Beam

Two mathematical models, namely the shear-deformable (Timoshenko) model and the
shear undeformable (Euler-Bernoulli) model, are presented.
Since the Timoshenko beam theory is higher order than the Euler-Bernoulli theory, it is
known to be superior in predicting the transient response of the beam. The superiority of
the Timoshenko model is more pronounced for beams with a low aspect ratio. It is shown
that use of an Euler-Bernoulli based controller to suppress beam vibration can lead to
instability caused by the inadvertent excitation of unmodelled modes.
In ANSYS, BEAM188 (or BEAM189) is suitable for analysing slender to moderately
stubby/thick beam structures. This element is based on Timoshenko beam theory which
is a first order shear deformation theory: transverse shear strain is constant through the
cross section; that is, cross sections remain plane and undistorted after deformation.
Shear deformation effects are included. This element is well-suited for linear, large
rotation, and/or large strain nonlinear applications.
In Euler Bernoulli beam theory, shear deformations are neglected, and plane sections
remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis. In the Timoshenko beam theory, plane
sections still remain plane but are no longer normal to the longitudinal axis. The
difference between the normal to the longitudinal axis and the plane section rotation is the
shear deformation.
Shear deflection effects are often significant in the lateral deflection of short beams. The
significance decreases as the ratio of the radius of gyration of the beam cross-section to
the beam length becomes small compared to unity. Shear deflection effects are activated
in the stiffness matrices of ANSYS beam elements by including a nonzero shear
deflection constant (SHEAR_) in the real constant list for that element type. The shear
deflection constant is defined as the ratio of the actual beam cross-sectional area to the
effective area resisting shear deformation. The shear constant should be equal to or
greater than zero. The element shear stiffness decreases with increasing values of the
shear deflection constant. A zero shear deflection constant may be used to neglect shear
deflection. Shear deflection constants for several common sections are as follows:
rectangle (6/5), solid circle (10/9), hollow (thin-walled) circle (2), hollow (thin-walled)
square (12/5). Shear deflection constants for other cross-sections can be found in
structural handbooks.

Beam

For slender beams (L/t > 20) both theories give the same result;

For stocky beams (L/t < 10) Timoshenko beam is physically more realistic
because it includes the shear deformations

Euler Beam Theory

According to classical beam theory (Euler beam theory), the deformation of an arbitrary
point along the beam is defined by its transverse displacement v and its rotation with
respect to the z-axis, .

y
A

y
x

dv
dx

Figure 1: Deformation of beam

The axial strain-displacement relationship is

Beam

x =

du
dx

(1)

where u = axial displacement.

From Figure 1,
u = y

dv
dx

(2)

Substituting Eqn. 2 into Eqn. 1 yields

x = y

d 2v
dx 2

(3)

The bending moment and shear force are related to the transverse displacement function
as
M = EI

V = EI

d 2v
dx 2

(4a)

d 3v
dx 3

(4b)

Element Stiffness Matrix

A linear Euler beam element is shown in Figure 2. The origin of the x-axis is attached to
node 1, and the length of element is L.

2
v2

v1

L
Figure 2: A beam element

Based on Euler beam theory; neglecting shear deformation effect, which is valid for thin
beams. Each element has 2 nodes, 2 DOFs per node: deflection and angular
displacement.
A cubic polynomial function is chosen.
3

Beam
v =a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3

(5)

where a0 a3 are coefficients to be determined. These four coefficients have no physical

interpretation. We have to define (or solve) these in terms of nodal degrees of freedom:
d1y, 1, d2y, and 2, i.e. the deflections and rotations at the two nodes.
The boundary conditions at x = 0 are deflection = d1y and bending slope =
L are deflection = d2y and bending slope =

dv
= 1; at x =
dx

dv
= 2.
dx

dv
=a1+2a 2 x + 3a 3 x 2
dx

(6)

Note that the first derivative of v is still a continuous function.

Lets proceed to solve a0, a1, a2, and a3 in terms of d1y, 1, d2y, and 2.
At x = 0,
a0 = d1 y

(7)

a1 = 1

(8)

At x = L,

d 2 y = d1 y + 1L + a2 L2 + a3 L3

(9)

2 = 1 + 2a2 L + 3a3 L2

(10)

Eqn. 9 Eqn. 10 L/3 yields

a2 =

3
3
2
1
d + 2 d 2 y 1 2
2 1y
L
L
L
L

(11)

Substituting Eqn. 11 into Eqn. 10 yields

a3 =

2
2
1
1
d 3 d 2 y + 2 1 + 2 2
3 1y
L
L
L
L

(12)

The deflection function can now be rewritten in terms of x, dyi and i.

2
1
3
3
d x 2 + 2 d 2 y x 2 1 x 2 2 x 2
2 1y
L
L
L
L
2
2
1
1
+ 3 d1 y x 3 3 d 2 y x 3 + 2 1 x 3 + 2 2 x 3
L
L
L
L

v = d1 y + 1 x

(13)

Rearranging the above expression we can write

Beam

3x 2 2 x 3
2x 2 x3
+ 2 1
v = 1 2 + 3 d1 y + x
L
L
L
L

x 2 x3
3x 2 2 x 3
+ 2 2
+ 2 3 d 2 y +
L
L L
L

(14)

v = N1d1 y + N 21 + N 3 d 2 y + N 42

(15)

or

where Ni are generally termed as shape functions. (Recall that for a tensile element,
x
x
u = N1d1x + N 2 d 2 x , where N1 = 1 and N 2 = .)
L
L

For deflection
3x 2 2 x 3
1 2 + 3
L
L
2
x3
2x
+ 2
x
L
L
2
3x
2 x3

L3
L2
x 2 x3
+ 2
L L
For slope dv/dx
6x 6x2
2 + 3
L
L
4 x 3x 2
1
+ 2
L
L
6x 6x2
3
L2
L
2 x 3x 2

+ 2
L
L

x=0

x=L

N1

N2

N3

N4

x=0

x=L

N1

N2

N3

N4

= 1 at a given coordinate. At node 1 N1 = 1 and N 2 = N 3 = N 4 = 0 , so that v = d1 y ;

similarly for slope N1 = N 3 = N 4 = 0 and N 2 = 1 , so that = 1 .

