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PACKAGES AND DOCUMENT CONFIGURATIONS
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\usepackage{hyperref}
\usepackage[version=3]{mhchem} % Package for chemical equation typesetting
\usepackage{siunitx} % Provides the \SI{}{} and \si{} command for typesetting SI
units
\usepackage{graphicx} % Required for the inclusion of images
\usepackage{natbib} % Required to change bibliography style to APA
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DOCUMENT INFORMATION
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\title{Scanning Tunneling Microscope} % Title
\begin{document}
\maketitle % Insert the title, author and date
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l r}
Date Performed: & February 12, 2015 \\ % Date the experiment was performed
Report Prepared by: & Rajath S \\ % Partner names
& Adit Makhijani \\
& Mukul \\
Instructor: & Prof. Subhashis Gangopadhyay % Instructor/supervisor
\end{tabular}
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If you wish to include an abstract, uncomment the lines below

\begin{abstract}
Abstract text
\end{abstract}

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SECTION 1
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\section{Objective}
% If you have more than one objective, uncomment the below:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Study the technique of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy.
\item
Examine the Gold and HOPG samples under the Scanning Tunneling Microscope to stu
dy the surface topology.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Theory}
\subsection{Overview}
Ordinary microscopes focus light which is emitted (or reflected) from objects. T
he resolution of such a microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. Micros
copes which employ visible light cannot resolve features smaller than about 500
nm. Individual atoms are much smaller than that -- just a few nanometers in diam
eter. The scanning tunneling microscope is a novel instrument which can resolve
atomic features. STM was introduced by G. Binnig and W. Rohrer at the IBM Resea
rch Laboratory in 1982 which was honoured by the Noble Prize in 1986. It has bec
ome widely used as an important instrument for real space analysis in surface sc
ience.
\\
\\ The scanning tunneling microscope relies on the physical principle of quantum
tunneling of electrons across a potential barrier. The basic idea is to bring a
fine metalic tip in close proximity to a conductive sample. By applying a volta
ge between the tip and the sample a small electric current can flow from the sam
ple to the tip or reverse, although the tip is not in physical contact with the
sample. The resulting tunneling current is a function of tip position, applied v
oltage, and the local density of states of the sample. By scanning the tip acros
s the surface and detecting the current a map of the surface can be generated wi
th a resolution in the order of atomic distances.
\subsection{Construction}
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.65\textwidth]{stm_schematic} % Include
the image placeholder.png
\caption{Schematic of STM}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{description}
\item[Scanning Tip] \hfill \\
The scanning tip or the probe tip is usually made of Tungsten or
Platinum -- Iridium alloy. The sample is scanned using the very fine metallic p
robe tip. The tip is ususally only a few atoms wide. The tip is mechanically con
nected to the scanner.
\item[Scanner] \hfill \\
The scanner is an XYZ positioning device realized by means of pi

