to quite
new artefact types, a novel rather lavish style of decoration occurs, including spiral ornaments, the latter
being highly characteristic of the subsequent Period
II. Vandkilde sees the Valsmagle finds and adjacent
ones as also belonging to her Phase IB.
As indicated, Vandkilde sees her Period IA as
defined by undecorated spearheads of the type common in the Torsted hoard, Ringkbing County (AK X
4761) as well as several other common Period I types,
such as those included in the Virring hoard, Randers
County ( Jacob-Friesen 1967 Taf. 12:1-7). The hoards
of Frdrup, Bagterp, and Valsmagle define Vandkildes Period IB, even though the Frdrup hoard is no
part of the seriation (Vandkilde 1996b). Also Wohlde
daggers (and sword blades) with trapezoid hafting
plate belong, as mentioned, to this phase, named after
grave finds in Celle County, Niedersachsen (Lower
Saxony); such have a western distribution in Denmark, while the Valsmagle blades have an eastern
one (cf. Vandkilde 1996b, Fig. 257 versus Fig. 239) (cf.
Fig. 9:4, Rastorf, Pln County, Holstein). The Frdrup
axes concentrate in the southern part of Denmark,
mostly to east, but there is also a number of western
finds (Vandkilde 1996b, Fig. 242; cf. Hachmann 1957,
Karte 11, for a wider view). Also the characteristic

Valsmagle type spearheads have an eastern distribution (Vandkilde 1996b, Fig. 244). Incidentally, blades
of Sgel-type (with rounded hafting plate) follow the
Wohlde ones in distribution, but are often considered
slightly earlier; the eponym find is from Hmling
County, Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony).
The two Valsmagle hoards occur at the very end of
the said seriation, perhaps, though not necessarily, together with a couple of northwestern German hoards,
Hausbergen, Minden County and Ilsmoor/NeuKloster, Stade County (Hachmann 1957, Taf. 46:3-5,
and Taf. 45:14-22 & Taf. 46:1-2, respectively). Early
Valsmagle-like (Hausbergen) and Valsmagle type
palstave axes are the main links between these finds.
On the other hand, it is also quite possibly to regard
the Danish Valsmagle hoards as defining a separate
Period IC, or rather, perhaps, a Period II 0. The
rather common Valsmagle horizon graves seem to support this suggestion (cf. below, and Appendix A).
Vandkildes chronological merging of the traditional artefact and stylistic milieus of Frdrup and
Valsmagle (the eponym hoards were found quite
near one another in Sor County, Sjlland) is a remarkable suggestion. It aspires to violate the classical
principle of main typological differences within the
same geographical area as being chronological in nature, in particular if supported by find combinations.
It also challenges more than a centurys chronological experience in the North. The types and styles of
Frdrup and Valsmagle artefacts are quite different
indeed, even though some traits are related. This is
not to deny, that the rather long Period I may contain
artefact types, which are earlier than the Frdrup-axes
(cf. above).
Only one rather marginal find may indicate a true
overlap; this is the much quoted Central Swedish
hoard from Torslunda, Uppland (Montelius 1917 No.
814, cf. 790 & 822; Jacob-Friesen 1967 No. 319). However, the undecorated Frdrup axe of the complex
was not found with the other artefacts - a Valsmagle
type spearhead and a flanged axe; and even if belonging together, the Frdrup axe may have been an old
item. Also other often quoted hoards are in fact uncertain, like Oldesbek, Husum County (AK V 2827).
Graves with bronzes are rather rare in Denmark
in Period I, and mostly late (Valsmagle horizon, cf.
below and Appendix A); also, they are seemingly all

Opening the Oak-Coffins

male. In Northwest Germany, by contrast, on both
sides of the lowermost Elbe - the so-called SgelWohlde area - graves are rather common in Period
I. Generally, graves with bronzes (and golden) artefacts only become common in Denmark in Period
II, including female interments (about one fourth of
the determined cases). The burials of the first part
of Period III are also, as already mentioned, rich in
metal artefacts; even gold is quite common. Around
1100 BC, with the arrival of Period IV, and the Late
Bronze Age, grave goods become scarce, in fact often
symbolic in its character, even though some lavishly
furnished male graves - with swords - have also been
found, in particular on Sjlland. Cremation - thus the
departure of the soul or spirit from the bones - plays
a role in this: common already in Period III, it is the
only rite in the entire Late Bronze Age (as well as the
Pre-Roman Iron Age).