The element stiffness and equations can be derived using a direct equilibrium approach.
F1 y = V = EI

d 3v(0) EI
= 3 (12d1 y + 6 L1 12d 2 y + 6 L2 )
dx 3
L

(16)

Beam
d 2v(0 ) EI
= 3 6 Ld1 y + 4 L21 6 Ld 2 y + 2 L22
M 1 = M = EI
2
dx
L

F2 y = V = EI
M 2 = M = EI

(17)

d 3v(L ) EI
= 3 ( 12d1 y 6 L1 + 12d 2 y 6 L2 )
L
dx 3

(18)

d 2v(L ) EI
= 3 6 Ld1 y + 2 L21 6 Ld 2 y + 4 L22
dx 2
L

(19)

or in matrix form,
6 L 12 6 L d1 y
F1 y
12
M
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
1 EI
1
= 3
F2 y L 12 6 L 12 6 L d 2 y

2
2
M 2
6 L 2 L 6 L 4 L 2

(20)

As a comparison, the element stiffness matrix for a Timoshenko beam element is given
below.
F1 y
12
M

EI 6 L
1
= 3
F2 y L (1 + ) 12

M 2
6L

6L
(4 + )L2
6L
(2 )L2

12
6L

6 L d1 y
(2 )L2 1

6 L d 2 y
12

6 L (4 + )L2 2

(21)

12 EI 12 g
= 2 and is Timoshenko shear coefficient (Cowper 1966;
AGL2
L
Hutchinson 2000).

where =

Beam
Example 1
Determine the nodal displacements and rotations and the global and element forces for
the beam shown in Figure 3. The beam is divided into 2 elements, fixed at node 1 and
has a roller support at node 2, and has an elastic spring support at node 3. A downward
vertical force of P = 50 kN is applied at node 3. Let E = 200 GPa and I = 210-4 m4
throughout the beam, and let k = 200 kN/m and L = 2 m.

(1)

(2)

(3)
k
4

Figure 3: A beam supported by a spring

Solution
Step 1: Element stiffness matrix

EI = 200 109 2 104 = 4 107 (N m 2 ) = 40 (MN m 2 )

Element 1:
6L
F1 y
12
M
6 L 4 L2
1 EI
= 3
F2 y L 12 6 L

2
M 2
6L 2L
12
12
12
16
= 5
12 12

8
12

12 6 L d1 y
6 L 2 L2 1

12 6 L d 2 y

6 L 4 L2 2
12 12 d1 y
12 8 1

12 12 d 2 y

12 16 2

Beam
Element 2:
6L
F2 y
12
M
6 L 4 L2
2 EI
= 3
F3 y L 12 6 L

2
M 3
6L 2L
12
12
12
16
= 5
12 12

8
12

12
6L

6 L d 2 y
2 L2 2

12 6 L d 3 y

6 L 4 L2 3

12
12

12 d 2 y
8 2

12 12 d 3 y

12 16 3

Element 3:
F4 y
1 1 d 4 y
= k

1 1 d 3 y
F3 y
1 1 d 4 y
= 0.2

1 1 d 3 y

Step 2: Global stiffness matrix

60
60
0
0
0 d1 y
F1 y 60
60
M

80
40
0
0
0 1
60
1 60
F2 y 60 60 60 + 60 60 + 60
60
0 d 2 y
60


40 60 + 60 80 + 80
40
0 2
60
M 2 = 60
F 0
0
60 + 0.2 60 0.2 d 3 y
60
60
3y

0
60
40
80
0 3
60
M 3 0
F

0
0
0
0
0.2 d 4 y
0.2
4y 0
60 60 60
0
0
0 d1 y
60

60
80 60 40
0
0
0 1

60 60 120
0
0 d 2 y
60 60

= 60
40
0
160 60 40
0 2
0
0
60 60 60.2 60 0.2 d 3 y

0
60
40 60 80
0 3
0

0
0
0
0
0
0.2 d 4 y
0.2

Beam
Step 3: Boundary conditions and nodal displacements
d1 y = 1 = d 2 y = d 4 y = 0 and F3 y = P = 0.05 MN

Thus,

0 160 60 40 2

0.05 = 60 60.2 60 d 3 y
0 40 60 80

3
0 480 180 120 2

0.4 = 480 481.6 480 d 3 y
0 480 720 960

3
301.6 360 2
0.4 0

0.4 = 0 238.4 480 d 3 y
0 480 720
960 3

1.6 1206.4 1440 d 3 y
=

1.2 715.2 1440 3
d3 y =

3 =

2.8
= 5.7 103 (m)
419.2

301.6 5.7 103 + 0.4

= 3.66 103
360

60 5.7 103 40 3.66 103

= 1.22 103
2 =
160

Solving the equations we obtain

3
2 1.22 10

3
d 3 y = 5.7 10 (m)
3.66 103
3

Beam
Step 4: Element forces
Element 1:
60 60 60 d1 y
F1 y 60
M 60
80 60 40 1
1
=


F2 y 60 60 60 60 d 2 y

M 2 60
40 60 80 2
60 60 60
0
60

60

80 60 40
0

60 60 60 60
0

3
40 60 80 1.22 10
60
60 7.32 10 2 (MN) 73.2 (kN)

40

4.88 10 (MN m) 48.8 (kN m)

= 1.22 10 3
=
=

2
60 7.32 10 (MN) 73.2 (kN)
80 9.76 10 2 (MN m) 97.6 (kN m)

Element 2:
60 60 60 d 2 y
F2 y 60
M 60
80 60 40 2
2
=


F3 y 60 60 60 60 d 3 y

M 3 60
40 60 80 3
0
60 60 60

60

60
3
80 60 40 1.22 10
=

60 60 60 60 5.7 10 3

40 60 80 3.66 10 3
60
4.92 10 2 (MN) 49.2 (kN)

2
9.8 10 (MN m) 98 (kN m)
=

=
2
4.92 10 (MN) 49.2 (kN)

0
0

Element 3:
F4 y
1 1 d 4 y
= 0.2

1 1 d 3 y
F3 y
0
1 1

= 0.2

3
1 1 5.7 10
1.14 103
1.14
=
(MN) =
(kN)
3
1.14
1.14 10

10

Beam
Element stiffness matrix
Element length
Young's modulus
Second moment of area
Element 1

