Marine Geology - Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

Research Papers
S E D I M E N T S A N D H I S T O R Y OF THE P O S T G L A C I A L T R A N S G R E S S I O N
IN THE P E R S I A N G U L F A N D N O R T H W E S T G U L F OF O M A N
MICHAEL S A R N T H E I N
Geologische-Paliiontologisches Institut der Univers#iit Kiel, Kiel (Germany)

(Received June 21, 1971)

ABSTRACT
Sarnthein, M., 1972. Sediments and history of the Postglacial transgression in the Persian Gulf
and northwest Gulf of Oman. Mar. Geol., 12: 245-266.
Large parts of the Persian Gulf receive little recent sedimentation (see Fig. 2). In these
areas the bottom samples contain considerable quantities of parautochthonous relict sediments
with radiocarbon ages of 7,000-13,000 years. The relict grains have a shallow water origin. Studies
of their locally very differentiated sedimentary facies (see Fig. 5) as well as the morphology help
to decipher the palaeogeographic history during the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene transgression. The deepest traces of sub-fossil, water-line sedimentation (oGliths, reef material) are
today found at the shelf break in water depths of 105-125 m (see Fig. 10). At the time of this
deposition the Persian Gulf was essentially a dry, flat river valley of an ancient Shatt al Arab.
Between 100 and 65 m water depth "polymict coquinas", in the shallower part covered by thick
unlithified aragonite mud, reflect a rapid transgressive migration of intertidal environments.
Behind the Central Swell a temporary lagoon was formed which filled with aragonite mud and
some terrigenous deltaic sediments.
Transgression standstill periods are indicated at 64-61 and 53-40 m by coarse, frosted
quartz and o/Sid concentrations embedded in lithified aragonite mud. These, together with a fossil
ridge and channel system, are interpreted as drowned relicts of strand dunes. Their water depths
are analogous to similar occurrences on other shelf regions (see Fig. 8). A possible third standstill
lies at about 30 m. The Late Pleistocene climate, as evidenced by the absence of Zagros river
sediments, was probably more arid than the present day Persian Gulf climate.
INTRODUCTION
W a t e r depths in the Persian G u l f almost nowhere exceed 100 m (Fig.l).
Accordingly, the entire area was dry l a n d d u r i n g the past Ice Age, at which time
sea level was 120 m lower t h a n today (Guilcher, 1969). The purpose of this p a p e r
is to trace the s u b s e q u e n t Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene transgression based
o n evidence f o u n d in the sediments a n d morphology. All data presented here are
derived from observations a n d samples from the 1964-1965 " M e t e o r " expedition
(Dietrich et al., 1966).
The m o r p h o l o g y as shown in the b a t h y m e t r i c a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l profile of
the G u l f (see Fig.3) as well as in detailed echogram profiles (both t h o r o u g h l y
discussed by Seibold a n d Vollbrecht, 1969) has been interpreted here in the light
of data gained from a n analysis o f the coarse fraction of grab samples (detailed
Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

246

M. SARNTHEIN

'

'

5'0 o

'

'

'

'

5'5

'

'

:30

~oo km

\~

S((~

c~

M/

1(((
OG

50

Fig.l. Bathymetry and topographic names in the Persian Gulf (modified after Seibold
and Vollbrecht, 1969). M F S - - Mesopotamian shallow shelf; A F S - - Arabian shallow shelf; B S =
Biaban Shelf; W B ~ Western Basin; Z B = Central Basin; H R - - Hormuz region; Z S = Central
Swell; E S ~ Eastern Swell; O G - - Gulf of Oman.

data in Sarnthein, 1971). Skeletal and non-skeletal relict grains form a quasiautochthonous cover in wide areas of the Gulf which receive little recent sedimentation (Fig.2). Bioturbation has here resulted in a vertical mixing of Late Pleistocene
relict sediment with the overlying modern material over a thickness of more than
2.5 m. For the most part the relict grains are rather brittle, yet they have undergone
little modification since their original deposition. Another argument for their
quasi-autochthony is found in the composite nature of many gravel and coarsesand components: in spite of distinct facies changes within short distances they
both contain only the local assemblages made up of fine to medium-grained relict
sand. Therefore the term "relict sediments" seems justified even in the light of the
more restricted definition of Swift et al. (1971).
METHODS
To carry out the component analysis, the sand fraction (0.063-2.0 ram)
from each of 175 bottom samples was split into five subfractions ( - 1 - 0 , 0-1,
1-2, 2-3, 3-4 ~). Five hundred to eight hundred grains were counted in each
subfraction. The grains were catalogued in up to 40 grain-type categories (e.g.,
Foraminifera, corals, Bryozoa, molluscs, o6ids, pellets, etc.). Relict components
alone occupied 18 categories. The results from each subfraction were then added
Mar.

