The Quality Control Tools

Statistical Process Control

Objectives
Identify the 7 Basic QC Tools
Understand the application of the 7 Basic
QC Tools
Determine appropriate tool for a specific
problem solving process
Make use of the tools on real life
problems for Continuous Quality
Improvement

SPC STATISTICAL PROCESS

CONTROL
A collection of problem solving tools used as
improvement methodology whose ultimate
goal is to reduce process variability

SPC can be applied to any process

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Checksheet
Histogram or stem-and-leaf plot
Pareto chart
Defect Concentration diagram
Cause-and-effect diagram
Scatter diagram
Control charts

SPOT THE DIFFERENCE

VARIATION
Difference between two objects
No two items will be perfectly
identical.
A fact of nature and of industrial life
Always present in a process
There is always a CAUSE to all
variation.

TYPES OF VARIATION CAUSES

Chance/ Random/ Common Causes

Combined influences of countless minor factors

Difficult to detect, sometimes uneconomical to
correct
Things that affect all production output (Deming)
e.g. vibration in machines, slight variation in raw
materials, inadequate training, fatigue

TYPES OF VARIATION CAUSES

Assignable/ Nonrandom/ Special Causes
Factors that unpredictably induce variation over
and
above the common causes
Large in magnitude, thus readily identifiable

e.g., operator blunder, faulty machine setup, batch of

defective raw material, worn tool, human factorscarelessness, failure to follow correct procedures

CONTROL STATE
State of Statistical Control

Absence of assignable or special causes of

variation
Stable and predictable within some control
limits

Out-of-Control State

Presence of assignable or special causes of

variation
Unstable and unpredictable

Understanding Problem:
Problem Definition

Problem = Idea (Target) Fact (Reality)

Idea
(Target)

Problem

Fact
(Reality)

Problem Solution
(fill up the gap) by
QC Techniques and Intrinsic Technology

Different QC Tools and techniques have different

roles to play in improving quality. Some roles
include:
Assessing capability
Collecting Data
Discovering problems

Finding and correcting root

causes of the problem

Monitoring and
maintaining control

Planning
Presenting Data
Selecting Problems

Identifying relationships

Structuring Ideas

Implementing actions

Summarizing Data

Measuring performance

Understanding a problem

Tool Selector Chart

Working with
Numbers

#
Counting

Check Sheet

Control Chart

Histogram

Measures

Pareto Diagram

Process Capability

Run Chart

Scatter Diagram

Brainstorming

Creating bigger and better ideas

Why Use It?
To establish a common method for a
team to creatively and efficiently
generate a high volume of ideas on any
topic by creating a process that is free
of criticism and judgment

Brainstorming
What does it do?
Encourages open thinking when a team is
stuck in same old way thinking
Gets all team members involved and
enthusiastic so that a few people dont
dominate the whole group
Allows team members to build on each
others creativity while staying focused on
their joint mission

Check Sheet

Counting and Accumulating Data

Why Use It?
To allow the team to systematically record
and compile data from the historical sources,
or observations as they happen, so that
patterns and trends can be clearly detected
and shown

Check Sheet
What does it do?

Creates easy-to-understand data that come from a

simple, efficient process that can be applied to any
key performance areas
Builds with each observations, clearer picture of
the facts
Forces agreement on the definition of each
condition or event
Makes patterns in the data become more obvious
quickly

Constructing the Check Sheet

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

Agree on Definitions
Plan the Data Collection
Design the Check Sheet
Collect the Data

Check Sheet 1

Check Sheet Essentials

Key Success Behaviors
Reassure data collectors that negative
data will not result in blame or poor
performance reviews
Train the data collectors
Remember ease of use when designing the
form