ezoelectric materials. The scanner holds the probe tip. Upon applying a voltage,
the piezoelectric material expands or contracts. By applying a suitable voltage
to the x-y axes of piezoelectic scanner, the tip scans the xy plane. Voltage ac
cross the z axis of the scanner brings the tip closer/farther to the sample.
\item[Vibration Isolation] \hfill \\
With reolutions of interest in the Angstrom range, any vibration
s could cause a great number of problems. There are two ways to achieve a suitab
le solution. The first is to make STM unit as rigid as possible. The second is t
o reduce the transmission of environmental vibration to the STM unit. A commonly
used vibration isolation unit consists of a set of suspension of springs and a
damping mechanism.
\item[Feedback Mechanism] \hfill \\
Feedback mechanism is a control system used to move the tip away
/towards the sample. Based on the value of tunneling current, the feedback mecha
nism decides the amount and the direction of movement of the tip. This ensures t
he safety of the tip when it is moved too close to the sample. It is also used i
n the Constant current mode of operation(discussed later in the report).
\item[Computer] \hfill \\
As the tip scans over the xy plane, a
two-dimensional array of equilibrium z positions, representing a
contour plot
of the equal tunneling-current surface, is obtained and stored i
n the computer.
The contour plot is displayed on a computer screen, either as a
line-scan
image or as a gray-scale image. The line-scan image is a sequenc
e
of curves, each of which represents a contour along the x direct
ion with
constant y. The gray-scale
depicts z at a particular location (x,y) using the degree of bri
ghtness/darkness of a single color. The bright spots
represent high z values (protrusions), and the dark spots repres
ent low z values (depressions).
\item[Bias Voltage] \hfill \\
A bias voltage is applied between the sample and the probe tip t
o create an electic field for the conduction of charge carriers. The direction o
f bias voltage is crucial because it decides the direction of flow of charge car
riers and the kind of quantum states we are observing.
\item[Tunneling Environment] \hfill \\
Originally, STM was operated in a vacuum. But, it can operate in
air, inert gas, in liquids, including electrolytes. The operating temperature r
anges from absolute zero to a few hunderd degrees centigrade.
\item[Sample] \hfill \\
The sample is required to be conducting i.e, either semiconducto
r or a metal. In case of a semiconducting sample, the direction of bias voltage
decides whether we are examining the full states or the empty states of the semi
conducting material. Insulators can not be analyzed using STM.
\end{description}
\subsection{Modes of Operation}
\begin{description}
\item[Constant Current Mode] \hfill \\
By using a feedback loop the tip is vertically adjusted
in such a way that the current always stays constant. As the current is proporti
onal to the local density of states, the tip follows a contour of a constant den

sity of states during scanning. A kind of a topographic image of the surface is

generated by recording the vertical position of the tip. This method is slower b
ecause the height of the tip must be adjusted at every point using the feedback
mechanism.
\item[Constant Height Mode] \hfill \\
In this mode the vertical position of the tip is not cha
nged, equivalent to a slow or disabled feedback. The current as a function of la
teral position represents the surface image. This mode is only appropriate for a
tomically flat surfaces as otherwise a tip crash would be inevitable. One of its
advantages is that it can be used at high scanning frequencies (up to 10 kHz).
In comparison, the scanning frequency in the constant current mode is about 1 im
age per second or even per several minutes.
\end{description}
\subsection{Tunneling}
In classical mechanics, an electron with energy $E$ moving in a potentia
l $U(z)$ is described by
\[ \frac{p_z^2}{2m} + U(z) = E \]
\\
In regions where $E>U(z)$, the electron has a non-zero momentum $p_z$. O
n the other hand, the electron cannot penetrate into any region with $E<U(z)$, o
r a potential barrier.
\\
\\
In quantum mechanics, the state of the same electron is described by a w
avefunction $\psi(z)$ which satisfies the schrodinger equation,
\[\frac{-\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{d^2}{dz^2}\psi(z)+U(z)\psi(z) = E\psi(z)
\]
For a piecewise-constant potential, in classically allowed region, $E >
U$, schrodinger equation has solutions
\[\psi(z) = \psi(0) e^{\pm \iota k z}\]
where
\[k = \frac{\sqrt{2m(E-U)}}{\hbar}
\] is the wave vector.
In classically forbidden region, the solution is of the form,
\[\psi(z) = \psi(0) e^{-\kappa z}\]
where
\[\kappa = \frac{\sqrt{2m(U-E)}}{\hbar} \] is the decay constant.
\\
The probability density of observing an electron near a point z is propo
rtional to $|\psi(0)|^2 e^{-2\kappa z}$, which has a nonzero value in the barri
er region,
thus a non-zero probability to penetrate a barrier.
\\
\\
The work function $\phi$ of a metal surface is defined as the minimum en
ergy required to remove an electron from the bulk to the vacuum level. Neglectin
g the thermal excitation, the Fermi level is the upper
limit of the occupied states in a metal. Taking the vacuum level as the
\phi$. To simplify discussion, we assume t
reference point of energy, $E =
hat the
work functions of the tip and the sample are equal. The electron in the
sample
can tunnel into the tip and vice visa. However, without a bias voltage,
there is no net tunneling current.
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.65\textwidth]{stm_tunneling} %
Include the image placeholder.png
\caption{Metal-Vacuum-Metal Tunneling Junction.}
\end{center}