Element length
Young's modulus
Second moment of area
Element 2

Spring constant
Element 3

2
2.00E+11
2.00E-04
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07

d1y
phi1
d2y
phi2

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07

d2y
phi2
d3y
phi3

2
2.00E+11
2.00E-04
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
2.00E+05
2.00E+05 -2.00E+05 d4y
-2.00E+05 2.00E+05 d3y

Expanded element stiffness matrix

Element 1
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
0
0
0

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07
0
0
0

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
0
0
0

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

d1y
phi1
d2y
phi2
d3y
phi3
d4y

0
0
6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07
0

0
0
-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
0

0
0
6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

d1y
phi1
d2y
phi2
d3y
phi3
d4y

Element 2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
0

Element 3

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
1.20E+08
0.00E+00
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
0.00E+00

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 2.00E+05
0
0
0 -2.00E+05

0
0 d1y
0
0 phi1
0
0 d2y
0
0 phi2
0 -2.00E+05 d3y
0
0 phi3
0 2.00E+05 d4y

Global stiffness matrix

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
0.00E+00
1.60E+08
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07
0.00E+00

0.00E+00
0.00E+00
-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.02E+07
-6.00E+07
-2.00E+05

0.00E+00
0.00E+00
6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07
0.00E+00

0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
-2.00E+05
0.00E+00
2.00E+05

d1y
phi1
d2y
phi2
d3y
phi3
d4y

11

Beam
Reduced global stiffness matrix

Load
1.60E+08 -6.00E+07 4.00E+07 phi2
-6.00E+07 6.02E+07 -6.00E+07 d3y
4.00E+07 -6.00E+07 8.00E+07 phi3

0 M2
-50000 F3y
0 M3

Inverse of reduced global stiffness matrix

1.24E-08 2.44E-08 1.21E-08
2.44E-08 1.14E-07 7.33E-08
1.21E-08 7.33E-08 6.14E-08
Displacements
-1.22E-03 phi2
-5.70E-03 d3y
-3.66E-03 phi3
Element forces
Element 1

Element 2

Element 3

Stiffness
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07

Force
-73289.90
-48859.93
73289.90
-97719.87

F1y
M1
F2y
M2

Stiffness
6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07

6.00E+07
8.00E+07
-6.00E+07
4.00E+07

Force
48859.93
97719.87
-48859.93
0.00

F2y
M2
F3y
M3

Stiffness
2.00E+05 -2.00E+05
-2.00E+05 2.00E+05

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07

Displacement
0 d1y
0 phi1
0 d2y
-1.22E-03 phi2

-6.00E+07
-6.00E+07
6.00E+07
-6.00E+07

6.00E+07
4.00E+07
-6.00E+07
8.00E+07

Displacement
0 d2y
-1.22E-03 phi2
-5.70E-03 d3y
-3.66E-03 phi3

Displacement
0 d4y
-5.70E-03 d3y

Force
1140.07 F4y
-1140.07 F3y

12

Beam
Solution using Castiglianos theorem
The first step is to determine the reaction forces at node 2, F2, and node 3, F3(3). The
roller at node 2 is removed and the beam and the spring are separated. The vertical
deflection and rotation at node 2 should be zero.

F3(2)

(1)

(2)

3
F3(3)

F2
L

(3)
k
4
x

If we use Castiglianos theorem, the moment in the beam is given by

0 xL
F3(2 ) x
M (x ) =
F3(2 ) x + F2 ( x L ) L x 2 L

The first derivatives are

dM
= x 0 x 2L
dF3(2 )
0 x L
dM 0
=
dF2 x L L x 2 L
The vertical deflection of node 2 is

13

Beam
d2 y =

1
EI

1
EI
1
=
EI

2L

dM
dx
dF2

[ F ( ) x + F (x L )](x L )dx
2L

32

2L

F3(2 ) x 2 + F3(2 ) Lx + F2 ( x L ) dx
2

F3(2 ) x 3 F3(2 ) Lx 2 F2 ( x L )3
+
+

3
2
3

2L

1
=
EI

3
3
1 7 F3(2 ) L 3F3(2 ) L F2 L3
=
+
+

EI
3
2
3
L3
( 5F3(2 ) + 2 F2 ) = 0
=
6 EI

The vertical deflection of node 3 is

d3 y =

1
EI

2L

{
{
{

dM
dx
dF3(2 )

2L
1 L
[
]
(
)
dx
F
x
x
+

(
)
3
2
L [ F3(2 ) x + F2 (x L )]( x )dx
EI 0
2L
1 L
2
F3(2 ) x 2 F2 x 2 + F2 Lxdx
F
x
dx
+
=
(
)
2
3

0
L
EI
2L
2L
1
F3(2 ) x 2 dx + F2 x 2 + Lxdx
=
0
L
EI
2L
2L
x 3 Lx 2
x3
1
=
F3(2 ) + F2 +

2 L
EI
3
3 0

3
L
(16 F3(2 ) 5F2 )
=
6 EI

For the spring, the strain energy is

U=

F32(3 )
2k

The vertical deflection of node 3 is

d3 y =

F
dU
= 3 (3 )
dF3(3 )
k

From equilibrium we know

P = F3(2 ) + F3(3 )

Thus,
14

Beam

L3
(16F3(2 ) 5F2 ) = F3(3) = P F3(2 )
6 EI
k
k
We need to solve

L3
( 5F3(2 ) + 2F2 ) = 0
6 EI
L3
(16F3(2 ) 5F2 ) = P F3(2 )
k
6 EI
Simplification yields
5 F3(2 ) + 2 F2 = 0
6 EI
6 EIP

16 + 3 F3(2 ) 5 F2 =
kL
kL3

25 F3(2 ) + 10 F2 = 0
12 EI
12 EIP

F 10 F2 =
32 +
3 3( 2 )
kL3
kL

F3(2 ) =
F2 =

d3 y

12 EIP
7 kL3 + 12 EI

30 EIP
7 kL3 + 12 EI

L3
30 EIP
12 EIP
=
5

16
3
7kL3 + 12 EI
6 EI 7 kL + 12 EI
7 PL3
=
7kL3 + 12 EI

15

Beam
To find the rotations of nodes 2 and 3, only the beam needs to be considered. Two
dummy moments, M2 and M3, are introduced.
F3(2)

(1)

(2)