GeoL,

12 (1972) 245-266

 +Y'o

o
cO

{"4

? "!' . Y ' Y - ,+ ' Y ++ +~' ? y +' "

?? .? ,-Z?+?+++?+?..?~.+?.?
o.
E

;7+ +o', +

'+" ,+.+ Y ' ,~ ~ +'g YY +d

~ ' '+? -o'

'

,'

ul
..Y_

';:.. ....

.-C

---~

f
.... /

E
oJ

t--

I..

t.o

1%.

c5

u5

cq

u5

~S
"~.

aJ

~
~5

to

t3~
o

""U

i f

o
L

v'
d

o
e3.
t.o

0
o
o0

...:::.j +..~.......

./~, ,.

,.

~(+::'

.....

.....

i i"

"::

Fig.2. Relict sediment fraction of surface samples from the Persian Gulf. Purely recent
sediments occur only along a narrow strip off the Iranian coast.

248

M. SARNTHEIN

PLATE [

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

POSTGLACIALTRANSGRESSIONIN THE PERSIAN GULF

249

together after having been weighted to correspond to the actual weight percent
of the sand sub-sample which they represented. The final quantitative result from
a particular sand fraction can then be considered as being a mixture of both weight
and volume. The gravel fraction was counted separately and the values calculated
as weight percent (details in Sarnthein, 197l).
The relict components (see Plate IA), which represent deposition in very
shallow water, were separated quantitatively from the recent shelf sediments with
the help of the following petrographical criteria: their coarse grain size, often
with more than one frequency maximum ("lag sediments"); abundance of "wind
quartz" in the terrigenous sand minerals; o6id-like sphaericity and polish on grains
and grain lumps; elements of shallow-water fauna mixed with recent outer shelf
skeletals; and embedding of grains into partly lithified, partly soft, partly glauconilised aragonite mud. This last feature is most significant because the presentlyforming matrix of all samples consists exclusively of terrigenous calcitic clayey
mud ("marl") (Lange and Sarnthein, 1970). Therefore it can be seen that the relict
particles show two phases of embedding and deposition. The lithification of the
aragonite mud preceded its reworking into the marl and is not a result of presentday submarine lithification, this in contrast to Shinn's (1969) findings. The fossil
nature of the relict grains was confirmed by several absolute age determinations
of 7,000 to 12,500 years B.P. (Sarnthein, 1971).
RELICT MORPHOLOGICALFEATURES
The Late Wfirm palaeogeography is reflected in several morphologic forms
in the Persian Gulf. One of them is the bottom slope along a longitudinal profile
(Fig. 3). It shows an even gradient of approximately 10 m in 100 km, a continuation
of the modern Mesopotamian valley of the Shatt al Arab into the Eastern Straits
of Hormuz and the Biaban Shelf. It ends with an abrupt steepening at the shelf
break in a water depth of 110-120 m (Seibold and Vollbrecht, 1969). At a water
depth of approximately 50 m the gentle bottom slope is again interrupted. This
negative slope-break may be followed in the morphology around the entire Gulf

PLATE I
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.

A group of relict grain types.

Quartz grains with o61ite shells.
Oi~-spar-arenite.
O6-micrite.
Minero-o6-micrite.
Thin-section of a brown weathered lithoclast.
Serpulid-encrusted pebble.
Relict skeletal.
Serpulite.
Corals growing on serpulite.
Mar. GeoL, 12 (1972) 245-266

250

~ . SARNTHEIN

oo

'

U
S

...

~..~

~=
"~.

~'~ e~
~

~.~ " ~

o '

oi

I~

z
o

Mar. Geol.,

12

(1972)

245-266

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

251

and includes the wide platform which forms the top of the Central Swell. A further
bottom feature is the horizontal plain in the Western Basin behind the Central
Swell. It extends more than 50 km to the northwest in a water depth of 72-73 m,
approximately corresponding to the overflow level of the channel through the
Central Swell at 67 m. Other, less prominent bottom forms shown on the echosounding profiles will be discussed in connection with the distribution of sediments.
DISTRIBUTION OF RELICT SEDIMENTARY FACIES