Check Sheet 2

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 3

Design the Form

Source Information (a-e)

a Name of project
b Location of data collection
c Name of person recording data, if it applies
d Date(s)
e Other important identifiers
Content Information (f-j)
f Column with defect/event name
g Columns with collection days/dates
h Totals for each column
i Totals for each row
j Grand total for both columns and rows

e Shift: All

a Project: Admission Delays c Name: (if applicable)

b Location: Emergency Room d Dates: 3/10 to 3/16
Date
f Reason: g

Total

3/10

3/11

3/12

3/13

Lab delays

12

12

52

No beds
available

31

Incomplete
patient
information

24

33

28

36

30

25

47

38

Total

3/14 3/15

3/16

Check Sheet 4

237

Check Sheet Example

Keyboard Errors in Class Assignment

March

Mistakes

Centering
Spelling
Punctuation
Missed paragraph
Wrong numbers
Wrong page numbers
Tables
Total

||
|||| ||
|||| |||| ||||
||
|||
|
||||
34

2
|||
|||| |||| |
|||| ||||
|
||||
|
||||
35

Total

|||
||||
|||| |||| ||||
|
|||
||
||||

8
23
40
4
10
4
13

33

102

Information provided courtesy of Millcreek Township School District,

Millcreek Township, Pennsylvania

Check Sheet 5

Check Sheet Example

Carmens World Famous Whoopie Pies Defect Identification Check Sheet
Project:
Types of
defects in
finished pies
Defect
Too much cream

Too little cream

Data collected by:

Carl

Location: Heavenly, Maine plant

Dates: June 20-26

Lot size: 200

June 20 June 21 June 22 June 23 June 24 June 25 June 26

Total
24

Too crumbly

21

Too big

13

Too small

14

Not sweet
enough

Not chocolaty
enough

Has a bite in it

Check Sheet 6

Check Sheet Examples

A customer response group use a Check Sheet to track the time
band during the day when each customer calls. They then ensure
that there are enough people available to cope with the heavy
load periods. This reduces fatigue and increases customer
satisfaction.
A drinks retailer has a Check Sheet to log the types of purchase
made, and changes her stock and displays to expand the range in
the more popular types of wine. The result is a measurable
increase in turnover.
A garage uses a Checklist to ensure all service points are
completed. The engineer then signs it and gives a copy to the
customer as an assurance. This significantly reduces service
omission errors.

Defect Concentration Diagram

A schematic diagram which shows the various sides
of a unit of production, with the positions where
nonconformities occur pinpointed
This would be analyzed to determine if the locations
of the nonconformities in the unit convey any
useful information about the potential causes of
the nonconformities

Defect Concentration Diagram

When to use it
During data collection phase of problem identification
Collecting data to monitor the post solution situation
Analyzing a part or assembly for defects to guide
improvement efforts
Investigating a part being produced with numerous
defects
Identifying positional patterns of problems/defects

Defect Concentration Diagram

Defect Concentration Diagram

In an electronic PCB manufacturing, the defect concentration
diagram was used to study the variation pattern.
The resulting defect concentration diagram showed a clear defect
concentration. Further analysis focused on a few components
and soldered joints in the PCB assembly

Pareto Chart
Focus on key problems; identifies the vital
few from the useful many
Why Use It?
To focus efforts on the problems that offer the
greatest potential for improvement by showing
their relative frequency or size in a descending
bar graph

Pareto Chart
What does it do?

Helps the team to focus on those causes that will have

greatest impact if solved
Based on the proven Pareto principles: 20% of the
sources causes 80% of the problem
Displays the relative importance of problems in a
simple, quickly, interpreted, visual format
Helps prevent shifting the problem where the
solution removed some causes but worsen others
Progress is measured in a highly visible format that
provides incentive to push on for more improvement

Pareto Chart
Some examples

Relatively few factors account for a large

percentage of the total cases/effects:
Few products/customers account for
majority of the sales
Few products account for majority of the
waste or rework
Few causes account for majority of
nonconformities

Constructing the Pareto Chart

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 8
Step 9

Choose a Problem to Study

Choose Categories
Select a Unit of Measure
Choose a Time Period
Gather Data
Compare Data
Construct the Chart
Show Cumulative Percents
Interpret the Results
Pareto 1