FROM PERIOD I TO PERIOD II

E. Lomborg discussed the transition between Periods

I and II in detail (Lomborg 1968; also see Lomborg
1959 & 1973). After the Valsmagle horizon of Period I, he introduced a Lve horizon of the earliest
Period II, grouped around the eponym grave find
from Holbk County (AK II 665) (cf. Appendix A).
Mller by contrast placed the Lve finds together
with the Valsmagle ones in his own Temporal group
2. Not surprisingly, the Lve horizon shows some affinities with the Valsmagle one, but it also represents
new types (or sub-types). Unfortunately, Lomborg
did not define the lower borderline of the Lve horizon, and it is still somewhat unclear to what extend a
phase proper can be build on this basis, even though
it is likely. The find of a Central European so-called
Petschaftnadel in a Lve horizon grave at lbk,
Vejle County suggests a link with Reinecke Phase C1
(AK IX 4481A).
Lomborg also dealt with a group of female graves.
A small cemetery with human sacrifices in common
graves on a flint-collecting site at Mellemholm, lborg County may indicate contemporaneity between
the otherwise exclusively male Lve horizon and
the earliest belt-plates, a highly characteristic female
artefact (Lomborg 1968, 119f.). Other items, includ-

17

ing conical amber-buttons with small decorative pits

and V-borings (for the fastening thread), likely for
leather, link the male Lve grave from lbk (AK
IX 4481A) with a female one from Sviggrde, Ribe
County (AK VIII 4170). The latter holds a belt-plate,
an early neck-collar with a smooth zone on both sides
of the rifles, a wheel-headed pin turned into a pendant, amber beads, and one rare glass bead with amber (and other?) inlays. A grave from Oudrup, lborg
County, apart from an amber button with V-boring,
held a neck-collar with spiral decoration, a tutulus,
and a rifled bracelet (Lomborg 1968, 127 Fig. 14).
A male grave from Dyssegrd, Kbenhavn County
(AK I 451I) holds an amber button of the said type,
along with a sword blade with pommel mounting, a
spearhead, a chisel, a saw, bronze fragments (awl, fingering?), a gold-plate cover (for a fibula bow), other
gold plate, and a strike-a-light (flint). Indeed, one
wonders if this is not the grave of a surgeon. A grave
at Ridders, Steinburg County (Holstein) also holds
buttons of the conical V-bored type, along with a dagger blade, an early fibula, an early tweezers, an awl,
seemingly a fragment of the edge of an axe, etc. (AK
XVIII 9398C).
Vandkilde, who is not discussing the Lve-phase
at all, expands the Valsmagle phase (defined exclusively on hoards or depositions in her above-quoted
seriation) by help of a series of graves. Notably, she
is not using correspondence analyses in doing this;
no seriation is defining the end of Period I and the de
facto transition to Period II (although data are much
richer here than in the previous phases and should
respond very well to such methods). Incidentally,
Vandkildes data are difficult to estimate due to lack
of transparency, a wealth of chronologically less relevant information, a very confusing catalogue, and
lack of indices.
The Lve horizon of Lomborg is probably close
in time to Phase Early Period II, as defined above on
the contents of dendro-dated graves. In fact, the upper side of a Lve type sword pommel from Vorgod,
Ringkbing County (AK X 4621; cf. Lomborg 1968,
112 Fig. 8:3) bears a certain resemblance to that of
the sword from the dendro-dated No.19 Snder nlv Grave 8 (Pl. 1). The early date of Snder nlv
(sometime after ca. 1468 BC) is interesting, but not
exact; it may well be of the late rather than the early

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Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 8. Diadem-like ornament, other ornaments, and diadem with antlers in gold-foil from Bernstorf at Freising, Bayern/Bavaria. After
Gebhard (1999).