The different water-depth zones of the Persian Gulf (see Fig. 1) are generally
represented by different types of relict calcarenites and calcilutites. They can be
characterized on the basis of the distribution of a few dominant, mainly aragonitic
relict components: unlithified aragonite mud, o6ids and o~liths, non-molluscan
sessile-epibenthos skeletals, other skeletals, faecal pellets, lithoclasts, and noncarbonate terrigenous sand grains (Fig.4A, B). The coarse-fraction composition
of several characteristic samples is presented in histogram form (Fig. 5). Unfortunately it was technically impossible to evaluate the frequently observed recycled
lithified sand-mud grains in an exact coarse-fine ratio for the relict sediments.
A few estimations are given in the text.
Relict sediments near the shelf break
Close to the shelf break, relict components reflect the lowest Pleistocene sea
level. At a depth of 125 m coarse sands and gravels are found. These consist
mainly of brown-weathered, recrystallized aragonite lithoclasts (Plate IF), coral
debris, and thick-shelled, weathered, shallow-water coquinas; i.e., mainly grains
derived from drowned reef material (Fig.5A and B). Most particles were encrusted and bored by serpulids, bryozoans and--during the final stage--sessile
Foraminifera (Miniaeina miniacea L.). The material was then lithified.
A quite different grain assemblage is found at a depth of I05 m where the
deepest channel opens onto the Biaban Shelf: faecal pellets, fine o6ids and large
amounts of fine terrigenous non-carbonate grains (up to 5 0 ~ of sand fraction)
are contained in a rather weakly-lithified aragonite mud (Fig.5C). These particles
were possibly derived from older, reworked deltaic sediments (see Fig. 7B and 8
and discussion on p. 260).
The nearly pure o61itic sediment found on the Biaban Shelf in 101 m depth
of water is a third and perhaps the most reliable indicator of fossil shallow-water
zones or even fossil strand lines if one compares this sediment with recent o61itic
sediments (Rusnak, 1960; Purdy, 1961). More than 80 ~o of their components are
o~ids (Md: 0.4 mm), cemented by aragonite spar (Plate IC, Fig.5D). The maximum
thickness of the o6id-shells is near 0.2 ram. The nuclei have an average diameter of
around 0.1 ram.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

252

M. SARNTHEIN

......s " ,.i ~ (

I/I
IJ

.....

o
o
t~
t~

g
C

r-

c,

"-o

~E---

g
o

4.

.::....
('

-.,.s-"'o "'~"~
~

It

...!

<

Mar.

G e o l . , 12 (1972) 2 4 5 - 2 6 6

253

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

r-

~
A

ql

3_

v
0

o
0
CO
eq

<~i

:/o

~ 4

c,~
i

/
o
cy~

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

254

M. SARNTHEIN

tn

E
ov~

c
~1

S~ ~c
x_o

~
x:l

/80/,0 ]

drowned reef material:

gravel fraction

~lTl

80

send fraction

,1
'1
o

mixed sediment
(pertly dettaic origin)

40

oo[ith
4

'1
'1
40

,potymict coquina sand

~0

o
40

I' ' I

t1

dituted delta sediment

x

minero-oo-micrites
40
I

untithified aragonite mud

4

J
coquinite
4O

Fig.5. C o a r s e - f r a c t i o n h i s t o g r a m s of eight characteristic relict facies units. X indicates

that unlithified a r a g o n i t e m u d is present but was n o t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d e t e r m i n a b l e for technical
reasons. B e n t h o s H = sessile n o n - m o l l u s c a n e p i b e n t h o s ; b e n t h o s 1 -- ot he r n o n - m o l l u s c a n
b e n t h o n i c skeletals.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

255

Central Basin

The relict-grain assemblages from the broad plains of the Central Basin,
in 65-100 m water depth, are mixtures of variegated components. In contrast to
those from the lower Biaban Shelf, they do not form a genetic group and vary in
quantity and type within very short distances. A similar facies is found in a few
places in the Western Basin (Fig.4). This mixed assemblage of grain types (Fig.5,
E-G) is also reflected in the composition of single coarse sand and gravel grains
which underwent early lithification. Red or black o6ids (Md: 0.2-0.5 mm; thickness
of shells up to 0.3 ram) are the oldest constituents; in some samples they are
accompanied by a few coarse relict quartz grains. The o6ids were embedded into
either red or black aragonite mud, partly together with similarly-coloured faecal
pellets and with molluscs, and then lithified, mostly in the form of coarse crusts
(similar to the example in Plate I D).
Overlying this material is a shell-rich sediment (Plate I H). These shells
(many of them black), together with a few older, black otiids and the variegated
o6micrite were embedded in weakly lithified, white aragonite mud. These sediments were then covered with a thick growth of serpulids, Bryozoa and Foraminifera (Plate IG). Sometimes this led to the formation of a true serpulite (Plate I J).
This surface provided the base for a few, large individual corals (Plate I I); however, as they died they too were quickly crusted over with the above-mentioned
organisms.
This total facies community can be brought together under the name
"polymict coquina sands". Its formation depends upon quickly changing and
intertonguing sedimentation phases such as would result from a rapid rise in
sea level. This resulted in the transformation of successive intertidal carbonate
areas into deep water areas (see p. 262). The serpulites represent a final "starvation
facies". The frequent black or red colouring of grains as well as the glauconitization
processes most likely took place in the early, shallow-water stage. This is supported
by the fact that different-coloured grains underwent a common lithification
process and then played a role as nuclei in o6id formation and in a final stage were
polished (Kendall and Skipwith, 1970; Lange and Sarnthein, 1970). The weathering
on the surface of the skeletal remains also must have taken place in shallow water;
Driscoll (1970) reports that destruction of shell material takes place 150-1,000
times faster in shallow than in deeper low-energy environments.
Also included in the zone between 65 and 100 m water depth are the sediments of a former, roughly 7 m deep, secondary basin within the southeastern
Western Basin (see p. 262). In the south and southeast the surface of these deposits
consists of white, aragonite mud rich in shell detritus and faecal pellets which are
sometimes glauconized. This mud also shows various grades of lithification. Along
the northwest (inner) margin a contrasting occurrence of fine-grained sand (Md:
70-90 kt) of terrigenous minerals is found (Fig.5H). In spite of their matrix of