Step-by-Step Construction
HOTrep Problem Data
220
200

100%
92%

180

93%

89%

90

85%

160
72%

140

70

64%

120

60

55%

100

50
45%

80

40
33%

8%

8%

5%

4%

3%

1%

Refl. misc. (6)

Bad configuration (3)

Information provided courtesy of SmithKline Beecham

7%

10

Others (15)

9%

File problems (8)

Reflection hang (24)

10%

Ref. sys. integrity (11)

12%

20

Print problems (16)

20

System config. (16)

40

System integrity (19)

30

Lat. connection (20)

60

Boot problems (68)

# of
Reported
Occurrences

80

80%

Pareto 4

Pareto Example
Reduced Payment Freight Bills

120 -

Total Bills (329)

110 100 90 -

# of
Bills

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0-

Contract
rate
disputes

Class

Canada

Original
Destination

Misc.

Weight

Reconciled

Debt

Bynd.

Contract Rate Disputes

50 40 -

% of
Contract
Disputes

30 20 10 0-

Advanced Loaded Delivery

carrier to full visto
ible cap. mine sites

Min.
chrg.

NYC
arb.

Misc.

SWC

Information provided courtesy of Goodyear

NOA

Pareto 5

Pareto Example

Only identifies the most frequent but not the most important
defect

Pareto 5

Pareto Example
Field Service Customer Complaints

42% of all complaints

25

20

15
# of
Complaints
10

0
Shipping

Installation

Delivery Clerical

Misc.
Pareto 9

Pareto Example
Cost to Rectify Field Service Complaints
13% of total cost
20,000

Dollars
($)

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
Installation

Clerical Shipping

Delivery

Misc.

Pareto 10

Pareto Example
Reduced Payment Freight Bills
(After Standardization)

January bills (329)

120

June bills (56)

110

100
90
80

# of
Bills

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

0
Contract
rate
disputes

Class

Canada

Original
destination

Misc.

Weight

Reconciled

Debt

Bynd.

Pareto 6
Information provided courtesy of Goodyear

Pareto Example
Quality Management in Health Care

Source: Quality Management in Health Care: Principles and Methods by Donald E. Lighter,Douglas C. Fair

Pareto 10

Histogram

Process centering, spread and shape

Why Use It?
To summarize data from a process that has
been collected over a period of time, and
graphically present its frequency distribution in
a bar form

Histogram
What does it do?

Display large amount of data that are difficult to

interpret in tabular form
Shows the relative frequency of occurrence of the
various data values
Reveals the centering, variation, and shape of the data
Provides useful information for predicting future
performance of the process or a picture of what has
happened in the past
Helps to indicate that there had been change on the
process
Helps answer the question Is the process capable
of meeting my customer requirements?

Constructing the Histogram

Step
Step
Step
Step
Step

1
2
3
4
5

Decide on the Measure

Gather Data
Prepare a Frequency Table
Draw a Histogram
Interpret the Histogram

Histogram 1

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 4 Draw Histogram - Using Frequency
Table
Spec.
Specifications:
40 -

9 1.5

Target

USL

30 Frequency

20 -

10 -

0--

9.0

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8

Thickness
Histogram 4

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 5 Interpret Histogram (Centering)
Customer
Requirement
Process centered

Process too high

Process too low

Histogram 5

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 5 Interpret Histogram (Variation)
Customer
Requirements

Process
within
requirements

Process
too variable
Histogram 6

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 5

Interpret Histogram (Shape)

Normal Distribution

Bi-Modal Distribution

Positively Skewed

Multi-Modal Distribution

Negatively Skewed
Histogram 7

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 5

Interpret Histogram
Centering and Spread Compared to Customer Target and Limits
Lower
Specification
Limit

Target

Upper
Specification
Limit

(a) Centered and well within

customer limits.
Action: Maintain present state.

(b) No margin for error.

Action: Reduce variation.

(c) Process running low.

Defective product/service.
Action: Bring average
closer to target.

(d) Process too variable.

Defective product/service.
Action: Reduce variation.
(e) Process of center and
too variable. Defective
product/service.
Action: Center better and
reduce variation.