3
M3

M2
L

F2

L
x

If we use Castiglianos theorem, the moment in the beam is given by

F3(2 ) x M 3
M (x ) =
F3(2 ) x + F2 (x L ) M 3 M 2

0 xL
L x 2L

The first derivatives are

dM 0 0 x L
=
dM 2 1 L x 2 L
dM
= 1 0 x 2 L
dM 3

Putting M2 and M3 to 0, the moment is simplified to

0 xL
F3(2 ) x
M (x ) =
F3(2 ) x + F2 ( x L ) L x 2 L
The rotation of node 2 is

16

Beam
1
EI

2 =

1
EI
1
=
EI
=

2L

dM
dx
dM 2

[ F ( ) x + F (x L )]( 1)dx
2L

32

2L

F3(2 ) x F2 (x L )dx

F3(2 ) x 2 F2 ( x L )2

2
2
L

2L

1
=
EI

2
1 3F3(2 ) L F2 L2
=

EI 2
2
L2
(3F3(2 ) F2 )
=
2 EI
L2
12 EIP
30 EIP
=

3
3
2 EI 7 kL + 12 EI 7 kL3 + 12 EI

3PL2
7 kL3 + 12 EI

dM
dx
dM 2

The rotation of node 3 is

3 =

1
EI

1
EI
1
=
EI
=

2L

{ ( F x)(1)dx + [ F x + F (x L)](1)dx}
{ F xdx F (x L)dx}
L

2L

3( 2 )

3( 2 )

2L

2L

3( 2 )

F x 2 2 L F ( x L )2 2 L
3( 2 )
2

2
L
2 0
F2 L2
1
2
F
L
2
=

3( 2 )
EI
2
1
=
EI

L2
(4 F3(2 ) F2 )
=
2 EI
L2
12 EIP
30 EIP

=
4

3
2 EI 7kL + 12 EI 7kL3 + 12 EI
=

9 PL2
7kL3 + 12 EI

17

Beam
Example 2
A cantilever beam subjected to a vertical load, P = 100 kN, at its free end is shown in
Figure 4. The length of the beam, L, is 2 m, and the cross-section is a square of side
dimension, b = 100 mm. The elastic modulus is 200 GPa and the Poissons ratio is 0.3.
Use one element to determine the deflection at the free end assuming both Euler and
Timoshenko beam elements, respectively.

(1)

L
Figure 4: A cantilever beam

Solution
When Euler beam element is used, the element force-displacement relationship is

6 L 12 6 L d1 y
F1 y
12
M
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
1 EI
1
= 3
F2 y L 12 6 L 12 6 L d 2 y

2
2
M 2
6 L 2 L 6 L 4 L 2
When Timoshenko beam element is used, the element force-displacement relationship is

F1 y
12
M

EI 6 L
1
= 3
F2 y L (1 + ) 12

M 2
6L

6L
(4 + )L2
6L
(2 )L2

12
6L

6 L d1 y
(2 )L2 1

6 L d 2 y
12

6 L (4 + )L2 2

After applying boundary conditions d1 y = 1 = 0 and F2 y = P , the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is
Euler beam element

P EI 12 6 L d 2 y
= 3

2
0 L 6 L 4 L 2
Timoshenko beam element
18

Beam

P
EI 12
= 3

0 L (1 + ) 6 L

6 L d 2 y
(4 + )L2 2

Euler beam element

PL3
d2 y =
3EI
PL2
2 =
2 EI
Timoshenko beam element

PL3 (4 + )
d2 y =
12 EI
2
PL
2 =
2 EI
Since I =

E
b4
5
, A = b2 , G =
, and for square cross-sections, = ,
2(1 + )
12
6

12 EI
2(1 + )b 2 2 (1 + 0.3) 0.12
=
=
= 7.8 103
5 2
AGL2
L2
2
6

Thus, these two types of beam elements give similar results.

References
Cowper, G. R. 1966. The shear coefficient in Timoshenkos beam theory. Journal of
Applied Mechanics 33 (2):335-340.
Hutchinson, J. R. 2000. Shear coefficients for Timoshenko beam theory. Journal of
Applied Mechanics 68 (1):87-92.

19

Beam

Distributed Loads

The distributed loads being applied to elements need to be converted into discrete loads at
element nodes.

Tensile Element
A tensile element carries a distributed axial load q(x) that varies linearly from intensity q1 at x
= 0 to q2 at x = L.

q1
1

q2
x

2
L

Figure 5: A tensile element subjected to a distributed axial load

The linearly varying load can be expressed using the shape functions as

q(x ) = N1q1 + N 2 q2
=

Lx
x
q1 + q2
L
L

(1)

The displacement in the tensile element can be also given using the same shape functions, i.e.
u (x ) =

x
Lx
d1x + d 2 x
L
L

(2)

The work done by this distributed load is given by

20

Beam

Wdistributed = q( x )u ( x )dx
L

L L x
x L x
x

=
q1 + q2
d1x + d 2 x dx
0
L L
L

L
2

x
x
x
x2

= q1d1x 1 + (q1d 2 x + q2 d1x ) 1 + q2 d 2 x 2 dx

0
L L
L
L
L 2x x2
L x x2
L x2
= 1
+ 2 dx q1d1x + 2 dx (q1d 2 x + q2 d1x ) + 2 dx q2 d 2 x
0
0
L L
0 L

L L
L

x
x 2 x3
x3
= q1d1x x + 2 + (q1d 2 x + q2 d1x )
2
L 3L 0

2 L 3L 0
L

x3
+ q2 d 2 x 2
3L 0
L
L
L
= q1d1x + (q1d 2 x + q2 d1x ) + q2 d 2 x
3
6
3
q L q L
q L q L
= 1 + 2 d1x + 1 + 2 d 2 x
6
3
6
3
(3)
The work done by the equivalent nodal forces is given by

Wdiscrete = F1d1x + F2 d 2 x

(4)

From energy balance, the work done by the equivalent nodal forces should be equal to the
work done by the distributed load. Thus,
F1 =

q1L q2 L
+
3
6

(5a)

F2 =

q1L q2 L
+
3
6

(5b)

21

Beam
Example 2
A tensile element of constant cross-sectional area, A, and length, L, is fixed at x = 0, as shown
in Figure 2. It carries a distributed axial load q(x) that varies linearly from intensity q1 at x =
0 to q2 at x = L. Find the displacement at x = L and element force.

q1

q2
x

2
L

Figure 6: A tensile element subjected to a distributed axial load and a concentrated force