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

256

M. SARNTHEIN

aragonite mud, they are probably related to a fossil river delta (for discussion
see Fig.8B and p. 259).
Relict sediments in 61-64 and 40-53 m depth

At the 61-64 m and 40-53 m depth intervals, strips of sediment occur which
are characterized by a high percentage of terrigenous minerals and an about
equal percentage of o6ids (Fig.5I). Samples from these zones were obtained in the
northwest and southwest parts of the Western Basin, on the southern margin of
the Central Basin, and from the northern margin of the Strait of Hormuz. The
terrigenous sand grains are mostly quartz, although felspars are also present. Their
grain sizes tend to be coarse (Md: 120->200 p; see Fig.7A) and occasionally they
exhibit double frequency maxima. Quartz grains larger than medium sand are
usually rounded and frosted; many have aragonitic o61ite shells (Plate IB).
Curiously these relatively coarse grains, together with rough-surfaced o6ids, are
embedded in an aragonite mud matrix and this time lithified in clumps to form
"minero-o6-micrites" (Plate IE). This probably accounts for a further frequency
maximum found in the fine grain size. Biogenic grains are infrequent, those
present being mainly fragments of Foraminifera.
On the Central Swell lithified aragonite mud rich in o6ids and shell detritus
covers a broad fossil platform in the corresponding depth of about 50 m. Throughout the entire Persian Gulf the depth zones just described are bordered in the
direction of deeper water by thick, white, unlithified aragonite mud (Fig.5J).
The mud thicknesses can be clearly seen in the sediment echograms. These muds
locally contain large percentages of faecal pellets or lumps or, in places, fine sandsized minerals. A more detailed study of these sediments based on core material
has been done by Diester (1971).
Areas less than 40 m deep

From areas less than 40 m deep, few samples which contained relict grains
were available. Recent coastal sediments have masked most traces of relict sediment. The distribution of fossil sediments could therefore be analysed only at very

Fig.6. Sediment echogram from the northernmost part of the Persian Gulf, showing a
subfossil coquinite bank in 30 m water depth sheltering relict delta-influenced lagoonal sediments.
(Linear values are only approximate).

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

257

few stations (see Fig.2). Only in the far northwest does the sediment, and the
sediment-echogram (Fig.6), allow the definition of a distinct facies feature--a
bank covered with shell debris (Fig.5K). Behind this "dam" one finds partially
lithified and coloured, partially unlithified and white, aragonite mud which
contains a significant coarse fraction of shell detritus (>40% Foraminifera:
>20% molluscs) and >30% terrigenous minerals of fine-sand size (Fig.7B).

// JJ

99,99
/o
99-

9C-

50-

10-

002

:F~

99,99

-1'

(~b

1
50-

I/ii/

10-

0,02

[I
40
I

0,063

0,125

0,25

1
l

0,5

o
I

1,0

_1
l

2,0

mm

Fig.7. Grain size cumulative curves of relict terrigenous sand minerals. A. F r o m mineroo6-micrites. B. F r o m fossil delta sediments. Dotted fields indicate modem delta sediments for
c o m p a r i s o n ; m o s t Z a g r o s rivers a p p e a r on left, s o m e Z a g r o s rivers and Euphrates on right.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

258

M. SARNTHEIN

16

12

50

P.i

u
r

20

~00
I

i
i

III ~

Quartz zone

""Z._ o

1:3
m
-u

-7
Z

40
FII

Quartz

z o n e II
,

S~
U)
[D
m

i
i

qJ
~g

60

Quartz
zone l

m
Z
--i
U~
rll

-i
o

Fn

rn
ri-

80

/
/

s- --J

\..
/

I
/

100

.-4

I
i

'/

l
i
a

120

THOUSANDS OF YEARS B.P

SAND-SIZED TERRIGENOUS MINERALS

Fig.8. Comparison of relict sand-sized mineral content of samples in various water depths
in the Persian Gulf and the world-wide post-Glacial sea level rise. A. Curves of post-Glacial sea
level rise after Milliman and Emery (1968) shown by solid line, and after Curray (1965): dashed
line, compared with water depths of the "quartz zones" on the shelf off Northern Australia
(Van Andel et al., 1967). B. Relationship between sand-sized terrigenous minerals and relict
biogenic grains. Circles represent fossil delta sediments and dots represent minero-o6-micrites.
The water depths of their maxima coincide with those of the quartz zones off Northern Australia.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