Histogram 8

HISTOGRAM SHAPES AND THEIR

INTERPRETATIONS
Normal:
Bell-shaped curve.
Points are as likely to occur on one side of
the average as on the other.
Skewed:
Asymmetrical because a natural limit
prevents outcomes on one side.
Distributions peak is off center toward the
limit and a tail stretches away from it.
For example, a distribution of analyses of a
very pure product would be skewed, because
the product cannot be more than 100 percent
pure.
Called right- or left-skewed according to the
direction of the tail.

HISTOGRAM SHAPES AND THEIR

INTERPRETATIONS
Plateau:
AKA multimodal distribution.
Several processes with normal distributions are
combined.
Because there are many peaks close together, the
top of the distribution resembles a plateau.

Comb:
Bars are alternately tall and short.
Results from a combination of rounded-off data and
an incorrectly constructed histogram.
Truncated or heart cut:
Looks like a normal distribution with the tails cut off.
The supplier might be producing a normal
distribution of material and then relying on
inspection to separate what is within specification
limits from what is off-specs.
The resulting shipments to the customer from
inside the specifications are the heart cut.

HISTOGRAM SHAPES AND THEIR

INTERPRETATIONS
Edge peak:
Looks like the normal distribution except that it
has a large peak at one tail.
Usually caused by faulty construction of the
histogram, with several bars of data lumped
together into a bar labeled greater than
Dogfood:
The dogfood distribution is missing something results near the average.
If a customer receives this kind of distribution,
someone else is receiving a heart cut. Even
though what the customer receives is within
specifications, the product falls into two clusters:
one near the upper specification limit and one
near the lower specification limit.

HISTOGRAM INTERPRETATION TIPS

The number of classes (bars in the graph) determines

how much of a pattern will be visible.

Some processes are naturally skewed. Not all will follow a

bell-shaped curve.

Get suspicious of the accuracy of the data if the classes

suddenly stop at one point (such as a specification limit)
without some previous decline in number.

Always look for twin peaks that indicate that the data
come from two or more different sources or populations.

Histogram Example
60

Time Distribution of Calls

50

40

30

20

10

0
8:00 8:30 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 13:00 13:30 14:00 14:30 15:00 15:30 16:00 16:30 17:00 17:00

HOTrep data May 22 to August 4

Information provided courtesy of
SmithKline Beecham

Histogram 9

Scatter Diagram
Measuring relationships between variables

Why Use It?

To study and identify the possible relationships
between the changes observed in two different
sets of variables

Scatter Diagram
What does it do?

Supplied the data to confirm a hypothesis that

two variables are related
Provides both a visual and statistical means to
test the strength of a potential relationship
Provides a good follow-up to a Cause & Effect
Diagram to find out if there is more than just a
consensus connected between causes and effect

SCATTER DIAGRAM INTERPRETATIONS

1. Positive Correlation.
There is a strong relationship
between x & y. Y increases as x
increases. If x is controlled,
there is a good chance of
controlling y. E.g., training vs.
performance.

2. Possible Positive
Correlation.

If x is increased, y may
increase somewhat, but y
seems to have causes other
than x.

SCATTER DIAGRAM INTERPRETATIONS

3. Negative Correlation.
An increase in x causes a
decrease in y.

4. Possible Negative
Correlation.

An increase in x may cause a

tendency for y to decrease.
E.g., quality vs. customer
complaints.

SCATTER DIAGRAM INTERPRETATIONS

5. Correlation by Stratification.
Stratified data represent
different causes for the same
effect. E.g., characteristic of a
product from two suppliers,
performance of two machines.

