Mohamed Sujaau 10024 LIN101 Assignment 2 1

Mohamed Sujaau 10024 1
LIN101 Assignment 2
WORLD ENGLISHES AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT

INTRODUCTION
Is English spoken around the world just American or British? Do the Australians employ the
same English as the Americans, the south Africans, the Canadians and the Indians? Do these
countries even speak the same English as they did centuries ago before the world gave birth
to globalisation? Is English the sole property of its native parents and the only standard
variety?
Linguists across the world have been fascinated by these provocative questions and on their
quest to find answers they have coined a new concept called Word Englishes which refers to
the varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts.. This paper aims to define
World Englishes and explain at what point a particular English can be referred to as a new
World English. It would finally apply the concept to the English spoken in an Asian country,
the Maldives and explain whether the term Maldivian English could be added to the list of
World Englishes (WEs). Any relevant primary data collected for this paper are included in the
Appendices.
DEFINING WORLD ENGLISHES AND ITS DIMENSIONS

It is obvious that today we live in a multilingual society. Wherever you go you meet diverse
groups of people who speak in distinctively different tongues. At the same time what is more
noticeable is that when we interact with people from different countries, we hear English
with a range of fluency which often deviates from the so-called standard English in terms of
pronunciation, lexis, expression and grammar (Kubota, 2001). It is the Kashmiri-American
linguist Braj B. Kachru who pioneered the research on these linguistic variations and coined
the term World Englishes in 1986 initially to refer to the institutionalised varieties of English
(Hornberger & McKay, 2010).
The term World Englishes is now used to describe the nativised and distinct varieties of
English spoken in non-native countries and Kachru (1986) explains that the dispersion of
English can be categorised into a three concentric circle model; the Inner Circle, the Outer
Circle and the Expanding Circle. The Inner Circle Englishes in the model refer to the parent
Mohamed Sujaau 10024 | LIN101 Asssignment 2 World Englishes | MNU 2011 SEM1

LIN101 Assignment 2
countries of English or the colonising nations such as Britain that spread the language to
different regions of the world, for whom English is the first language in almost all functions.
The Outer Circle is inhabited by the colonised territories in which English is a second or nonnative language and used in different functional domains, such as government, education,
law and so on. In the Expanding Circle English is considered as a foreign language and is used
in highly restricted domains such as for international communication (Kachru & Smith, 2008).
The following diagram (Figure 1) shows Kachrus three circle model and the categorisation of
different countries.
China
Egypt
Bangladesh
USSR Japan
Japan
Expanding Circle
Indonesia
Ghana
Outer Circle
Kenya
Israel
India
Inner Circle
Malaysia
USA
Nigeria Pakistan
Korea
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Tanzania
UK
Australia
New Zealand
Singapore Zambia
Philippines
Taiwan
Zimbabwe
Figure 1
Kachrus Concentric Three Circle Model: Adapted from Kachru (1990).
Crystal (2007) estimates that in the Inner Circle, English is used by 320-380 million speakers
as a primary language, in the Outer Circle institutionalised varieties are used by 150-300
million speakers and 100-1000 million speakers use English as a foreign language in the
Expanding circle. According to Bhatt (2001), Kachrus concentric circle model (Figure 1)
captures the historical, sociolinguistic, acquisitional, and literary contexts of the spread
and diffusion of English (p.3).
One of the key debates associated with WEs is the claim that English spoken in its native
countries such as Britain and America is superior and standard and the other Englishes are
substandard. Kachrus (1986) model aimed to remove this dichotomy and demonstrate the
pluralistic reality of the language and show that English changes as it spreads. Apart from