\end{figure}
By applying a bias voltage $V$, a net tunneling current occurs. A sample
state $\psi_n$ with energy level $E_n$ lying between $E_f-eV$ and $E_f$ has a c
hance to tunnel into the tip. We assume that the bias is much smaller than the v
alue of
the work function, that is, $eV\ll\phi$. Then the energy levels of all t
he sample states of interest are very close to the fermi level, that is, $E_n \a
pprox -\phi $. The probability $w$ for an electron in the $n$th sample state to
present at the tip surface, $z=S$, is
\[w \propto |\psi_n(0)|^2 e^{-2\kappa S}\],
where $\psi_n(0)$ is the value of the $n$th sample state at the sample s
urface, and
\[\kappa=\frac{\sqrt{2m\phi}}{\hbar}\].
In an STM experiment, the tip scans over the sample surface. During a sc
an,
the condition of the tip usually does not vary. The electrons coming to
the tip
surface, $z = S$, have a constant velocity to flow into the tip. The tun
neling current is directly proportional to the number of states on the sample su
rface within the energy interval $eV$, which are responsible for the tunneling c
urrent. This number depends on the local nature of the sample surface. For metal
s, it is finite. For semiconductors and insulators, the number is very small o
r zero. By including all the sample states in the energy interval eV, the tunnel
ing current is,
\[I \propto \sum_{E_n=E_f-eV}^{E_f}|\psi_n(0)|^2 e^{-2\kappa S} \].
\\
The Local Density of States of a sample at a location $z$ and energy $E$
is defined as the number of electrons per unit volume per unit energy at space
$z$ and energy $E$, is defined as,
\[\rho_S(z,E) = \frac{1}{\epsilon} \sum_{E_n = E-\epsilon}^{E}|\
psi_n(z)|^2 \],
for sufficiently small $\epsilon$.
\\
Therefore, the tunneling current can be written as:
\[ I \propto V \rho_S(0,E_f) e^{-2\kappa S}\]
which implies that the tunneling current is sensitive to the workfunctio
n, the bias voltage, the local density of state and the tip-sample distance.
\\
\\
Note: for a non-constant potential barrier, WKB approximation can be use
d to obtain the approximate wavefunctions.
\subsection{Piezoelectic materials}
Some materials exhibit an effect called piezoelectricity, which means tw
o things:
\begin{itemize}
\item Applying stress on piezo materials causes electric polaris
ation.
\item An electric field applied to a piezo material causes mecha
nical strain.
\end{itemize}
Piezoelectric actuators can be designed to expand or contract by really
small distances, given very reasonable voltages.
A tube scanner is a cylinder, made out of piezoelectric material, is cov
ered inside and outside with metal, which acts as electrodes. The outer electrod
e is divided into four sectors. A motion in z-direction (along the longitudinal
axis) can be achieved by applying a voltage between the inner and the outer elec

trode. A deflection in xy-direction is generated by a different bias voltage app

lied to the two opposite electrodes.
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.65\textwidth]{stm_scanner} % In
clude the image placeholder.png
\caption{Tube scanner.}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
The tube scanner holds the tip and therefore facilitates the scanning of
the sample and change in tip-sample distance.
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
SECTION 2
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\section{Scanned Images}
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
BIBLIOGRAPHY
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\bibliographystyle{apalike}
\bibliography{sample}
\begin{enumerate}
\item \url{http://www.fkp.uni-erlangen.de/methoden/stmtutor/stmpage.html
}
\item \url{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope}
\item Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, C. Julian Chen
\end{enumerate}
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\end{document}