6. No Correlation.
There may be no
correlation. Y may be
dependent on another
variable.

Flowchart/Process Map

Visual representation of a process

Identifies rework loops, redundancies,
bottlenecks and non-value added steps
Isolates the hidden factory or office

Flowchart/Process Map
Why Use It?
To allow a team to identify the actual
flow of sequence of events in a
process that any product or service
follows. Flowcharts can be applied to
anything from the travels of an invoice
or the flow of materials, to the steps
in making a sale or servicing a product

Flowchart/Process Map
At Least Three Versions

What It Is Thought
to be

What Actually Is

What It Should be

Ways to Eliminate Non-value-Added

Activities
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Rearrange the sequence of worksteps

Rearrange the physical location of the operator in the system
Change work methods
Chang the type of equipment used in the process
Redesign forms and documents for more efficient use
Improve operator training
Improve supervision
Identify more clearly the function of the process to all
employees
9. Try to eliminate unnecessary steps
10. Try to consolidate process steps

Flowchart/Process Map

Value Stream Map

Picture of the value stream from the products viewpoint
A method of creating a One-page picture of all the processes that
occur in a company, from the time a customer places an order for a
product, until the customer has received that product in their facility

The goal is to depict material and information flows across and throughout
all Value-Adding Processes required to produce and ship the product
to the customer. VSM document all of the process used to produce
and ship a product, both value-adding and non-value-adding (waste )
processes.

Value Stream Map Example

How to Construct a Value Stream Map

Symbols used in the VSM

How to Construct a Value Stream Map

Examples of Data Typically collected in VSM

Lead Time (LT) - time it takes one unit of product to move

through the entire value stream from the beginning to end

Processing Time (PT) - the elapsed time from the time the
product enters a process until it leaves that process

Cycle Time (CT) - how long a unit of a product is done on a

single process. A rate, calculated by dividing the processing time
by the number of people or machines doing the work

Setup time (ST) - these are activities such as loading/unloading,

machine preparation, testing and trial runs. In other words, all
activities that take place between completing a good product until
starting to work on the next unit or batch of product

How to Construct a Value Stream Map

Examples of Data Typically collected in VSM

Available time (AT) - the time each day that the value stream can
operate if there is product to work on

Uptime (UT) - the percent of time the process actually operates

as compared to the available time or planned operating time

Pack size - the quantity of product required by the customer for

the shipment

How to Construct a Value Stream Map

Examples of Data Typically collected in VSM

Batch size - the quantity of product worked on and moved at one

time

Queue time the time a product spends waiting for processing

Work-in-process (WIP) - product that is being processed but is

not yet completed

Information flows - schedules, forecasts, and other information

that tells each process what to do next

Value Stream Map Example

Process Cycle Efficiency = Value-add time/ Lead Time

Why-Why Analysis
It is a method of questioning that leads to the identification of the
root cause(s) of a problem.
A why-why is conducted to identify solutions to a problem that
address its root cause(s). Rather than taking actions that are
merely band-aids, a why-why helps you identify how to really
prevent the issue from happening again.

Analogy:
The reasoning is that the result of each time
the Why is asked gives a different answer, in
essence peeling back the onion as follows:

First Why: Symptom

Second Why: Excuse
Third Why: Blame
Fourth Why: Cause
Fifth Why: Root Cause

Why-Why Analysis Example

If you dont ask the right questions, you dont get the right answers. A question
asked in the right way often points to its own answer. Asking questions is the
ABC of diagnosis. Only the inquiring mind solves problems. Edward
Hodnett

5-Whys Examples
Problem Statement: You are on your way home from work and your
car stops in the middle of the road.
1. Why did your car stop?
- Because it ran out of gas.
2. Why did it run out of gas?
- Because I didn't buy any gas on my way to work.

3. Why didn't you buy any gas this morning?

- Because I didn't have any money.
4. Why didn't you have any money?
- Because I lost it all last night in a poker game.
5. Why did you lose your money in last night's poker game?
- Because I'm not very good at "bluffing" when I don't have a
good hand.