LIN101 Assignment 2
that, the model makes it clear that there is no standard worldwide English and it shows the
diffusion of English from its native parents as a language that is intra-national and has unique
international varieties.
Kachru (1965) states that the pluralism, Englishes is a fundamental part of WEs. He further
elucidates that this pluralisation symbolises the formal and functional changes, the different
sociolinguistic contexts, the linguistic, literary creativity and the nativised forms and various
identities that English has created as a result of its assimilation in new sociolinguistic cultures.
He asserts that the new nativised or non-native varieties have obtained an ontological status
and developed localised standards and norms (Kachru, 1992b).
On the other hand, Kachrus model received criticism from the linguistic community. One of
the critics, Quirk (1988, cited in Kachru, 1990) rejects the idea of WEs and argues that in nonnative countries, people are learning an interlangauge and it is fossilised. In other words, he
meant that people are learning a middle-language which hangs between knowing and not
knowing a language such as English and that certain rules, forms and structures of their
vernacular are incorporated but kept intact while learning the target language. According to
Jenkins (2009), Kachru denied Quirks view and proposed that such Englishes were
indigenised. This means that English is not solely owned by one particular group, but it is
owned by those who speak it. In fact Kachru saw variation as disparities, not deficits because
localised varieties of English were used for communication amongst non-native English
speakers and English is used to pass on local culture not only that of the Inner Circle (Jenkins,
2009).
EMERGENCE OF NEW WORLD ENGLISHES
We are aware that today the linguists around the world talk of Australian English, British
English, American English and so on where English is their first language. We are also aware
of the fact that linguists talk of Singaporean English, Chinese English and Indian English where
English is not the first language of the populace. All these varieties are referred to as World
Englishes.
Now, having understood what world Englishes are, an inquisitive question that arises is at
what point can we say that a new World English has evolved? In order to answer this

LIN101 Assignment 2
question it is essential to understand why and how the English language diffused into the
corners of the world and how the language changes to become a new World English.
According to Kachru (1992a) the global spread of English can be explained in terms of two
diasporal transportations. The first dispersal was within the Inner Circle where a monolingual
English-speaking population migrated on a relatively large scale to countries like North
America, Australia and New Zealand. Over time these nations developed their own dialects of
English. The second diasporas of the Outer and Expanding circle was the result of the
colonisation of Asia and Africa by the British. As a result English was transplanted to India,
Nigeria, China, Japan and Korea to name a few.
At the same time Quirk (1988, cited in Kachru, 1990) states that language spreads due to
demographical, econocultural and imperial factors. If applied to English, this means that the
language scattered due to population growth, cultural transmission and politicolonial
influences. Others including Schneider (2011) view globalisation as an important factor in the
spread of English.
As soon as English takes root in a particular country, it affects their culture and identity.
However, at the same time countries naturally tend to protect their distinctiveness.
According to Crystal (2007), when a country becomes independent, there is a natural
reaction to refrain from using the linguistic character imposed by its colonial past and to look
for native languages to provide a symbol for nationhood. As a result, new ways of talking and
writing develop and indigenous words become privileged. In other words, a locally distinctive
mode of expression emerges. Crystal (2007) further argues that eventually it evolves into a
New English which is adapted with nativised vocabulary in the form of new lexis, wordformation, meanings and idiomatic terms.
Similarly Schneider (2011) contends that non-native Englishes develop home-grown forms
and these local ways of speaking are adopted by the inhabitants to mark their regional
identity. As a result, speakers can identify each other by their accent, choice of vocabulary
and way of speaking and the adapted English reflects their personalities and respective
cultural settings. Furthermore, people start to believe that the customised English is part of
their identity and it can carry the weight of their native and cultural experiences. For
example, in a case study of Pakistani English, Mahboob (2009) proves that English spoken in