POSIGLACIAL TRANSGRESSIONIN THE PERSIAN GULF

259

SOURCE OF RELICT TERRIGENOUS,SAND-SIZEDMINERALS

Relict sediments rich in sand-size minerals are limited to a few, relatively
narrow depth-zones in the Persian Gulf (Fig.8B). The samples rich in terrigenous
material in the fine-sand fraction (Fig.7B, open circles in Fig.8B) can be separated
and related to the deposition from a fossil Shatt al Arab. This idea is supported
by the fine, well-sorted character of the sand, its composition (mainly detrital
quartz, some mica) as well as its occurrence in depressions behind barriers and in
deltas. It is, however, noteworthy that even in these relict samples the fluvial portion
in the fine fraction (calcareous clayey marl) always remains < 50% (Lange and
Sarnthein, 1970). This is in marked contrast to modern fluvial material where
marl dominates (Hartmann et al., 1971). This means that the quantities of sediment
delivered by ancient rivers were relatively insignificant. In the shallow marine
environment the local production of aragonite mud dominated and heavily diluted
the fluvial deposits.
The remaining samples rich in terrigenous minerals--the coarse minero-o/5micrites at 61-64 m and 40-53 m depth--exhibit clearer differences from recent
fluvial sediment (Fig.7A). The formation of this unusual facies can hardly be
explained by "normal" beach conditions. Equally as curious is the facies-related,
subfossil trough and ridge system (Fig. 9). These slightly asymmetrical forms reach

- ' - - . 2 0

km

Fig.9. Sediment echogram of relict ridges and troughs interpreted as aeolian dunes. Dark
areas represent Recent soft sediments.
a maximum height of 10 m and are spaced at intervals of about 2 to 4 km. Their
steep slopes face in the direction of general bottom rise; as in the example shown
in Fig.9, to the east. Seibold and Vollbrecht (1969) feel that they may represent
fossil tidal ridges. With reference to studies by Kinsman (1964) and Evans et al.
(1969) on the present-day southern margin of the Persian Gulf, it seems likely
Mar. GeoL, 12 (1972) 245-266

260

M. SARNTHEIN

that the forms could be a drowned beach-dune system. This would further explain
the mixed character of grain sizes and components in the minero-o6-micrites
as a heterogenous mixture of fossil wind- and beach-carbonate sediment.
The coarse quartz grains found with--or as nuclei of--obids could then
be thought of (following Sugden, 1963, or Rusnak, 1960) as originating in aeolian
dunes which were attacked by beach surf. Shoreward-moving waves, however,
replenished the beach with fresh aragonitic sediment which was immediately, and
particularly at low tide, formed into new dunes. Fine material picked up by the
wind from temporarily dry carbonate-mud areas was also added to the dunes.
This would account for the unexpectedly high percentage of fines in the minero-o6micrites. Lithification of muds into clumps is the rule in such environments
(Taylor and Illing, 1969). This also indicates that the mixing process which has
been previously described took place very early in the formation of the sediment.
PALAEOGEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF THE TRANSGRESSION

A post-Glacial rise in sealevel of at least 110 m has been postulated by

several authors based on evidence from various continental shelves (e.g., Curray,
1960, 1961, 1965; Jelgersma, 1966; Van der Harnmen et al., 1967; Milliman and
Emery, 1968; see the review of Guilcher, 1969). As shown in Fig.8A, the rise
started about 15,000 years ago and reached its present level about 6,000 years
B.P. Several studies also show evidence of temporary stillstands or brief reversals
of the rise: the Gulf of Mexico (Curray, 1960; Van Andel and Sachs, 1964), the
shelf of Florida (Ballard and Uchupi, 1970), the Timor Sea (Van Andel et al.,
1967, see Fig.8A), the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Loring and Nota, 1966). Yet the exact
time for the start and end of the rise as well as its precise progress are still somewhat controversial. It is clear, however, that Postglacial time brought with it a
displacement of the Persian Gulf coastline which at times was very rapid. The result
has been that the different types of fossil shallow-water facies, which today form
the Gulf bottom in an apparently random succession from deeper to shallower
water, actually represent a stratigraphic sequence from older to younger sediments.
During the last Glacial stage, the length of the Shatt al Arab was increased
some 800 km to the southeast. It reached the shelf margin in the Gulf of Oman
which today lies under 110 m of water (Fig.3). Here, the river apparently built
a rather elongated estuary or bay (Fig.10). With the exception of a few traces of
terrigenous sediment, however, no true delta was formed; this in spite of the fact
that sea level probably oscillated back and forth at this low level for some time.
This is substantiated by the drowned beginnings of reefs which show up in the
present morphology as isolated rises (Seibold and Vollbrecht, 1969). Further
evidence for a stillstand is indicated by the relatively coarse-grained obliths
(Fig.5D) and the large quantities of aragonite mud. According to Bathurst (1968)