Solution
The equivalent nodal forces are given by Eqn. 5 as
F1 =

q1L q2 L
+
3
6

F2 =

q1L q2 L
+
3
6

Since there is only 1 element, the global force-displacement relationship is

F1x AE 1 1 d1x
=

F2 x L 1 1 d 2 x
Applying boundary conditions d1x = 0 and equivalent nodal forces yields
q1L q2 L AE
d2 x
=
+
6
3
L

Solving the equation we obtain

d2 x =

(q1 + 2q2 )L2

6 AE

If we need to find the displacement of the mid-point using only one element, we are going to
(q + 2q2 )L2 .
use the shape functions, i.e. d mid = 1
12 AE
As a comparison, the exact solution for the displacement of any location along the tensile
element is given by
22

Beam
d (x ) =

1 x
q( y ) ydy
EA 0
1 x L y
y
=
q1 + q2 ydy

0
EA L
L
=

x y 2
1 x
y2

dy
q
+

1 0 dy q2
EA 0
L
L

x
x
y 3
1 y 2 y 3
=

+ q2
q1
EA 2 3L 0
3L 0

(q + 2q2 )x 2
= 1
6 AE

It is seen that the displacement is a nonlinear function of x.

The displacement of the mid-point is d mid =

(q1 + 2q2 )L

(
q1 + 2q2 )L2
When x = L, d (L ) =
.
6 AE

24 AE

. Thus, the FEA

The reaction force at node 1 is

R1 = q(x )dx
L

L L x
x
=
q1 + q2 dx
0
L
L
L
x
Lx
= 1 dx q1 + dx q2
0 L
0 L
L

x2
x2
= q1 x
+ q2
2 L 0

2L 0
L
L
= q1 + q2
2
2
(q + q2 )L
= 1
2

It is seen that the reaction force R1 = F1 + F2 .

23

Beam
Example 3
A tensile element of constant cross-sectional area, A, and length, L, is fixed at x = 0, as shown
in Figure 2. It carries a distributed axial load q(x) that varies linearly from intensity q1 at x =
0 to q2 at x = L, and a concentrated axial force at x = 2L/3. Find the displacement at x = L and
element force.

Solution
The superposition principle can be used when deriving the equivalent nodal forces. The work
done by the concentrated force at x = 2L/3 is

2L
Wdistributed = Pu
3
2L
2L
= P N1 d1x + N 2 d 2 x
3
3
x
L x

= P
d1x + d 2 x
L
L
x= 2 L
3

2
1

= P d1x + d 2 x
3
3

The work done by the equivalent nodal forces is

Wdiscrete = F1d1x + F2 d 2 x
Thus,
F1 =

P
3

F2 =

2P
3

For the case when both loads exist, the nodal loads are
F1 =

q1L q2 L P
+
+
3
6
3

F2 =

q1L q2 L 2 P
+
+
3
6
3

Note that the calculated loads are called consistent loads, because they are based on the same
shape functions as used to calculate the element stiffness matrix.

24

Beam
Example 4
Consider a vertical tensile bar resting on the ground, as shown in Figure 3. What are the
displacements caused by its self-weight?
Use these symbols in the derivation required.
E: Youngs modulus;

A: cross sectional area;

L: length

dy

Figure 7: A vertical tensile bar resting on the ground

Solution
First consider the closed-form solution. The displacement at any location along the tensile
bar y (0 y L) is given by
d y =

g (L y )

dy
y

g
y 2
= Ly
2 0
E

y2

=
Ly
2
E

The displacement at the top end is then

d y ( y = L) =

gL2
2E

When finite element method is used, the effect of self-weight is a distributed load and needs
to be converted to equivalent nodal forces. The load intensity is gA.

25

Beam
First one element is used, as shown below.

L (1)

The force-displacement relationships for element 1 is

F1 y AE 1 1 d1 y
=

F2 y L 1 1 d 2 y
Since only one element is used, this is also the global force-displacement relationship.
Now we need to find the equivalent nodal forces. For uniformly distributed load gA, the
equivalent nodal forces are
F1 y = F2 y =

gAL
2

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as

Solving it we get d 2 y =

gL2
2E

gAL
2

AE
d2 y
L

What is the displacement at the mid-point? Is that

gL2
4E

? (How is this obtained?)

26

Beam
Now lets re-do this problem using two elements.

3
(2)
L

(1)
1

The force-displacement relationships for elements 1 and 2 are

F1 y 2 AE 1 1 d1 y
=

L 1 1 d 2 y
F2 y
F2 y 2 AE 1 1 d 2 y
=

L 1 1 d3 y
F3 y
The global force-displacement relationship is

F1 y
1 1 0 d1 y

2 AE
1 2 1 d 2 y
F2 y =

L
F
0 1 1 d 3 y
y
3

The equivalent nodal forces are
F1 y = F2(1y) = F2(y2 ) = F3 y =
F2 y = F2(1y) + F2(y2 ) =

gAL
4

gAL
2

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as
gAL
2 2 AE 2 1 d 2 y
gAL =

L 1 1 d 3 y

Solving these equations we get the displacements

27

Beam

d2 y

gL2
3gL2
=
and d3 y =
8E
2E

It is seen that the displacement at the mid-point is

3gL2
. Which one is correct?
8E

Recall that the closed-form solution is

2
L
3gL2
g L 1 L

dy y = =
L =
2
E 2 2 2
8E

3gL2
. The displacement in the tensile bar due
8E
to self-weight is not linear but quadratic. Only the nodal displacement values are accurate.
In order to approach the closed-form solution, the number of elements needs to be increased
or high order elements are used.
Thus, the displacement at the mid-point is

If dimensionless variables d y* =

dyE

gL

and y* =

y
are introduced, the displacement in the
L

tensile bar is given by

* y *2

d =y

*
y

and it is graphically represented in Figure 4.

0.6
0.5

dy*

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

y*

Figure 8: Dimensionless displacement in the tensile bar resting on the ground

28

Beam
Example 5
Consider a hanging vertical tensile bar, as shown in Figure 5. What are the displacements
caused by its self-weight?
Use these symbols in the derivation required.
E: Youngs modulus;

A: cross sectional area;

L: length

dy

Figure 9: A hanging tensile bar

Solution
First consider the closed-form solution. The displacement at any location along the tensile
bar y (0 y L) is given by
y

gy

d y =

dy
L

gy 2
=

2E y
=

g (L2 y 2 )
2E

The displacement at the bottom end is then

d y ( y = L) =

gL2
2E

29

Beam
First one element is used, as shown below.