LIN101 Assignment 2
Pakistan reflects their cultural and Islamic values, and it has been modified to achieve
linguistic and pragmatic competence in a Muslim country. It is at this point in the continuum
where we can say that a new World English has evolved.
STATUS OF WORLD ENGLISHES PARADIGM IN THE MALDIVIAN CONTEXT
Although the Maldives was colonised by the British in 1887, there hasnt been any obvious
signs of linguistic imperialism. In fact, Maumoon (2002) states that the British influence on
the Maldivian society and culture was minimal. However, today, the knowledge of English
language is widespread in the Maldives. The education imparted is in English medium and it is
used widely for international business and to communicate within the society too. There is in
fact, huge socio-economic pressure for Maldivians to learn English (Maumoon, 2002).
Given the fact that Maldives is a bilingual nation, it is interesting to consider the WEs
paradigm to check if the English spoken in the Maldives is distinct. Have the Maldivians
adapted and nativised the language?
Analysis of an interview with a Maldivian about the traffic problem in Male (capital city)
reveals that there are some variations. However, when the interview was repeated with an
Indian, it was found that the same and similar variations were present. The Maldivian
(average English proficiency) aged 29, was taught English by Indian teachers and the Indian
(35 years, very good English proficiency) grew up in an industrial town called Asansol in the
state of West Bengal in India where she was also taught by Indian teachers and some nativeEnglish speakers.
Interviewer: The problem is getting better! Do you think or is it still increasing?
Maldivian: a dn thk t rli ets bet.. r bkz de ba de vehkls r et m
nmb
Interviewer: What do you think are some of the disadvantages to pedestrians and the local
people because of this huge traffic problem?
Indian: menli a fand ks nd l vehkls dst pkd n frnt s nd n th iz..
Interviewer: Umm..in your view can schools help to solve this problem or the education can
play a role do you think?
Maldivian: j f ks wi ken j j f ks a thk wi ken du smth ft fn
eduken e wl ba wn vehkl
Indian: jes eduken ken e kn mek wer stzns

LIN101 Assignment 2
It is noticeable from the data that, both the speakers pronounced the word vehicle as
/vehkl/ instead of / vikl/ and education as / eduken/ but not /edken/. Similarly,
both participants mispronounced // in all the words with this sound by making it an upper
dental and not releasing enough air between the teeth. In words like government, the /er/
was stressed by both speakers. It was also evident that the Maldivian used unusual structures
(underlined) and the phrase of course six times in the conversation but the Indian used it
just once (see Appendix A & B).
On the whole, more similarities between Indian English and English spoken in Maldives were
observed. One reason that accounts for this resemblance could be that many Indian local
languages and Dhivehi, the Maldivian mother tongue are languages of the Indo-Aryan family
(Maumoon, 2002 & Fritz, 2002). In fact, in 2002 alone about 85 million speakers in India were
of the Indo-Aryan family (Sedlatschek, 2009). Another reason could be that a lot of Indian
teachers are working in Maldivian schools, so people are much more exposed to the Indian
accent.
The English used in the Maldives is changing, but at a relatively slow pace and at present it is
more like a sibling of Indian English. In my view, the following diagram demonstrates its
status.
As the NCWEs shows, the researcher believes that the Maldivian English has just begun the
customisation stage and there is a long way to achieve Native Recognition. This clearly
indicates that the influence of Dhivehi on English is very limited and linguistically it cannot be
referred to as Maldivian English yet. The limited data does not reflect the type of English used
throughout Maldives. In fact, to understand a better picture, further research need to be
carried out in the future with more written and spoken data.

LIN101 Assignment 2
CONCLUSION
World Englishes are culturally-appropriated and indigenously-customised varieties of English
used in divergent sociolinguistic contexts. These distinct varieties are scattered not only in
countries where English is the mother tongue, but also in nations where it is used as an
additional language and primarily as a foreign language. When a particular English deviates
linguistically and pragmatically from the standard English and adopts native forms to
express socio-cultural norms and identity, it evolves into a new World English. The English
spoken in the Maldives at present does not have enough distinguishable features that could
give its own unique Maldivian flavour. However, in the future, the Maldivianisation of English
could transpire when people start to incorporate indigenous forms and structures of Dhivehi
language to mark their national identity.

