The Date Palm

A date palm is a fruit- bearing palm tree that is common in North

Africa and the Middle East. The date palm has many uses for
instance the dates are used frequently in cooking, the leaf fibres are
made into rope and baskets and the trunk is used as building timber
and a fuel.
Alpha glucose and beta glucose both have the formula C6H12O6. They
form a ring structure with an OH group and an H on each carbon and
on the sixth carbon there is a C2HOH group instead of an OH group.
The difference between alpha and beta glucose is that there is an
inversion of the OH group and the H on the first carbon on the beta
glucose molecule. This means that when beta glucose undergoes
condensation polymerisation, inversion of a monomer of beta
glucose occurs so that the monomers can bond together. Both
glucose molecules undergo condensation reactions (producing
water), forming glycosidic bonds to join the monomers together to
form the polymer.
The alpha glucose monomers join together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
and 1.6 glycosidic bonds. Amylose contains straight chain polymers
of alpha glucose joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds, whereas
amylopectin is made from a mixture of 1,6 and 1,4 glycosidic bonds,
therefore its a branched polymer. Beta glucose joins by 1,4
glycosidic bonds (after one of the monomers have been inverted.
This linking of beta glucose monomers means that the OH group
sticks out on both sides of the molecule and therefore hydrogen
bonds can form between the slightly positive hydrogen atoms and
the slightly negative oxygen atoms. This is known as cross-linking
and holds the neighbouring chains together.
Starch (the store of energy in plants) is made up of both amylose
and amylopectin, however there is more amylose than amylopectin.
The amylose forms helical spirals due to hydrogen bonds between
neighbouring molecules. This makes the starch more compact
therefore more starch can be stored in a given volume. The
amylopectin has many terminal glucose monomers, which can be
broken off rapidly so glucose can be released rapidly when needed
for respiration. The glucose can also be easily hydrolysed and turned
back into the glucose polymer (for storage). Moreover, since starch
is a polysaccharide (made up of alpha glucose monomers), it makes
it difficult for it to be dissolved and so starch is insoluble. This is
useful because it means that it can be stored and it will not alter the
osmotic gradients in the cells.
The ability to store energy in the form of starch is important to the
date palm due to the location that they grow in. For example in

deserts there is little availability of water, so any glucose formed

from photosynthesis needs to be stored for use in the future.
Beta glucose polymers make up cellulose, which is a major
component in the cell walls of plants. The cellulose molecules are
arranged parallel to each other and are linked by hydrogen bonds.
As a result of this, long, cable-like structures called microfibrils are
formed. In cell walls, there are about 10-10000 cellulose molecules
grouped to form these microfibirils. The cellulose fibrils are laid
down in layers held together by a matrix (of hemicelluloses and
other short chain carbohydrates), which act as a glue binding the
cellulose molecules together. (Fullick, 2008), The microfibrils and the
glue is what produces the strong support structure that allows the
plant to stand upright.
The cellulose molecules do not spiral but the microfibrils do. If the
spirals are more vertical and are closer together then the structure
of the cell in the vertical direction will be stronger.
The major source of cellulose is plant fibres (cotton, hemp, flax and jute are all
almost 100% cellulose). Wood is also a good source of cellulose being about
42% cellulose. Fortunately, cellulose is insoluble in water and therefore it is
easily separated from the other components of the plant. (Cellulose, 2009)
At the moment cellulose is a very widely used material, not just by
plants. Humans use cellulose in many areas such as the diet,
construction, clothing etc.
Even though humans and various other carnivorous animals cant
digest cellulose it is still an important part of the diet. Cellulose is a
major part of the dietary fibres that is important for digestion. Since
humans dont have the special bacteria and enzymes to break down
cellulose it just passes through the gut, unchanged and this helps
the movements in the intestines, thereby regulating bowel
movement. Also, having cellulose in the diet aids in weight control
because the rate of waste removal is increased thereby preventing
the reabsorption of excess sugar etc. Manufacturers add cellulose in
the form of wood pulp to many different foods such as ice cream,
salad dressings and sauces (according to MayoClinic.com). Cellulose
as an additive improves the texture of the foods, hence making
baked goods firmer, sauces smoother and creamier. Additive
cellulose also adds some fibre to commonly consumed foods when
the average diet is greatly lacking in fibre. (Daniels)
Due to their favourable properties cellulose has been researched to
find any potential uses. One example of a future use is
nanocellulose, which is reformed cellulose. The material is derived
from plant matter than has been reduced to small bits and pieces
and then purified by a homogenizer, which removes all other
components that arent cellulose e.g., lignin. The remaining
cellulose fibres are separated and processed into a thick substrate