Opening the Oak-Coffins

19

Fig. 9. Early (Grave 5) and Late (Grave 6) Period I grave finds from a mound at Rastorf, Pln County (Bokelmann 1977). Grave 6 (artefacts
nos. 3-12) is secondary in the mound in relation to Grave 5 (artefacts nos. 1-2). After Bokelmann (1977)

20

Acta Archaeologica

15th century BC, or even later (the other dendro-dated

oak-coffins are all after 1400 BC). Above, this grave
was entered into a dendro-dated group preliminarily
of its own termed Initial Period II.
As mentioned, one of the fibulae of the Snder nlv find, an extraordinary specimen with leaf-shaped
bow decorated with concentric circles, has a parallel in a fibula from a grave at Skrydstrup, Haderslev
County (AK VII 3530A) (Fig. 7). In turn, the latter
has traits in common with two fibulae from a grave at
Diverhj, Randers County (Asingh 1987; cf. below),
both graves clearly being very early in Period II (=
Initial Period II). Skrydstrup, apart from the fibula,
holds a unique early neck-collar with a smooth zone
on both sides of the rifles, a belt-plate, arm-bands/
bracelets, a dagger, plus another arm-ring/bracelet,
and gold/bronze spirals.
In the Valsmagle horizon, fine axes with high
f langes (the widest point being at the middle of the
blade) are important, in fact, they are quite common in Central Europe in Phase Reinecke B. Such
axes also occur in Lomborgs Lve horizon but here
with outward curved edges and the widest point of
the flanges high on the axe-blade, as in a grave at
Langvad, Thisted County in North Jylland (AK XI
5540; Lomborg 1968, 111 Fig. 7) (Fig. 6). Like Lomborg, Vandkilde dates the Langvad grave to Period
II, likely due to the Lve type dagger and the fibula
(Vandkilde 1996bb, 126). Still, this distinction is not
obvious to the two researchers. Strangely, Lomborg
was attributing two more such axes (with the widest
point of the flanges high on the axe-blade) to the Valsmagle horizon - possibly due to their rich and particular spiral and other ornamentation. The specimens
in question are both from North Jylland, a hoard from
Hune (Stenmark), Hjrring County and a grave from
Gunderupgrd, lborg County ( Jacob-Friesen 1967,
Taf. 28,6-7 and 2-4, respectively).
The Langvad axe is undecorated, but has a richly
decorated socketed knob for the end of the shaft; this
grave also holds a Lve dagger/short sword and two
lancet-shaped sheet-gold covers, probably for bows
of fibulae, ornamented with groups of concentric circles. A similar golden cover comes from a grave at
Katrinedal, Holbk County (AK II 1042), and related
ones from a grave at Kampen, South Tondern/Tnder
County on Sild (off Jylland) (AK V 2681). The latter

were found together with an East Hannoveran pastave

axe identical to the one in No. 5 Guldhj A, dendrodated to 1389, and of Phase Early II (Pl. 3).
Interestingly, a significant parallel to these gold
covers comes from a rich sheet-gold hoard - the items
perhaps being for decorating an effigy - found at a
fortified hilltop settlement at Bernstorf, Freising near
Mnchen in Bayern/Bavaria (Gebhard 1999, 4 Abb.
3) (Fig. 8). If for an effigy, the lancet-shaped gold
piece might be the mouth, or an ornament on the
breast, just as like a fibula.
The Bernstorf find also includes a golden diadem
with antlers, on the Minoan fashion, and, among other items, lumps of raw amber. The date is less clear
from an archaeological point of view, apart from this
general phase of the European Bronze Age. Carbon14 dates may point to the 16th century BC (Gebhard
1999, 16). In fact, simple sheet-gold diadems (without
antlers) occur in several graves in the North. These include Erdrup (AK II 1130) of Lomborgs Valsmagle
horizon, Grnninghoved (AK IX 4403) of his Lve
horizon, Harreby (AK VII 3394) (Fig. 5), an Initial
Period II grave, and No. 17, Storehj, Barde, which is
of phase Early Period II and dendro-dated to 1373 BC
(Pl. 8). Actually, a famous horned item - lavishly decorated with spirals and with a thick sheet-gold front
- from Bregninge, Holbk County, Sjlland may also
be a diadem, possibly even for an effigy (AK II 970 I);
the date is Period II, perhaps the early part.
A recent find of an axe with decorated high flanges - the widest point again high on the axe, and the
edges outward curved - comes from a clear Period II
context, in fact the abovementioned Diverhj grave
(Asingh 1987); a knob sits at the end of the axe-shaft.
Two early fibulae - as already mentioned with significant traits (openwork leaf-shaped bow) similar to a
fibula from the very early (= Initial) Period II grave
from Skrydstrup (AK VII 3530A) - were found with
the axe, as well as a strike-a-light (flint). Likely, all
axes with ornamented high flanges, the largest width
of which is high on the blade, are Period II specimens,
irrespectively of the particular type of decoration. As
in the case of Langvad, Vandkilde admits a possible
Period II-date of Diverhj, due to the fibulae, but,
as indicated, otherwise dates all large axes with high
flanges to Period I (Vandkilde 1996b, 241 cf. 126). A
grave find from Hnsinge, Holbk County (AK II