L (1)

The force-displacement relationships for element 1 is

F1 y AE 1 1 d1 y
=

F2 y L 1 1 d 2 y
Since only one element is used, this is also the global force-displacement relationship.
Now we need to find the equivalent nodal forces. For uniformly distributed load gA, the
equivalent nodal forces are
F1 y = F2 y =

gAL
2

Applying boundary conditions d 2 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as

gAL
2

AE
d1 y
L

gL2
(same as before).
Solving it we get d1 y =
2E

30

Beam
Now lets re-do this problem using two elements.

3
(2)
L

(1)
1

The force-displacement relationships for elements 1 and 2 are

F1 y 2 AE 1 1 d1 y
=

L 1 1 d 2 y
F2 y
F2 y 2 AE 1 1 d 2 y
=

L 1 1 d3 y
F3 y
The global force-displacement relationship is

F1 y
1 1 0 d1 y
2 AE

1 2 1 d 2 y
F2 y =

L
F
0 1 1 d 3 y
3y
The equivalent nodal forces are
F1 y = F2(1y) = F2(y2 ) = F3 y =

F2 y = F2(1y) + F2(y2 ) =

gAL
4

gAL
2

Applying boundary conditions d 3 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as
gAL
4 2 AE 1 1 d1 y
gAL =

L 1 2 d 2 y

Solving these equations we get the displacements

31

Beam

d1 y =

gL2
2E

and d 2 y =

3gL2
8E

The closed-form solution is given by

2
L
g 2 L
3gL2

dy x = =
L

2
2 E
8E

Thus, the displacement at the mid-point is

d *y =

dyE

gL

and y* =

3gL2
. Again, if dimensionless variables
8E

y
are introduced, the displacement in the tensile bar is
L

d *y =

2
1
1 y*
2

and it is graphically represented in Figure 6.

0.6
0.5

dy*

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

y*

Figure 10: Dimensionless displacement in the hanging tensile bar

32

Beam
Example 6
Consider a vertical tensile bar with linearly varying cross-sectional areas resting on the
ground, as shown in Figure 7. What are the displacements caused by its self-weight?
Use these symbols in the derivation required.
E: Youngs modulus;

A: cross sectional area;

L: length

A2

dy

A1
Figure 11: A vertical tensile bar with linearly varying cross-sectional areas resting on the
ground

Solution
First consider the closed-form solution. The cross-sectional area at any location along the
tensile bar is given by
A( y ) = A1 + ( A2 A1 )

y
L

The displacement at any location along the tensile bar y (0 y L) is given by

d y =

2 E A1 + ( A2 A1 )
L

dy

g (L y ) A1 + ( A2 A1 ) + A2

(t A1 )L . Thus, the above equation becomes

y
Let t = A1 + ( A2 A1 ) , then y =
L
A2 A1

33

Beam

dy =

gL2
2E

A1 + ( A2 A1 )

y
L

A1

A22 t 2
dt
2
t ( A1 A2 )

y
2 A1 + ( A2 A1 ) L
A1 + ( A2 A1 )

t
2

L
=
A [ln t ]A1

2
2 2
2 E ( A1 A2 )
A1

A2
y
A1 y
y2
gL2 A22

ln
1
1
=
+

2
2

2E
L ( A1 A2 )L 2 L

( A1 A2 ) A1

gL2

The displacement at the top end is then

d y ( y = L) =

A
A + A2
gL2 A22
ln 2 + 1

2
2 E ( A1 A2 )
A1 2( A1 A2 )

If r = A2 A1 the displacement is given by

dy =

y
y
y2

(
)
+

ln
1
1
r

2 E (1 r )2
L (1 r )L 2 L2

gL2 r 2

The displacements at the top end and mid-point are

d y (x = L ) =

gL2 r 2

1+ r
ln r +

2
2 E (1 r )
2(1 r )

gL2 r 2
L

1+ r 3 + r
ln
dy x = =
+

2
2
2 E (1 r ) 2 8(1 r )

As a special case, when A2 = 0, the displacement becomes

dy =

gL2 y

y2

2 E L 2 L2

The displacement at the top end is then

d y ( y = L) =
Let d *y =

2 Ed y

gL

and y * =

gL2
4E

y
then the dimensionless displacements are
L

r2
y*
y*
*
(
)
ln
1
1
+

d =
r
y
(1 r ) 2
(1 r )2
*
y

34

Beam

d *y ( y = L ) =

r2
1+ r
ln r +
2
2(1 r )
(1 r )

L
r2

1+ r 3 + r
d *y y = =
ln
+
2
2 (1 r ) 2 8(1 r )

35

Beam
First one element is used, as shown below.

L (1)

The force-displacement relationships for element 1 is

F1 y (2 A1 + A2 )E 1 1 d1 y
=
1 1 d
3L

2 y
F2 y
Since only one element is used, this is also the global force-displacement relationship.
Now we need to find the equivalent nodal forces. For this linear varying load the load
intensity is gA1 at y = 0 and gA2 at y = L, the equivalent nodal forces are
F1 y =

F2 y =

gA1L
3

gA1L
6

gA2 L

gA2 L

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as

gA1L
6

gA2 L
3

(2 A1 + A2 )E d
3L

2y

Solving it we get

d2 y =

gL2 ( A1 + 2 A2 )
2 E (2 A1 + A2 )

Again if r = A2 A1 then

d2 y =

gL2 (1 + 2r )
2 E (2 + r )

and the dimensionless displacement is

36

Beam

d 2* y =

1 + 2r
2+r

37

Beam
Now lets re-do this problem using two elements.