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

:,'

.:::...:::;

"-,,,.......

o
L~
L~

%
t.o

SJ

LD
O

gL

Fig.10. Palaeogeographic map showing the Persian Gulf at various times during the
Postglac!al transgression. I, H and HI correspond to the shoreline positions during three periods
of approximate stillstand at minus 62, 50 and 30 m sea level.

262

M. SARNTHEIN

a period of several thousand years is necessary for the accretion of an o/3id shell
layer of several 100 # thickness.
During early Postglacial time the sea transgressed the zone which today
lies between approximately 100 and 65 m (11,000-12,000 years B.P. according to
Milliman and Emery, 1968) in the Central Basin and outer Western Basin. This
corresponds to a coastline displacement of roughly 500 km in 4,000-5,000
years--an average of 100-120 m per year. Similar values were reported by Van
Andel et al. (1967) from the Sahul Shelf. This rapid sea level rise left the Gulf
bottom evenly covered with polymict coquina sands, a facies similar to the
"transgressive sequence" of Van Andel et al. (1967). During this time the narrow
channel through the Central Swell was blocked by sediments with the result that
a lagoon formed behind the swell and gradually filled with sediments, some of
them being delta deposits from the ancient Shatt al Arab (Fig.3 and 10). No
similar sediments, however, were found behind the Eastern Swell. This period
also saw several salt domes in the Central Basin become isolated islands.
The minero-o6-micrites, which have been interpreted as a beach-dune
mixed sediment and which are now found concentrated in the zones from 61-64
and 40-53 m, most likely represent two stillstands in the transgression or even
short regressions. For the building of the dune systems, particularly the widespread
dunes of the Western Basin (Fig.11) and the formation of the o6id sands, a longer
time period was required than that which, for example, was available for strandline formation in the Central Basin. The ridges seen in Fig. 11 parallel the dominant
wind direction in the Gult, the Shamal. This is typical of "seif" dunes. The areas
where dunes occur correspond nearly exactly to areas of minero-o6-micrites
(Fig.4). From the same two depth zones, Van Andel et al. (1967) have described
two principal zones high in relict quartz on the Sahul Shelf (Fig.8A) which they
also relate to litoral deposition during stillstand periods in the sea-level rise. Here,
as well as in the Persian Gulf, they may possibly correlate with the Dryas glacial
advance.
During this time the entire Persian Gulf coastal region attained a morphological maturity as reflected in the numerous features at - 5 0 m which are
described on p. 249 (Fig.3 and 10). This corresponds to the "second offshore terrace" of Houbolt (1957). The possibility that some of these features
represent reactivated, older Pleistocene features cannot be totally eliminated. At
this time large quantities of aragonite mud formed in the various shallow-water
areas. The mud was carried to a maximum (fossil) water depth of 10 to 25 m and
there deposited in large thicknesses over older polymict coquina sands.
At a depth of 30 m there are indications of a third stillstand in the transgression (Fig.10). These include the previously mentioned bank of shell detritus
with its accompanying lagoon (Fig.6) and the uniform minimum depth of the
shallows which could, however, be from an earlier period. Finally, 6,000 years
ago, the Persian Gulf attained roughly its present coast line in the north and east.
Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

263

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

5~'

alO'

Sl o

J
29.I_

"'~

50"

1.0' -

4.

30"--

',,

%.
,,,

,,,,

,\

_ ~ - ~

,~'.~

PERSIAN GULF

,,
.

,%

troughs
ridges

d i f f e r e n c e in helght;~2rn

~ 2 0 m 25 m isobar hs

k~--

Fig.11. Ridge and trough system interpreted as dunes in the Western Basin southwest of
Bushire. Isobaths in meters (modified after Seibold and Vollbrecht, 1969).