Opening the Oak-Coffins

896A) with a similar axe (even the socket is decorated
here), and a very large socketed knob for the axe, plus
a full metal-hilted sword clearly belongs in Period II.
Shorter Valsmagle-like spearheads (with rhomboid cross-section of the socket) also occur in contexts
which are rather late - for instance, the rich graves
of Dyssegrd (AK I 451I), cf. above, and Strandtved,
Svendborg County (AK III 2144C). Dyssegrd has
a sheet-gold cover, likely for the bow of a fibula. A
Lve - or, Initial Period II date - for such finds is
supported by a fibulae proper (not just a Lochhalsnadeln), tweezers, and other items characteristic of
this period. Such short Valsmagle spearheads are not
necessarily indicative of the eponym horizon.
A grave from Srslev, Holbk County (AK
II 1008B) with a belt-hook very similar to the one
found in a grave from Mosbk, Hjrring County
(Hachmann 1957, Taf. 19:8-9) - the latter by Lomborg
attributed to the Valsmagle horizon - held a crude
broad-armed and large-bowed tweezers, likely a forerunner of the tweezers of Period II. In addition, the
Srslev grave carried an archaic chisel-shaped slate
ornament (for testing metals?). A grave at Liesbttel,
Rendsburg County (Hachmann 1957, Taf. 17:6-10),
also with a crested belt-hook, is by contrast clearly
Period II in date, the rest of the items being a sword
blade, a razor, a narrow-armed tweezers, etc., and
strike-a-light (flint).
Thus, some of Lomborgs Valsmagle finds and
their associates, including, likely, the above Erdrup
grave, the Hune hoard and Gunderupgrd grave, perhaps even the Mosbk grave and the related Srslev
one, should be lowered in date to Initial-Period II,
even though a number of uncertainties remain (cf. the
extensive discussion in Appendix A).
Other prominent graves, by Vandkilde all attributed to Period I (Vandkilde 1996b), such as the above
Dyssegrd and Strandtved graves - likely with Erdrup
- also belong to Intial-Period II. To the same period
is added all of Lomborgs Lve finds and their novel
associates of the present study (cf. Pls. 3-7). To introduce further horizons to handle the chronological
problems is not sustainable for such a limited though
complex data-set. Clearly, this slight change in chronology has a number of ramifications, which will not
be discussed here, however, but must be pondered in
their full context.

FROM PERIOD I TO PERIOD II.

CONCLUSIONS

21

Probably, the best solution to the above chronological

problems is the following: Firstly, to entangle the
Valsmagle hoards (and contemporary grave finds)
from Period I proper (cf. Appendix A below for detailed
discussions); secondly, to define the Valsmagle horizon
narrowly. Thirdly, to join a number of intermediate
finds along with Lomborgs Lve horizon into an
Initial-Period II. (A few problems still stand out,
though.) In turn, Initial-Period II should also accept
certain early finds from traditional Period II, including
quite a number of swords/daggers (cf. Appendix A; and
Pls. 3-7). The Lve horizon was defined by Lomborg
as typologically very homogeneous; this is probably
wrong. However, by far most of the Period II finds
are clearly later than the Lve/Initial-Period II horizon
and belong to the suggested Early and Late Period II,
respectively.
Indeed, all these problems need further comprehensive study, even though they do not concern us
overly in the present context (except for the upper
border of Period II). The said archaeological difficulties stem from a long time-span, relatively few finds,
much international interaction reflected in the metalwork, and a high degree of experimenting in this early
phase of the Bronze Age, before norms became fixed.
In conclusion, the Frdrup horizon or -phase - likely
extending back to the end of the Late Neolithic - may
well cover the 17th century, or even more, in time. The
Valsmagle horizon (as here defined) probably lies
somewhere in the 16th century, or around 1500 BC, at
the latest. This leaves more than one century for classical Period II, including the novel three (or more)
sub-phases (cf. Tables I-II).
In fact, considering the Valsmagle horizon - culturally - as a Period II horizon (Period II 0), and accepting at the same time a Lve or Initial-Period II horizon, we may thus have four horizons or phases within
the overall Period II milieu, including the above Early
Period II and Late Period II ones. Probably, such horizons each represents one, or - at most - two generations (one generation being of 30 or, rather, 40 years),
or, in other words, 120/160+ years. This allows for a
start of Period II 0/Valsmagle around ca. 1330 BC
(between 1344 and 1319 BC, according to the dendrodates given in Tables I-II) minus 120/160+ years = ca.

