The Greek War of Independence

This time with the support of Russia, Britain and

France, the Greeks were successful. Russian
influence in the region was blocked by the
intervention of Britain and France.

Belgian Independence

For religious and political reasons, Belgium

declared it's independence from the Netherlands.
This move was supported by Britain and France
and resulted in an agreement by the nations of
Europe to respect the "perpetual neutrality" of
Belgium. This perpetual neutrality will be violated
by Germany in 1914.

Louis Phillipe

A compromise king of France who seemed

acceptable to all. Endorsed by Lafayette, he
soon proved to be as conservative as Charles X.
His primary concern was to protect the rich and
upper middle class.

French Revolution of 1830

The successor to Louis XVIII was his brother, the ultra conservative Charles
X. He revoked the constitutional charter and tried to re-establish an absolute
monarchy. His policies led to the erection of barricades and revolution.
Charles immediately fled into exile into Britain. The revolution proved to be
very moderate and demanded only a Constitutional Monarchy. The Duke of
Orleans was endorsed by the ageing Lafayette and was selected to be the
next king. He ruled as Louis Phillipe.

French National Elections, 1848

Elections to the National Assembly led to

changes that were not apporoved by Louis
Phillipe. He changed election laws to favor his
policies and held new elections. The result was
the revolt of the people of Paris.

The French Revolution of 1848

The revolt led to the abdication of Louis Phillipe and his flight to England. A provisional government was
foremd and universal male suffrage was adopted. Capitalists and Socialists split the government and Louis
Blanc's "National Workshops" were instituted as a compromise attempt to provide jobs. The workshops
failed because they were never given significant work to do. Poor people converged on Paris in hope of
finding work in the workshops. Workers invaded the Constituent Assembly but were removed by the
National Guard of Paris. The Assembly closed down the workshops and provoked another round of violence
called the "Bloody June Days." Barricades were erected throughout Paris and thousands died. The National
Guard was again victorious but France was again ready for a strong personal leader to restore law and
order. New elections were called.

National Workshops

Promoted by Louis Blanc, a socialist leader, the

workshops were intended to end unemployment
by providing meaningful work, sponsored by the
governement. In practice, they were a failure due
to the government's refusal to provode
meaningful work. Workshops turned into
temporary relief agencies.

Louis Napolean Boneparte

Nephew to Napoleon I NLB fulfilled the need for a strong,

popular leader to restore law and order. He was elected on
the basis of name recognition and the fact that he was in
England during the "Bloody June Days,' and couldn't be
blamed by either side for the violence. He also ran for office
during a period of romantic remembrance of his uncle's
empire and the publicity boosted his popularity.

Revolution in Austria, 1848

New of Revolution in France inspired the working and middle classes to

make demands on the government of Austria. Barricades went up in Vienna
and Metternich fled to England. The Italians drove the Austrians out of
Northern Italy. Even the Pope sent troops in support. Hungarians revolted as
did Czechs and Slovaks. Critical to the defeat of the revolutionaries was the
refusal of the Emperor to flee, and the refusal of the army to join the
revolutionaries. With the various revolutionary groups in disagreement, the
army restored order. The Hungarians were defeated with the assistance of
Russia.

Pan-Slavic Conference, 1848

Held in Prague to determine future relations with Austria.

The question concerned whether or not to seek
independence for the various Slavic states. It was decided
that the safest course of action would be the support
"Austro-slavism", which called for the slavs to continue to
accept membership in the Empire. The conference broke up
with the advance of troops loyal to the emperor.

Big Germans vs Little Germans

A major point of contention within the Assembly was the definition of the New
Germany. Many supported the idea of a huge Germany (Big Germany) that
extended wherever German culture could be traced. This description of
Germany would then include large non-German minorities. Questions of
leadership of a "big" Germany caused the Austrians to withdraw their
support, which ruined the idea of a "big Germany." Those who supported the
idea of a compact but pure Germany state were the "little" Germans. Once
again, Austria withdrew their support because it would disintegrate their
empire. With Austria gone, the only design for a new Germany had to be in
favor of "little Germany."

Frederick William IV

When offered the crown as king of the new

united Germany, F. W. IV was tempted but at the
urgine of his Junkers, especially his chief
minister, Bismarck, the Prussian king refused to
"accept a crown offered from the gutter." The
lack of support from Prussia marked the failure of
the Frankfurt Assembly and German liberalism.

The "isms"

Around the turn of the 18th to 19th centuries, the

suffix "ism" came into common use to indicate
subscription to a "doctrine, theory, or belief." This
is an indication that thoughts and ideas were
becoming systematized.

Conservatism

Centered on resistance to change. In politics, it

supported monarchy, church, bureaucracy, and
aristocracy.