Since then the Shatt al Arab as well as most of the Zagros rivers have built very
limited deltas. Therefore, the deeper basins and their sediments owe their origin
more to earlier events than to present-day processes.
The Persian Gulf lies on the edge ofa tectonically mobile region. Nevertheless,
throughout the entire transgression period no discernable evidence for tectonic
activity was found. This is supported by the fact that the shelf edge at c. 110 m
corresponds well with other shelf margins, the evenness of the bottom slope in a
longitudinal profile, the large level surface at 72 in depth, and perhaps also the
constant depth of the two zones with high relict-quartz contents which can be
correlated with similar zones on the stable north shelf of Australia.
CLIMATE

During the entire transgression period aragonitic sediments always dominated

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

264

M. SARNTHEIN

the northeast parts of the Persian Gulf. Today such carbonates are found only
along the arid south and southwest coasts where no rivers enter the Gulf. Along
the northeast coast these carbonates are totally suppressed by the calcareous,
clayey terrigenous sediment carried in by the Zagros rivers. These rivers must
therefore have been much less active during the Late Pleistocene and Early
Holocene. It can be concluded that during the transgression period the climate in
the Zagros Mountains was considerably dryer than today's climate. This holds
true even when the influence of a different plant cover on river regimen is considered
(Schumm, 1968). At present these mountains receive the heaviest rainfall in the
entire drainage basin (maximum 600-800 mm; see Hartmann et al., 1971).
The ridge and trough system which has been interpreted as a dune field
(see p. 262) would also speak for extreme aridity. Even the ancient Shatt al Arab
left only unimportant traces in the relict sediment. This could, however, have
come about through settling out in lakes along the river's course such as are today
found between Bagdad and Basra.
The assumption that an increase in runoff first took place in the Holocene
is in agreement with results from pollen analysis (Van Zeist and Wright, 1963;
Van Zeist, 1967), geological work on Quaternary sediments of southwest Iran
(Butzer, 1958; Bobek, 1963; Vita-Finzi, 1969) as well as climatological theory
(Fairbridge, 1965; Lamb, 1965; Flohn, 1969).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper owes much to the informative discussions held with the other
members of the Persian Gulf working group of the Geologisch-Pal/iontologisches
Institut of the University in Kiel, particularly Professor E. Seibold. Miss L. Diester
was kind enough to make information available from her unpublished thesis,
H. Lange made available numerous X-ray analyses, M. A. Geyh (Hanover)
provided several radiocarbon dates, R. S. Newton helped with the translation and
A. Harke assisted in the drafting and photographic work. I would like to express
my warmest thanks to all of them. The work was supported by the German
Research Society.

REFERENCES

Ballard, R. D. and Uchupi, E., 1970. Morphology and Quaternary history of the continental
shelf of the Gulf Coast of the United States. Bull. Mar. Sci. GulfCaribb., 20(3): 547-559.
Bathurst, R. (3. C., 1968. Precipitation of o6ids and other aragonite fabrics in warm seas. In:
G. Miiller and G. M. Friedman (Editor), Carbonate Sedimentology in Central Europe.
Springer, Heidelberg, pp.l-10.
Bobek, H., 1963. Nature and implications of Quaternary climatic changes in Iran. In: Proc.
WMO-UNESCO Syrup., Changes of Climate, Rome, 1961. UNESCO, Arid Zone Res.,
Paris, pp.403-413.
Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

