TIME MANAGEMENT

1. BE POSITIVE Do you spend most of your time moaning about what you have to
do instead of doing it? You often hear people talking about what they have to do
but they never seem to actually get around to doing it. Be positive, if you set
yourself a goal and attach a time limit you can do it.
Key Tip: Get on with it and stop talking about it!!

2. TAKE BREAKS Although taking a break may be seen as time wasting it is

actually an essential tool in time management. Taking regular breaks enables you to
see a problem with fresh eyes, more importantly when you become too engrossed
your mind wanders and you actually begin to waste time! So set yourself regular
breaks refresh your mind and increase your productivity.
Key Tip: Set a time limit for breaks no more than 15 minutes

3. REMEMBER YOUR TIME IS PRECIOUS We all know that there is not enough time
in the day for all we want to accomplish, so it is important that you value the time
you do have. Use your time wisely and put a premium on it dont waste this
precious commodity on things that are not deserving.
Key Tip: Ask yourself Do I really need to answer that phone call or go to a
meeting that is not totally relevant?

4. HIT THE GROUND RUNNING Energise yourself from the moment your day
begins. Start each day with 3 or 4 short, manageable easy tasks. Hit the ground
running by creating a positive, enthusiastic and determined mindset that you can
maintain throughout the day.
Key Tip: Complete some minor, doable tasks and start the day as you
mean to go on!

5. MANAGE YOUR WORKSPACE Working in a messy, disorganized workspace is

possibly one of the worst distractions. Do you spend more time looking for that
specific document than actually working on it? Do you spend more time organizing
the pile of papers that solving the problems? Yes I hear you cry!! There is a very
easy way to combat this. Clear your desk at the end of the day and organize what
you need for the following morning.

Key Tip: Clear your desk at the end of each day. Begin each new day with
the mindset and equipment that you need to be successful!

6. KNOW YOUR BODY It is very important to know your body. Spend a day noting
down your most productive times. Also note when your energy starts to dwindle.
When you have discovered these energy slumps you can start to combat them! If
you know that your energy starts to diminishing in the afternoon, schedule some
short, manageable easy tasks. Therefore you will give your body time to recover as
well as getting those little but usually important jobs done!!
Key Tip: Spend a day creating a diary of your most productive times, it will
really help you when you are organising your tasks for the day.

Make Specific Plans

A good plan always includes an order of priority what needs to be done first, and
what can be done later. More importantly, it also has a deadline of when you ought
to finish each of the steps involved as well as the entire job; but think carefully
before you fill in this detail. Set realistic schedules by considering the amount of
time you need, and leaving in a little extra time for all those unexpected things that
come up to interfere with your schedule.
If you are typing up a report for instance, make sure you figure in the time for
collecting all the relevant information; leave extra time for delays because someone
else is not able to immediately provide you with the info you need.
Consider before you Commit
If taking on a task is up to you, make sure you think about whether you have the
time for it. This is especially important for all those who have a problem saying no
to demands on their time. Are you sure dropping your neighbors kid to hobby class
every week is not going to eat into your cooking time? Do you really have the time
to help a colleague with tomorrows presentation for a client? With jobs that are
allotted to you, when you have no freedom to refuse, make sure you ask for some
time before you commit to a deadline. Think of all the steps that job involves,
calculate the realistic amount of time it will take to complete each step, add it all up
and then add in a few more hours for exigencies. If you manage to finish well within
this time, your boss is going to be pleased; at least you dont run the risk of
displeasing him by failing to meet the deadline.
Decide What Not to Do

Unknown to us, there are several things we do day in and out that actually rob us of
valuable time. Logging into your mail or Facebook page every time you use the
computer may cause you to lose a significant number of minutes every day.
Occasionally chatting with a neighbor or friend with no real agenda can be a good
break; do it too often and it could be one way you feel drained and run out of time.
Observe yourself for a couple of days, jotting down a minute to minute report of
things you do and you will easily see what eats into your time. Put these activities
on your not to do list and add a little more time to each day.
Tackle Unpleasant Stuf
Each one of us has our own Achilles heel the jobs that leave us drained out, or
things we dont like to do, but that have to be done anyway. Putting off such tasks
may give you some momentary relief but ultimately, there is no getting away from
them. And if you have to do them in a hurry or when you are rushed for time
because other important things are waiting, they become doubly unpleasant. Set
aside a particular time to tackle such stuff preferably a time when you are high on
energy and attention so that you get it done quickly. Many people also discover that
it is the first step of starting that is difficult; once you get into the task, it no longer
feels as unpleasant.
Many people think that possessing an electronic calendar or a scheduler is going to
make them manage time better. While there is no denying that these tools can help,
the fact remains that it is the individual who controls the tool. So, getting things
done is more about the approach you use to schedule your time and stick to
deadlines rather than the latest gizmo you have. It is important to not just work
hard; you also need to work smart. Follow the tips outlined here and you will find
you have the time to get more done. Equally important, you will find you still have
the time and energy to spend doing the things that matter most in life to you.
Schedule the Big Rocks, Let the Small Stuf Flow
Ive only come across the big rocks catchphrase in the last couple of years, but it
expresses a timeless trick for great planning: get all the big stuff into place, and let
everything else fit around it. Schedule blocks of time for writing that report or
having that essential meeting that keeps getting postponed. Youll find plenty of
time to take care of your emails in between.
Do The Worst Task First
I came across this tip in my third year of college and how I wished Id heard it a
couple of years previously! It made an instant difference to how my work went.
Instead of dallying through easy tasks in the morning with the spectre of an essay
looming, I got on with the essay first.
Work in Short Bursts

Many people make the mistake of trying to work for long hours at a stretch.
Inevitably, they run out of energy quickly or end up working inefficiently. Its much
easier to concentrate when youre working for a short time period, which is why
students are normally advised to study for 20-45 minute bursts, taking frequent
breaks.
Get Enough Sleep
Many of us try to cram more into our day by cutting out sleeping time: but this can
be hugely counter-productive. Youll never be able to focus well when youre
yawning over your keyboard and if you push yourself too hard for too long, you may
end up getting ill.