3
(2)
L 2

(1)
1

The force-displacement relationships for elements 1 and 2 are

A + A2

2 2 A1 + 1
E
F1 y
2 1 1 d1 y

=
1 1 d
3L

2 y
F2 y
(5 A1 + A2 )E 1 1 d1 y
=
1 1 d
3L

2 y

F2 y 2( A1 + A2 + A2 )E 1 1 d 2 y
=
1 1 d
3L

3 y
F3 y
2( A1 + 2 A2 )E 1 1 d 2 y
=
1 1 d
3L

3 y

The global force-displacement relationship is

F1 y
5 A1 + A2
E
F2 y =
5 A1 A2
F 3L
0

3y

5 A1 A2
7 A1 + 5 A2
2 A1 4 A2

0
d1 y

2 A1 4 A2 d 2 y
2 A1 + 4 A2 d3 y

The equivalent nodal forces are

A1 + A2

L A1
2
F1 y = g +
2 3
6

gL(5 A1 + A2 )
=
24

A1 + A2

A
L
2
F2(1y) = g 1 +
2 6
3

A A
= gL 1 + 2

6 12

38

Beam

A1 + A2

L
A
A A
F2(y2 ) = g 2
+ 2 = gL 1 + 2
2 3
6
12 6

A1 + A2
A2
L 2
gL( A1 + 5 A2 )
F3 y = g
+ =
24
3
2 6

F2 y = F2(1y) + F2(y2 ) =

gL( A1 + A2 )
4

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 0 and equivalent nodal forces, the reduced global forcedisplacement relationship is obtained by deleting the first row and first column as
gL( A1 + A2 )

E 7 A1 + 5 A2
4
gL( A + 5 A ) =
3L 2 A1 4 A2
1
2

24

7 A1 + 5 A2
2 A 4 A
1
2

2 A1 4 A2 d 2 y

2 A1 + 4 A2 d 3 y

2 A1 4 A2
2 A1 + 4 A2
1
=

2 A1 + 4 A2
2(5 A1 + A2 )( A1 + 2 A2 ) 2 A1 + 4 A2
=

1
5 A1 + A2

2 A1 + 4 A2
7 A1 + 5 A2

1
1

7 A1 + 5 A2

1 2( A + 2 A )
1
2

Solving these equations we get the displacements

A + A2
1
1
1

4
7 A1 + 5 A2

1
2( A + 2 A ) A1 + 5 A2
1
2

24
7 A1 + 11A2

3gL
1

24
=
19 A2 + 76 A A + 49 A2
E 5 A1 + A2
1
1 2
2

48( A1 + 2 A2 )

d 2 y
3gL2
1
=
E 5 A1 + A2
d 3 y

d2 y =

gL2 19 A12 + 76 A1 A2 + 49 A22

gL2 7 A1 + 11A2
and d 3 y =
16 E ( A1 + 2 A2 )(5 A1 + A2 )
8E 5 A1 + A2

Again if r = A2 A1 then

gL2 19 + 76r + 49r 2

gL2 7 + 11r
d2 y =
and d3 y =
8E 5 + r
16 E (1 + 2r )(5 + r )
39

Beam
and the dimensionless displacements are

d 2* y =

19 + 76r + 49r 2
7 + 11r
*
and d3 y =
4(5 + r )
8(1 + 2r )(5 + r )

40

Beam

Beam Element
Example 7
A linear beam element is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, as shown in Figure 8.
Determine the equivalent nodal loads.

w
1

2
x
L

Figure 12: A linear beam element subjected to a uniformly distributed load

Solution
The work done by the distributed load is given by
Wdistributed = w( x )v( x )dx
L

= w( x ) N1 ( x )d1 y + N 2 ( x )1 + N 3 ( x )d 2 y + N 4 ( x )2 dx
L

L
L
= w N1 ( x )dx d1 y + w N 2 ( x )dx 1
0

L
L
+ w N 3 ( x )dx d 2 y + w N 4 ( x )dx 2
0

The work done by the equivalent nodal forces is

Wdiscrete = F1d1 y + M 11 + F2 d 2 y + M 22

From energy balance, we have Wdistributed = Wdiscrete . Thus,

F1 = w N1 ( x )dx = w
L

2 x3 3x 2
2 + 1dx
L3
L

x 4 x3

= w 3 2 + x = w 1 + 1 L
2

2L L
0
wL
=
2

41

Beam

M 1 = w N 2 ( x )dx = w
L

x3 2 x 2

+ xdx
L2
L
L

x 4 2 x3 x 2
1 2 1
= w 2
+ = w + L2
3L
2 0
4 3 2
4L
=

wL2
12
2 x3 3x 2
+ 2 dx
L3
L

F2 = w N 3 ( x )dx = w
L

x 4 x3
1
= w 3 + 2 = w + 1 L
2
2L L 0
wL
=
2
M 2 = w N 4 ( x )dx = w
L

x3 x 2
dx
L2 L

x4
x3
1 1
= w 2 = w L2
4 3
4 L 3L 0
wL2
=
12
It should be noted w is in the negative y direction. Thus, both nodal forces, F1 and F2 are
negative. M1 is negative (clockwise) and M2 is positive (counter-clockwise).

F1

F2

1
M1

2
x

M2

42

Beam
Example 8
The same beam in Example 7 subjected to a linearly varying load, as shown in Figure 9.
Determine the equivalent nodal loads.

w
1

2
x
L

Figure 13: A linear beam element subjected to a linearly varying distributed load

Solution
The distributed load is given by
w( x ) =

wx
L

0 xL

From Example 7,
Wdistributed = w( x )v( x )dx
L

= w( x ) N1 ( x )d1 y + N 2 ( x )1 + N 3 ( x )d 2 y + N 4 ( x )2 dx
L

L wx

L wx

=
N1 ( x )dx d1 y +
N 2 ( x )dx 1
0 L
0 L

L wx

L wx

+
N 3 ( x )dx d 2 y +
N 4 ( x )dx 2

0 L
0 L

Wdiscrete = F1d1 y + M 11 + F2 d 2 y + M 22

From energy balance, we have Wdistributed = Wdiscrete . Thus,

F1 =

3
L x 2x

3x 2
wx
N1 ( x )dx = w 3 2 + 1dx
0 L
L
L
L

2 x5 3x 4 x 2
2 x 4 3x3 x
= w 4 3 + dx = w 4 3 +

0 L
L
L
5L 4 L 2 L 0
3
2 3 1
= w + L =
wL
20
5 4 2
L

43

Beam

M1 =

3
L x x

wx
2x2
+ x dx
N 2 ( x )dx = w 2
0
L
LL
L

= w

x5
x 4 2 x3 x 2
x4
x3

+
=

+
dx
w
5 L3 2 L2 3L
L3
L2
L

2
1 1 1 2 wL
= w + L =
30
5 2 3

F2 =

L x
2 x3 3x 2
wx
N 3 ( x )dx = w 3 + 2 dx
0 L
L
L
L
L

2 x5 3x 4
2 x 4 3x3
= w 4 + 3 dx = w 4 + 3
0
L
L
5L 4 L 0
7
2 3
= w + L =
wL
20
5 4
L