that is made of long polymer or crystallized structures. The

nanocrystalline cellulose or nanocellulose produced from this
method is a remarkable material with flexibility, malleability, super
strength and low impact credentials. (MANDAL, 2014). Some future
uses of the nanocellulose material are: high strength and light
weight armour, fuel efficient and durable vehicles and medical uses
such as wound healing, dressings and absorbent hygiene products
like tampons.
A by-product of the production of nanocellulose is biofuel, however
biofuel can also be made by the hydrolisation and fermentation of
sugars obtained from the procedure. There are many ways that
biofuels can be made but most in general the method uses chemical
reactions, fermentation and heat to break down starches and sugars
in plants. The leftover products are then refined to produce fuel that
can power cars etc. However there is a problem because a lot of
energy is involved in the refining of the products of this
fermentation and the production of pesticides for the plants to grow.
This means that more carbon dioxide is being released into the air
than the newly grown plants can absorb during photosynthesis. As
well as this, during the production of the biofuel, coal and oil is burnt
to release energy and so the biofuels dont replace these fossil fuels
that they are using
As a result, researchers are looking into ways for finding plants that
have more cellulose such as grasses and saplings for the production
of the biofuels. It has been said that if cellulose can be turned into
biofuels then it could be more efficient than current biofuels, and
emit less carbon dioxide. (Biofuels)
In addition to biofuels, cellulose can also be used to make
bioplastics. Conventional plastics are synthetic polymers made
mostly from petrochemicals, which originate from oil. Bioplastics are
plastics made from biological polymers such as starch and cellulose.
There are various types of bioplastics and they are all suited to their
function. Cellulose-based plastics are usually made from wood pulp
and are used as wrapping for food. Moreover, thermoplastic starch is
used in the pharmaceutical industry to make capsules to contain
medication.
The conventional plastics are non- biodegradable resulting in wide
scale pollution. Also, the oil used to produce these polymers is a
non-renewable resource, so eventually it will run out and these
plastics cannot be manufactured.
Unlike these conventional polymers, natural starch based polymers,
which are the basis for bioplastics, are much more advantageous.
One benefit is that they are sustainable because the cellulose and
starch used to produce them come from plants that can be grown in
accordance to the demand in the bioplastics industry. Also,
bioplastics are biodegradable because they are made from natural

material, which can be broken down by fungi and bacteria. Despite

this being a slow process, it will reduce pollution from plastics in the
long term and will reduce the problems associated with the disposal
of plastics.
On the other hand, a disadvantage of bioplastics is that when it
decomposes methane gas is produced and this greenhouse gas is
much more potent than the carbon dioxide that is released from the
production of conventional polymers like polyethene. Another
disadvantage is that bioplastics are not exactly the same as normal
plastics and sometimes, desirable characteristics in normal plastics
cannot be achieved as easily in the bioplastics. An economic
implication of the production of bioplastics is that it may cause taxes
on products to go up or people will have to pay more for the
bioplastics, in order for the bioplastics industry to be financed.
Furthermore, an ethical issue for the manufacture of bioplastics is
that the land used to grow the crops could be used to build homes
for the many homeless people in the world and the crops could be
used to feed the many people dying of starvation. This creates
tension because you are using a high demand product (crops such
as maize) to make biofuels and bioplastics instead of feeding the
many people who dont have any food to eat. A cost benefit analysis
would have to be done to determine whether the lives of people
now are worth than the future sustainability for everyone.
In conclusion, the date palm has many uses due to the fact that it
contains cellulose, which is a very valuable material in the
commercial and industrial world. However, uses of cellulose have
sparked ethical debates on whether we should be using the plants
as a source of cellulose for commercial use or using the plants to
feed the hungry.

Bibliography
Biofuels. (n.d.). Retrieved 03 10, 2015, from
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/:
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/globalwarming/biofuel-profile/
Cellulose. (2009). Retrieved 03 10, 2015, from scienceclarified.com:
http://www.scienceclarified.com/CaCh/Cellulose.html#ixzz3TuUeyGOt
Daniels, C. (n.d.). What nutritional value does cellulose have.
Retrieved 03 10, 2015, from healthyeating.sfgate.com:
http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/nutritional-value-cellulose-have1789.html
Fullick, A. (2008). Edexcel AS Biology. Pearson Education.

MANDAL, D. (2014, 09 02). 6 Potential Future Uses Of Nanocellulose

The Ultimate Wonder Material. Retrieved 03 10, 2015, from
hexpolic.com: http://www.hexapolis.com/2014/09/02/6-potentialfuture-uses-nanocellulose-ultimate-wonder-material/