Why-Why Analysis Example

Flashlight example
Phenomena

Even if the
switch is set
to ON, light
does not turn
on

Why1

Required
amount of
electricity
does not
flow

Why 2

Light Bulb
has burnt
out
Current
does not
flow bet.
Bulb and
batteries
Batteries
are weak

Why 3
Current does
not flow bet
bulb and
switch

Why 4
Defective
switch

Current does
not flow bet
switch and
battery
Current does
not flow bet
battery and
battery

Neg-neg
terminal
connection

Current does
not flow bet
batteries and
bulb

Battery
corroded/
terminal
defect

Why 5
Broken
contact/
corroded

Cause& Effect/Fishbone Diagram

Find & Cure causes, NOT symptoms

Why Use It?

To allow a team to identify, explore, and
graphically display, in increasing detail, all of
the possible causes related to a problem or
condition to discover its root cause(s).

Types: (1) cause enumeration type (2) process

analysis type

Cause & Effect/Fishbone Diagram

What does it do?
Enables a team to focus on the content of the problem,
not on the history of the problem or differing personal
interests of team members
Creates a snapshot of the collective knowledge and
consensus of a team around a problem. This builds
support for the resulting solutions
Focuses the team on causes, not symptoms

Cause& Effect/Fishbone Diagram

Problem: Smoke in my room
Bad solution: Open the window and go back to sleep
Good solution: Find the source of the smoke and
solve it. Whoops, theres a fire in the basement!
Extinguish it, find out what caused the fire in the first
place, install a fire alarm for earlier warning next time

Problem: Water in the boat

Bad solution: Pump out the water and keep
sailing.
Good solution: Find the source of the water. Ah,
a hole! Fix it then pump out the water.

Constructing the Cause & Effect

Step 1 Create a Problem Statement
Step 2 Generate the Causes
Step 3 Construct the Diagram

Cause & Effect 1

Cause-&-Effect Diagram (Cause Enumeration Type)

People

Materials

Methods

Quality
Characteristic

Environment

Equipment

CAUSES

EFFECT

Cause-&-Effect Diagram (Process Analysis Type)

wrong
components
in kit

ASSEMBLE KITS
OF
COMPONENTS

faulty
components
on board

insertion in
wrong
location

HAND
INSERTION OF
COMPONENTS
TO BOARDS

bent on
insertion

wrong
orientation

dull trimmer

inexperienced
operator

LEADS TRIMMED
AND SOLDERED

faulty
soldering
equipment

operator
error

damage in
transport

ELECTRICAL
TEST

lack of
training for
operator

faulty test
equipment

PASS TO
ASSEMBLY

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 3a
Construct the Diagram:
Write Problem Statement
Causes
Bones
(Major cause categories)

Effect
Late pizza
deliveries on
Fridays and
Saturdays

Cause & Effect 4

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 3b
Construct the Diagram:
Draw Major Cause Categories
Machinery/
Equipment

People
Late pizza
deliveries on
Fridays and
Saturdays

Methods

Materials

Illustration Note: In a Process Classification Type

format, replace the major bone categories with:
Order Taking, Preparation, Cooking, and Delivery.

Cause & Effect 5

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 3c
Construct the Diagram:
Place Causes in Correct Category
Machinery/
Equipment

People
Unreliable
cars

Ovens
too small

Poor handling
of large orders

Methods

People dont
show up

Drivers
get lost

Poor
dispatching

Late pizza
deliveries on
Fridays and
Saturdays
Run out of
ingredients

Materials
Cause & Effect 6

Step-by-Step Construction
Step 3d
Construct the Diagram:
Question Why? for Each Cause
Machinery/Equipment

People

Unreliable cars
Low pay
No money for repairs
No capacity for
peak periods

Kids own junks

High turnover
Lack of experience

People don't show up

Low pay
High turnover

Drivers get lost

Rushed

Poor
training
Poor use
of space

Poor handling of
large orders

Don't know town

High turnover

Ovens too small

High turnover

No teamwork
No training

Poor training Get wrong

information

Run out of ingredients

High turnover
Don't know
Poor use
town
of space
Inaccurate
High turnover
ordering
Lack
of
Poor
training
dispatching

Late pizza
deliveries on
Fridays and
Saturdays

Many new streets

Methods

Materials

Cause & Effect 7

Cause & Effect Example

Bed Assignment Delay
Resources

Timing

Machine (PCIS)