M2 =

3
L x x
wx
x2
N 4 ( x )dx = w 2 dx
0 L L
L
L

= w

x5
x 4 x3
x4
dx
w

3
2
L3 L2
5L 4 L 0

wL2
1 1
= w L2 =
20
5 4

44

Beam
Example 9
A cantilever beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load of intensity w is shown in Figure
10. Determine the deflection and rotation of the free end using one and two elements,
respectively.
Use these symbols in the derivation required.
E: Youngs modulus,

w: load intensity,

A: cross sectional area,

L: length,

I: second moment of area

2L
Figure 14: A cantilever beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load

Solution
(1) Using one element

The force-displacement relationship for element 1 is

F1 y
12 12 L
M

16 L2
1 EI
= 3
F2 y 8L

M 2
sym

12 12 L d1 y
12 L 8L2 1

12
12 L d 2 y

16 L2 2

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 1 = 0 , the reduced global force-displacement

relationship is obtained by deleting the first two rows and corresponding columns as

3 L d 2 y
F2 y EI 3
= 3

2
M 2 2 L 3 L 4 L 2
Now we only need to calculate the equivalent nodal force and moment for node 2.
45

Beam

F2 y =

w2 L
= wL
2

wL2
w(2 L )
M2 =
=
3
12
2

Thus,

wL EI 3
3 L d 2 y
2

wL = 3
2
3 2 L 3L 4 L 2
The deflection and rotation can be found by
1

3L wL
d 2 y EI 3
2
wL
= 3

2
2 2 L 3L 4 L 3

2 L3 1 4 L2 4 L wL
2
wL
=

EI 3L2 3L 3
3

2 wL4

= EI 3
4 wL
3EI

(2) Using two elements

The force-displacement relationships for elements 1 and 2 are

F1 y
12 6 L
M

4 L2
1 EI
= 3
F2 y L

M 2
sym

12
6L

F2 y
12 6 L
M

4 L2
2 EI
=

3
F3 y L

M 3
sym

12 6 L d 2 y
6 L 2 L2 2

12 6 L d 3 y

4 L2 3

12

6 L d1 y
2 L2 1

6 L d 2 y

4 L2 2

46

Beam
The global force-displacement relationship is

12 6 L
6 L 2 L2

F1 y
12 6 L
M

4 L2
1

F2 y EI
= 3
M 2 L
F3 y

M 3
sym

24

0
8 L2

0 d1 y
0 1
12 6 L d 2 y

6 L 2 L2 2
12 6 L d 3 y

4 L2 3
0
0

Applying boundary conditions d1 y = 1 = 0 , the reduced global force-displacement

relationship is obtained by deleting the first two rows and corresponding columns as

0
F2 y
24
M

8L2
2 EI
= 3
F3 y L

M 3
sym

12 6 L d 2 y
6 L 2 L2 2

12 6 L d 3 y

4 L2 3

Now we need to calculate the equivalent nodal forces and moments for nodes 2 and 3.
F2 y =

wL wL

= wL
2
2

wL2 wL2
M2 =

=0
12
12
F3 y =

wL
2

wL2
M3 =
12
Thus,

wL
0
24
0
wL EI
8L2

= 3

22 L

wL
sym
12

12 6 L d 2 y
6 L 2 L2 2

12 6 L d 3 y

4 L2 3

The deflection and rotation can be found by

47

Beam

0
d 2 y
24

3
8 L2
2 L
=
d 3 y EI

3
sym

wL
0
wL

22
wL
12
wL
3L3
0
2
64 L wL

12 L3 2
2

12 L2 wL
12

12 6 L
6 L 2 L2
12 6 L

4 L2

2 L4 3L3 5 L4

6 L2 9 L3
L3 1
=
EI 6 L4
16 L4

sym

17 wL4
24 EI

3
7 wL

= 6 EI4
2 wL

EI
4 wL3

3EI

The results show that the deflection and rotation of the free end are the same when one or two
elements are used.
The question is: in ANSYS, how many elements should you use to mesh a line? Try different
numbers of elements in ANSYS.

48

Beam
Solution using Castiglianos theorem
If the deflection and rotation of the free end are to be determined, a dummy load, Q, and a
dummy moment, m, are introduced, as shown below.

2L
x

The moment at any location along the beam is given by

M (x ) =

wx 2
+ Qx + m
2

The first derivatives are

dM
=x
dQ
dM
=1
dm

Put Q = 0 and m = 0, the moment is simplified to

M (x ) =

wx 2
2

The deflection of the free end is obtained by

dy =

1
EI

2L

w
=
2 EI
=

1
dM
dx =
dQ
EI

2L

wx 2
0 2 xdx
2L

w x4
=
x
dx

0
2 EI 4 0

2L

2wL4
EI

The rotation of the free end is obtained by

49

Beam

1
=
EI

2L

dM
1
0 M dm dx = EI

w
=
2 EI

2L

wx 2
0 2 dx
2L

w x3
=
x
dx

0
2 EI 3 0

2L

4 wL3
=
3EI

Likewise, if the deflection and rotation of the free end are to be determined, a dummy load,
Q, and a dummy moment, m, are introduced, as shown below.

Qc

mc
2L
x

The moment at any location along the beam is given by

wx 2

M (x ) = 2 2
wx + Qc (x L ) + mc
2

0 x L
L x 2L

The first derivatives are

0 x L
dM 0
=
dQc x L L x 2 L
dM 0 0 x L
=
dmc 1 L x 2 L
Put Q = 0 and m = 0, the moment is simplified to

wx 2
M (x ) =
2
The deflection of the free end is obtained by
50

Beam

1
d yc =
EI

2L

dM
1
L M dQc dx = EI

2L

wx 2
L 2 (x L )dx
2L

w x 4 Lx 3
dx
Lx
x
=

L
3 L
2 EI 4

w
=
2 EI

2L

wL4
=
2 EI

17 wL4
15 7
=

4 3
24 EI
L

2L

The rotation of the free end is obtained by

1
c =
EI

2L

1
dM
L M dmc dx = EI

w
=
2 EI
=

2L

wx 2
L 2 dx
2L

w x3
=
x
dx

L
2 EI 3 L

2L

7 wL3
6 EI

51