LIN101 Assignment 2
References
Bhatt, R.M. (2001). World Englishes: Annual Reviews. 30, 52750.
Crystal, D. (2007). English as a Global Language. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fritz, S. (2002). The Dhivehi Language: A Descriptive and Historical Grammar of Maldivian and
its Dialects. Germany: Ergon.
Hornberger, N.H., & McKay, S.L. (2010). Sociolinguistics and Language Education. UK: Short
Run Press Ltd.
Jenkins, J. (2009). World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students (2nd ed). London:
Routledge.
Kachru, B.B. (1965). The Indianness in Indian English. Word, 21, 391410.
Kachru, B.B. (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions and Models of Non-Native
Englishes. London: Pergamon.
Kachru, B.B. (1990). World Englishes and applied linguistics: World Englishes, 9(1), 3-20.
Kachru, B. B. (1992a). The second diaspora of English: English in its Social Contexts: Essays in
Historical Sociolinguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kachru, B.B. (1992b). The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures (2nd ed). USA: University of
Illinois Press.
Kachru, Y., & Smith, L.E. (2008). Cultures, Contexts, and World Englishes. New York:
Routledge.
Kubota, R. (2001). Learning linguistic diversity from World Englishes. Social Studies, 92 (2),
69-72.
Mahboob, A. (2009). English as an Islamic language: a case study of Pakistani English: World
Englishes, 28(2), 175189.
Maumoon, Y. (2002). A General Overview of the Dhivehi Language. Male: National Centre for
Linguistic and Historical Research.
Schneider, E.W. (2011). English Around the World: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Sedlatschek, A. (2009). Contemporary Indian English: Variation and Change. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins Publishing.

LIN101 Assignment 2
APPENDICES
Appendix A An interview with a Maldivian about the Traffic problem in Male
Interviewer: O.K Its about the traffic problem in Male, O.K?
Maldivian: Yeah
Interviewer: The first question is: Do you think the traffic issue in Male is a problem?
Maldivian: Yeah of course! Why not?
Interviewer: Why do you say that? Why, why it is a problem? Why do you think there is so
much traffic in Male?
Maldivian: Becausesuppose aaar if Im planning to go for a supposehospital..I mean
walking specially walking on the wayarr if we..arr I mean when we are going walking we feel
so much difficulties.
Interviewer: Why is that?
Maldivian: So many vehicles because of.
Interviewer: OK um..the next question is um do you think the traffic problem in Male is
increasing or is it improving?
Maldivian: Arrimproving in the sense means?
Interviewer: That problem is getting better! Do you think or is it still increasing?
Maldivian: I dont think it really gets bettererr because day by day the vehicles are getting
morenumberand peoples arealso peoplepopulation is also getting more then I think it
is not controlled.
Interviewer: What do you think about the disadvantages?
Maldivian: Of increasing vehicles?
Interviewer: Yeah, what are the disadvantages to the people and other drivers?
Maldivian: Other drivers meanserr theywhat I can say is..they cant drive know actually.
Asfor the peopleyou mean those who are walking on the road?
Interviewer: Yes
Maldivian: Without vehicles? Errwe cant go on time no anywhere.

LIN101 Assignment 2
Interviewer: Now the solution. Ok what do you think the government can do to solve this
problem?
Maldivian: Errrrules and regulation should bethere okay..then errrwe have to. I mean
decrease the number of vehicles import.
Interviewer: Okay. So have you been to any other countries..in your life?
Maldivian: Yeah of course I had been India. One time.
Interviewer: So..
Maldivian: Yeah
Interviewer: Can you compare the situation in India and MaldivesI mean the traffic
problem?
Maldivian: YeahI think[laughs]..I dont reallyerr..what I mean is the whole area I cant see
but the athe area I saw is most better than err..Male.
Interviewer: India is better?
Maldivian: India is better..yeahno no no Male is not better India is better than Male.
Because I think MaleMale is smaller thanthat country. And thouthose area also. If
one..if we compare that the..even the city..Male is smaller than that.
Interviewer: The roads are also smaller?
Maldivian: The whole place. Yeah..the roads also
Interviewer: The last question okay?
Maldivian: Yeah.
Maldivian: Yeah of course. We can..yeah yeah of course I think we can do something. Because
the youngsters we can give these informations know. That means it is happening because of
increasing number of peoplesand vehicles..
Interviewer: The students
Maldivian: They they..so they should learn it know. O..suppose when they go young and
forafter finishing the education theyllof course theyll buy one vehicle. So thatthey
might think know.
Interviewer: Ok thats all. Thank you for doing this interview.