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Acta Archaeologica

1450/1490- BC. This is in fact in accordance with the

above suggestions, reached by other routes. Giving
each phase the rounded figure of 50 years, Valsmagle
ought to have started already around 1530- BC. If two
generations are housed in each phase (240/320+ years),
Valsmagle would have started by ca. 1570/1650- BC,
which is no doubt too early. At any rate, the chronological resolution is remarkable for such early period,
thus the great cultural and historical potential.

FROM PERIOD II TO PERIOD III

Compared to the intensive discussions on Period II

(and the transition from Period I to Period II), the main
changes betweens Period II and III have seen relatively
little discussion, even though Mller called a capsize,
from the richness and opulent diversity of Period II to
the standardization of Period III (cf. Randsborg 1968).
On the basis of cross-finds of regional artefact types and
imports, it has been suggested that Period III emerged
in the West of Denmark, while Period II norms (SubPeriod II) still prevailed for a period in the East, in
fact into the Reinecke Phase D of Central Europe. This
observation still seems to be true, even though many
new finds are calling for renewed studies of the details
also in this sub-field.
It is unfortunate that no oak-coffin graves from the
East of Denmark, nor from Sweden, have been dendro-dated. A Carbon-14 date from a highly interesting grave at ster Torsted, Vejle County (AK X 4381),
with artefacts of Early Period III/Sub-Period II - East
as West - including a Lausitz Culture razor, yielded
around 1700 BC calibrated, which is clearly wrong,
probably due to chemicals of conservation in the analyzed wood (a sword scabbard). A number of dendrodated coffins have previously been Carbon-14 dated.
However, due to a number of uncertainties, these dates
 Copenhagen laboratory (defunct), K-1695 (of 1971): 3410+/100 before 1950 = 1460 BC uncalibrated.

shall not be commented upon here. No doubt, a novel

series of accelerator dates must me employed. The
famous Kivik grave culturally belongs in exactly the
same horizon as the ster Torsted grave (AK X 4381).
Kivik perhaps has the astronomical date of (1310/)1300
BC (cf. above).
In conclusion, we thus acknowledge the following
relative chronological sequence of ten horizons (with
some uncertainty and discussion as to the precise contents of the horizons or phases):
(1) Latest Late Neolithic, Gallemose horizon
(2) Early Period I/Virring-Torsted horizon
(3) Period I/Frdrup and other (Sgel-Wohlde in
the west)
(4) Closing Period I/Valsmagle horizon
(5) Initial Period II/Lve horizon, etc.
(6) Early Period II
(7) Late Period II
(8) Early Period III
(9) Late Period III
(10) Period IV
As indicated by the quote at the beginning of this
chapter, without chronology, history, including the
history of culture, has no eyes and we cannot make
inferences about development and interaction over
time (cf. Appendix A below, Social Chronology).
That history has only one direction is an implication,
which dictates our narratives, or at least should do so.
Some archaeologists, though, tend to use analogy as
their prime tool, thus ignoring the concepts and forces
of context, time and even space. Culture history without
analogy tends to be limited and rather bleak; analogy
without culture history tends to lead only to rather
simple comparisons, of technologies for instance, or to
dreamlands of inferred social behaviour.
However, without culture and society, history has
but no content, thus no true existence. We must now
extend our investigation into the latter reams.