Wait for MD
Nursing shortage
Unit clerk staffing
Patient arrives
too early
Unit clerk training
Transfer too early
from another hospital

Discharged patient
did not leave
Wait for ride
Wait for lunch
Wait for results
Call housekeeping
too late
Call housekeeping
too early

System incorrect

Not entered
Functions not useful
Not used
Need more training
No trust
Not used
pending discharge

Think it will take

more time

Call housekeeping
when clean

Patient waits
for bed
Double rooms
Physician did
not write order
Medicine
admit quota

Reservation
unaware

Delayed
entry

Not entered

Too busy
Sandbag
Physician misuse
inpatient

MD procedures

Unit switch bed

Admitting unaware
bed is clean

Many
transfers
Specialty beds
Cardiac monitors

Inappropriate
ER admittance

Hospital procedures

Unit clerk unaware

of discharge or transfer
Shift change
Not told
On break

Communication

Information provided courtesy of

Rush-Presbyterian-St. Lukes Medical Center

Cause & Effect 8

Cause & Effect Example

Causes for Bent Pins (Plug-In Side)
People

Methods

Handling
Storage

004 prep VA

In/Out of Boxes

Mylar tape
General handling

No Fixture
Scribe slips
Placement on edges

Shows pins on bench

Repair
Test
Backplane mounting
Heavy/Awkward

Assembly difficulty
Complex design
Retainer
Large part #
insertion

Carelessness
Attitude
Lack of attention
On-the-job training

No/Don't Like
Fixtures

Mount to frame

Placement pins on bench

Gauging
Storage
Damaged connector
Improper
insertion
Bent pins

plug-in side
Not designed for
manufacturing
2 backplanes

Using wrong tools

Casting ties/pliers

Bits
Not enough
Improper sizes
New tools - long lead time
Gauges

No Stiffener Plates

Large part #
Assembly difficulty

Bad panel
alignment bare

Lack of
fixtures

Designer not on site

Not Enough Universal
Designer can't react
to problems

Screws come loose

Damaged connectors
Test fixtures
Storage

Damaged connectors

Design

Tools
Information provided courtesy of AT&T

Cause & Effect 9

Cause & Effect Example

Process Classification Method
Concept Development
People dont think
it through at onset

Authoring
Poor communication between
author and publisher

Lack of experience
developing a concept

Publisher has too many other projects

People offer new

input at last minute

Other projects
get in the way

Market research reveals

a previously unforeseen
customer need
Lack of skills
Lack of training
Inappropriate hiring
No project management

Delays in mailing process

Address errors
Authors delay in
responding to
editorial changes/
questions

Poor time
management skills

Authors see that other

authors are late too
Work is on royalty, no
up-front compensation

Budget
constraints
Lack of training
Bad quarter Lack of direction
fiscally from supervisor

Authors doing other things

Original writing not
submitted on time
Short on staff
Competing demands on
desktop publishers time

Competing demands on
desktop publishers time
Poor planning

Editing

Lack of two-way negotiation in

the setting of the deadline

Lack of incentive
to meet deadline
High incidence of
missed deadlines
in book publishing
process
Last minute changes
to text or graphics

Forgot to send
Author traveling and didnt
get mail
Authors receive text and graphics
too late to review on time
Hardware breakdown

Poor fit of skills to demands of project

Lack of training
Staf f with more appropriate skills not available

Copy Layout
Cause & Effect 10

Cause & Effect Example

Cause & Effect 10

Control Charts
Recognizing sources of variation

Why Use It?

To monitor, control, and improve
process performance over time by
studying variation and its source.

Control Charts
What does it do?

Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring

process variation over time
Distinguishes special from common causes of
variation, as a guide to management action
Serves as a tool for ongoing control of a process
Helps improve a process to perform consistently
predictably for higher quality, lower cost, and
higher effective capacity
Provides a common language for discussing
process performance

Constructing the Control Chart

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7

Select the Process

Determine Sampling Plan
Initiate Data Collection
Calculate Statistics
Calculate Control Limits
Construct the Chart
Interpret the Chart

Control Chart 1

Control Chart Essentials

Key Success Behaviors
Dont Control Chart everythingbe
selective
Provide careful preparation and support
When in doubt, consult with an expert

Control Chart 2

Control Chart Example

Individuals & Moving Range Chart
IV Lines Connection Time
Process/Operation:

IV Lines Connection
Open Heart Admissions

Characteristics:
Time in seconds

Sample Size:
One
X = 8470
R = 2990

Individuals: k = 26
Ranges: n = 2

420
360
300
240
180
120
60
0

LCL = 7
LCL = 0

UCL

6/6 EW 120 180

6 EW 30 210

120
300

130

23 EW 0
24 EW 120
30 EW 60
30 EW 80

300

LCL
17 EW 30 210
19 MA 0 210
20 EW 30 180
22 EW 60 240
23 EW 60 300

X
Rm
Who?
When?

14 EW 180 480
14 EW 360 120
16 EW 120 240

3 EW 210 690
4 MA 450 240
5 EW 120 360
9 EW 90 450
13 EW 150 300

90

540
240

180

25 EW 180 420
30 EW 30 450
5/2 EW 30 480

270

600
480

360

UCL = 645
UCL = 392

Date:
6/10

. .
. . . .
. .
.
.
. .. . . .
. .
. . . . ..
4/9 EW -11 EW 120
12 EW 60
13 EW 300

Seconds

450

X = 325.77
R = 119.6

By:
EW

540

Sample Frequency:
Each patient

720
630

Department:
Intensive Care

. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. ..
..
. .

UCL

Rm
LCL

Information provided courtesy of

Parkview Episcopal Medical Center

Control Chart 4

Control Chart Example

General Dentistry: Percent of Patients
Who Failed to Keep Appointments
Historical Statistics:
P = 39

UCL = 47
Flex Time

Regular Hours
60

LCL = 31

50

UCL

40

30

LCL

20

Year

Oct

Sep

Aug

16 10 12 12

Jul

Jun

May

Apr

Mar

Jan

Nov

1999

Feb

19 20 18

Dec

42 40 20 26 25

Oct

Month

36 36 42

Sep

% Failed 40

Aug

10

Jul

p Chart

2000

Information provided courtesy of U.S. Navy,

Naval Dental Center, San Diego

Control Chart 5

Control Chart Example

u Chart

Shop Process Check Solder Defects

Historical Ave.: 2974 ppm
Historical UCL: 8758 ppm
Historical LCL:
0 ppm
10000 9000 -

UCL

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 -

2000 -

Jan 11 -

Jan 10 -

Jan 9 -

Jan 8 -

Jan 7 -

Jan 6 -

Jan 5 -

Jan 4 -

0-

Jan 3 -

1000 Jan 2 -

Defect
Rate
(PPM)

LCL

Checks (3 per day)

Information provided courtesy of AT&T

Control Chart 6

Control Chart Example

Average & Range

X & R Chart
Overall Course Evaluations
1.14 4.13 Ave.

3.76
4.21
4.29
4.36
4.13
3.77
4.17
4.21
4.22
4.00
4.30
4.20
4.32
4.18
4.02
3.71
4.08
4.23
3.98
4.46
3.96
3.63
4.48
4.30
4.29

1.01
1.27
0.48
1.32
1.52
1.03
1.15
1.07
0.70
2.05
0.95
0.99
1.06
1.21
1.33
0.78
1.21
1.23
1.08
1.64
1.20
0.98
0.91
1.19
1.03

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

X
R

Wk
#

n = 10 evaluations randomly sampled each week

1-Not at all 2-Not very 3-Moderately 4-Very 5-Extremely

Ave. Weekly Participant Rating

5.0

4.5

UCL
X

4.0

LCL
3.5

3.0

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2

UCL

LCL

Information provided courtesy of Hamilton Standard

Control Chart 7

Model for Systematic Usage of QC Tools