LIN101 Assignment 2
Maldivian: Yeah of course.

Appendix B An interview with an Indian about the Traffic problem in Male
Interviewer: Its about the traffic problem in Male, O.K?
Indian: hmmm
Interviewer: The first question I have for you is: Do you think the traffic congestion in Male is
a problem?
Indian: Aan. Very big problem.
Interviewer: Why do you think like that?
Indian: I feel o um..the whole route system has been made one way know and this arr this
parking space is also quite less. So I think that would beif they can increase somehow the
parking space some way to arrange to park the cars in appropriate ways so that would reduce
the rate and the one way is alsomakes the condition little more.
Interviewer: Okay, so, do you think the traffic problem is increasing or is it improving? In in
Male I mean.
Indian: Hmm, yaSo I dont feel its increasing of course Im not visit. Im not very frequently
at with Male, but whatever as soon Ivenot found it increasing. It is. As it was it is the same.
I feel in that way.
Interviewer: O.K, uh, so your youre from India aah.
Indian: Yes
Interviewer: can you compare the problemtraffic problem in Male with your place?
Indian: Its very difficult to compare but if we compare it with our metros..then..it is similar
toss..the problem is almost similar but only one difference is that we have this highways
and the roads are demarketed and theso that how they can control itthat flyovers are
there..so we canwe can manage in that way but the problem is..
Interviewer: What about the number?
Indian: Number ismuch more higher know.
Interviewer: The..cars and all..
Indian: Aanyes.. so the numbers are higherbut er..the problem is almost similar only.
Interviewer: Okay uhmjust few more questions okay?
Indian: Yes!
Interviewer: What do you think are some of the disadvantages to the pedestrians and the
local people because of this huge traffic problem?

LIN101 Assignment 2
Indian: First and foremost I feel that the cars are parked all on the roads knowsowhen you
have to make a pass by or when you have to work through it becomes quite
difficult..specifically if its early morning or something. Mainly I find the cars and all the
vehicles just parked in front so..and another thing is..when you are walking..aar..on the road
and all this things you find people have to keep on waiting if there is a large-size car parking
through a small lane. So that isthatthat is quite.
Interviewer: OK just two more questions okay?
Indian: Yes!
Interviewer: Aa..in your view what can the government do to prevent or to solve this
problem?
Indian: They should choke out..I..I feel the government should choke out some alternative
roads or something or if they are huehuge cars..means huge vehicles they can demark its
some of the routes because that specific about them, but..how far that is.that is all my
view..how far that is practically possible I dont have much of an idea about this.
Interviewer: Okay, that..thats enough actually.
Indian: Thats enough?
Interviewer: Thats just your view right?
Indian: Yes, thats my..
Interviewer: The last question okay?
Indian: Yes.
Indian: Aan yes..education can umthey can make aware the citizens or..about lit howthe
precautions all some of the congestion that..even people..they canif they teach it properly
they can but its not a..they cant make a very huge difference. Thats what something the
government has to do, but yes they can..make them aware of the problem and they can..
Interviewer: You mean students right? (A/P)
Indian: Yeah. They can make them aware of it and they can..mean.means from their mind
also some ideas may come across..therethere can be..there can befertithere can be
fertile from many individuals mind know.
Interviewer: So what youre saying is basically the..arr..the Ministry of Education can .
Indian: Yesyesyes
Interviewer: OkayThank you.
Indian: Youre welcome.

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WORLD ENGLISHES AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT

DEFINING WORLD ENGLISHES AND ITS DIMENSIONS

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Maldivian: Yeah of course.

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