POSTGLACIAL TRANSGRESSION IN THE PERSIAN GULF

265

Butzer, K. W., 1958. Quaternary stratigraphy and climate in the Near East. Bonne1" Geogr.
Abh., 24: 1-157.
Curray, J. R., 1960. Sediments and history of the Holocene transgression, northwest Gulf of
Mexico. In: F. P. Shephard, F. B. Phleger and Tj. H. van Andel (Editors), Recent Sediments,
Northwest Gulf of Mexico. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geologists, Tulsa, Okla., pp.221-266.
Curray, J. R., 1961. Late Quaternary sea level: a discussion. Geol. Soe. Am. Bull., 72: 1707-1712.
Curray, J. R., 1965. Later Quaternary history, continental shelves of the United States. In:
H. E. Wright (Editor), The Quaternary of the United States. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N.J., pp.723-753.
Diester, L., 1971. Grobfraktionsanalyse yon Sedimentkernen aus dem Persischen Golf. Thesis,
Univ. Kiel, Kiel, 89 pp.
Dietrich, G., Krause, G., Seibold, E. and Voflbrecht, K., 1966. Reiseberichte der Indischen Ozean
Expedition mit dem Forschungsschiff "Meteor" 1964-1965. "Meteor" Forschungsergebnisse, Reihe A, 1: 1-52.
Driscoll, E. G., 1970. Selective bivalve shell destruction in marine environments, a field study.
J. Sediment. Petrol., 40(3): 898-905.
Evans, G., Schmidt, V., Bush, P. and Nelson, H., 1969. Stratigraphy and geologic history of the
sabkha, Abu Dhabi, Persian Gulf. Sedimentology, 12(1/2): 145-159.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1965. Eiszeitklima in Nordafrika. Geol. Rundseh., 54(I): 399-414.
Flohn, H., 1969. Ein geophysikalisches Eiszeit-Modell. Eisze#alter Gegenwart, 20: 204-231.
Guilcher, A., 1969. Pleistocene and Holocene sea level changes. Earth-Sci. Rev., 5: 69-97.
Hartmann, M., Lange, H., Seibold, E. and Walger, E., 1971. Oberfl~chensedimente im Persischen
Golf und Golf von Oman, I. Geologisch-hydrologischer Rahmen und erste sedimentologische Ergebnisse. "Meteor" Forschungsergebnisse, Reihe C, 4:76 pp.
Houbolt, J. J. H. C., 1957. Surface Sediments of the Persian Gulf near the Qatar Peninsula. Thesis,
Univ. Utrecht, Utrecht, 113 pp.
Jelgersma, S., 1966. Sea-level changes during the last 10,000 years. In: J. S. Sawyer (Editor),
Proc. Int. Symp. Worm Climate from 8,000 to B . C . R . Meteorol. Soc. London, 1966, pp.
54-71.
Kendall, C. G. St. C. and Skipwith, Sir P. A. D. E., 1970. Holocene shallow-water carbonate and
evaporite sediments of Khor al Bazam, Abu Dhabi, southwest Persian Gulf. Bull. Am.
Assoc. Pet. Geologists, 53(4): 841-869.
Kinsman, D. J. J., 1964. The Recent carbonate sediments near Halat El Bahrani, Truc~al coast,
Persian Gulf. In: L. M. J. U. van Straaten (Editor), Deltaic and Shallow Marine Deposits.
Developments in Sedimentology, 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.185-192.
Lamb, H. H., 1965. Climatic changes and variations in the atmospheric and ocean circulations.
Geol. Rundsch., 54(1): 486-504.
Lange, H. and Sarnthein, M., 1970. Glaukonitk6rner in rezenten Sedimenten des Persischen Golfs.
Geol. Rundsch., 60(1): 256-264.
Loring, D. H. and Nota, D. J. G., 1966. Sea-floor conditions around the Magdalen Islands in
the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 23(8): 1197-1207.
Milliman, J. D. and Emery, K. O., 1968. Sea levels during the past 35,000 years. Science, 162
(3858): 1121-1123.
Purdy, E. G., 1961. Bahamian o61ite shoals. In: J. A. Peterson and J. C. Osmond (Editors),
Geometry of Sandstone Bodies. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geologists, Tulsa, Okla., pp.53-62.
Rusnak, G. A., 1960. Some observations of recent o61ites. J. Sediment. Petrol., 30(3): 471-480.
Sarnthein, M., 1971. Oberfl~chensedimente im Persischen Golf und Golf von Oman. II. Quantitative Komponentenanalyse der Grobfraktion. "Meteor" Forsehungsergebnisse, Reihe C,
5:113 pp.
Schumm, S. A., 1968. Quaternary paleohydrology. In: H. E. Wright Jr. and D. G. Frey (Editors),
The Quaternary of the United States. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.
Seibold~. E. and Vollbrecht, K., 1969. Die Bodengestalt des Persischen Golfs. "'Meteor" Forschungsergebnisse, Reihe C, 2: 29-56.
Shinn, E. A., 1969. Submarine lithification of Holocene carbonate sediments in the Persian Gulf.
Sedimentology, 12(1/2): 109-144.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266

266

M. S A R N T H E I N

Sugden, W., 1963. Some aspects of sedimentation in the Persian Gulf. J. Sediment. Petrol.,
33(2): 355-364.
Swift, D. J. P., Stanley, D. J. and Curray, J. R., 1971. Relict sediments on continental shelves:
a reconsideration. J. Geol., 79(3): 322-346.
Taylor, J. C. M. and Illing, L. V., 1969. Holocene intertidal calcium carbonate cementation at
Qatar, Persian Gulf. Sedimentology, 12(1/2): 69-108.
Van Andel, Tj. and Sachs, P. L., 1964. Sedimentation in the Gulf of Paria during the Holocene
transgression. J. Mar. Res., 22: 30-50.
Van Andel, Tj. H., Heath, G. R., Moore, T. C. and McGeary, D. F. R., 1967. Late Quaternary
history, climate and oceanography of the Timor Sea, northwestern Australia. Am. J. Sci.,
265: 737-758.
Van der Hammen, T., Maarleveld, G. C., Vogel, J. C. and Zagwijn, W. H., 1967. Stratigraphy,
climatic succession and radiocarbon dating on the Last Glacial in The Netherlands.
Geol. Mijnbouw, 46(3): 79 95.
Van Zeist, W., 1967. Late Quaternary vegetation history of western Iran. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol.,
2: 301-311.
Van Zeist, W, and Wright Jr., H. E., 1963. Preliminary pollen studies at Lake Zeribar, Zagros
Mountains, south-western Iran. Science, 140: 65.
Vita-Finzi, C., 1969. Late Quaternary alluvial chronology of Iran. Geol. Rundsch., 58(3): 951-973.

Mar. Geol., 12 (1972) 245-266