Liberalism

Favored parliaments, constitutions, toleration of

all religions, Adam Smith economics such as free
trade, capitalism, laissez faire, and supply and
demand. Drew mostly from the professional and
business classes. (Bourgeoisie). Did not favor
democracy.

Radicalism

Called for universal male suffrage and reform of

parliament. Chartists were considered to be
radicals. On the continent, the most radical idea
was republicanism.

Republicanism

Called for republican or representative forms of

government. Opposed monarchies and
organized religion. Driven underground by
measures to outlaw it in France.

Nationalism

Also considered a radical idea. Evolved from

cultural unity. Seeks to draw political boundaries
around the cultural nation and defend it.

German Nationalism

Originally an anti-French reaction. Promoted by

nationalist philosophers liker Herder, Fichte, and
Hegel.

J.G. Herder

Promoted the idea of Volksgiest or national spirit.

J.G. Fichte

Suggested that the spirit of the German people

was superior to all others.

Hegelian Dialectic

A formula explaining how change in history occurres. It starts with a THESIS.

Which is the current state of affairs. At the same time, there exists the exact
opposite the ANTITHESIS. The struggle between these two opposites is the
SYNTHESIS, which becomes the new thesis. Thus change is constant and
evolutionary. Applied to German Politics, the dialectic suggests that the
condition of German disunity would struggle with the idea of German unity
and would result in the synthesis: German unification.

Frederick List

Founded the Zollverein. A tariff union that saw

the removal of internal tariffs between the
German states and formed strong protective
tariffs along national frontiers.

Socialism

Economic radicalism. Believed that existing

economic theories and practices were unjust and
corrupt. Opposed the private ownership of the
means of production. Supported democracy.
Opposed laissez faire and free trade. Sought
government involvement and protection of
workers.

Saint Simon

Believed that economic planning would benefit the poor.

Promoted the idea of great public works projects should be
undertaken to insure full employment. Predicted that "Great
Captains of Industry" would step forward as the managers.
Would later proclaim Napoleon III as their great socialist
emperor because of his public works projects like the
redesign of Paris and the digging of the Suez canal.

President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Himself a liberal, LNB had to deal with a conservative

monarchist National Assembly. Fortunately the monarchists
were divided in their support between Charles X or Louis
Phillipe. This gave the narrow margin to the republicans in
the Assembly. When LNB had been putting his most trusted
friends and advisers in high government positions, including
those responsible for the army and the police.

Emperor Napoleon III

In 1851, LNB seized power and a coup d' etate.

He dismissed the National Assembly and
selected a new one with limited powers. These
actions were approved by the voters. It could be
said that Napoleon III was the first modern
dictator.

The Second French Empire

Napoleon III was responsible for several successes

including: new investment banks, the Paris Stock
Exchange, Massive railroad construction, sponsored the
redesign and rebuilding of Paris, the digging of the Suez
Canal and the Corinth Canal, allowed unions and the right
to strike. His greatest failures included an ill-fated attempt to
colonize Mexico and picking a fight with Prussia.

Barron Haussmann

French architect from Alsace who redesigned

Paris.

Pre-1860 Italy

Divided and largely under the control of the Pope

and the Austrians. After 1815, the idea of unity
began to gain favor.

Joseph Mazzini

Italian nationalist who formed youth groups and

promoted the idea of national unity.

Sardinia

Located on the border with France, Sardinia was

the most modern and strong of the Italian states.
If any of the Italian states could possibly lead
Italy towards unification, it would be Sardinia.

Camillo de Cavour

The liberal and modern minister to the king of Sardinia. A

moderate who sought only the unification of the northern
and possibly central part of Italy. He was a personal friend
of Napoleon III and persuaded France to join in driving the
Austrians out of northern Italy. French participation was
brief because the war was never popular in France and the
pope was opposed to the unification of the North. Sardinia
succeeded in liberating the northern part of Italy.

Giuseppi Garabaldi

An adventurer and romantic revolutionary, he

launched an invasion of Southern Italy. He was
extremely popular and gained thousands of
followers.

The "red shirts"

Also known as Garabaldi's Thousand, these

were the revolutionary army of Garabaldi.
Successful in "liberating" the South, they swept
towards Rome.

The Unification of Italy

Concerned with the rapid advance of Garabaldi from the

South, Cavour launched his own liberating drive towards
Rome. He was worried that Garabaldi would confront the
French troops that had recently been sent to Rome to
protect the pope. Cavour and Garabaldi met outside Rome
and agreed to the unification of Italy under King Victor
Emmanual, King of Sardinia. By 1860, Italy was united
except for Rome and Venice.