How Do You Allocate Your Resources as a Man?

In his book How Will You Measure Your Life?, Harvard business professor Clay
Christensen argues that individuals face the same challenges as businesses when it
comes to wisely allocating resources. For us, our most precious resources are
typically time and money. Each of us has several competing departments in our
life (family, work, school, church, friends, etc.) vying for a slice of this limited pie.
Moreover, Christensen posits that a good way to evaluate whats really important in
our lives is to simply look at how we allocate our resources just like a stock
investor might look at a companys financial data to determine whether its on sure
footing. Follow the time and money trail and youll find what a man truly values,
rather than simply what he says he values.
Imagine that an independent analyst opened the ledger book of your life and looked
over reports detailing the way you spend your time and money. You tell the analyst
that what you value most is your education, fitness, and spending time with your
girlfriend. But what the analyst sees in your ledger book is this:
Time Spent in Given Week:
Surfing the internet: 22 hours
Work: 20 hours
Playing video games: 8 hours
Hanging out with your friends: 7 hours
Spending time with girlfriend: 6 hours
Studying for class: 3 hours
Working out: 3 hours

Reading for pleasure: 0 hours

What conclusion would an analyst draw about your core values or where youre
going with your life from this report? Would it show a man who makes his girlfriend,
fitness, and education his top priorities? Or would it reveal a man who values video
games, Doritos Locos, and Reddit memes the most?
I know it might seem a little clinical to look at every aspect of your life, even your
personal relationships, in a purely data-driven, budgetary light. But I think
examining your own methods of resource allocation is a useful way to measure
whether youre actually walking the walk when it comes to your core values or
accomplishing your goals. It keeps you honest about the man you say you want to
be, and the man you are. And its particularly useful in gauging your progress on
goals that dont offer immediate or concrete feedback, such as improving your
relationship with your spouse or becoming a better leader.
LIFESTYLE CHANGE
Make a plan that will stick. Your plan is a map that will guide you on this journey
of change. You can even think of it as an adventure. When making your plan, be
specific. Want to exercise more? Detail the time of day when you can take walks and
how long youll walk. Write everything down, and ask yourself if youre confident
that these activities and goals are realistic for you. If not, start with smaller steps.
Post your plan where youll most often see it as a reminder.
Start small. After youve identified realistic short-term and long-term goals, break
down your goals into small, manageable steps that are specifi cally defi ned and can
be measured. Is your long-term goal to lose 20 pounds within the next five months?
A good weekly goal would be to lose one pound a week. If you would like to eat
healthier, consider as a goal for the week replacing dessert with a healthier option,
like fruit or yogurt. At the end of the week, youll feel successful knowing you met
your goal.
Change one behavior at a time. Unhealthy behaviors develop over the course of
time, so replacing unhealthy behaviors with healthy ones requires time. Many
people run into problems when they try to change too much too fast. To improve
your success, focus on one goal or change at a time. As new healthy behaviors
become a habit, try to add another goal that works toward the overall change
youre striving for.
Involve a buddy. Whether it be a friend, co-worker or family member, someone
else on your journey will keep you motivated and accountable. Perhaps it can be
someone who will go to the gym with you or someone who is also trying to stop
smoking. Talk about what you are doing. Consider joining a support group. Having
someone with whom to share your struggles and successes makes the work easier
and the mission less intimidating.

Ask for support. Accepting help from those who care about you and will listen
strengthens your resilience and commitment. If you feel overwhelmed or unable to
meet your goals on your own, consider seeking help from a psychologist.
Psychologists are uniquely trained to understand the connection between the mind
and body, as well as the factors that promote behavior change. Asking for help
doesnt mean a lifetime of therapy; even just a few sessions can help you examine
and set attainable goals or address the emotional issues that may be getting in your
way.
Making the changes that you want takes time and commitment, but you
can do it. Just remember that no one is perfect. You will have occasional lapses. Be
kind to yourself. When you eat a brownie or skip the gym, dont give up. Minor
missteps on the road to your goals are normal and okay. Resolve to recover and get
back on track.
Cheerlead Yourself. You are making this change for yourself, right? Thats why
you are the only valid cheerleader as you progress through your stages of change.
Its unlikely youll be successful if you seek validation from anyone other than you.
After all, you made the commitment to yourself.
Its nice to give yourself credit for your hard work. It doesnt need to be big. Simply
give yourself a nod, a wink and a great work mental message. You can do that as
you return from your thirty-minute walk or as you mark another day without drink
on your calendar.
It is not time, however, for the big congratulations youll extend yourself when you
complete your plan. You are only mid-stage, part of the way to your goal. Social
scientist, Peter Gollwitzer, found that too much mid-course adulation may confuse
your brain. Instead of understanding that you are giving a mid-course thumbs up,
your brain may think youve reached your goal. Thats when your brain eases its
effort and you can go astray. So, cheerlead your progress but in a modest manner.
Define Your Goal. If your purpose isnt clear, it isnt going to happen. Your actual
path to your end goal is paved with all the tiny and necessary steps youll take to
get there. Losing track and getting off the path is so easy unless youve marked
your path with very clear markers. Get very specific about each step in your plan.
Make it graphic.
Downright Difficult Days. These days happen. Theres no getting around it, we
run into days that just arent our best. Plan for them. Know what it is youll do
when you encounter the doldrums. Whatever the change you seek, have the words
and the actions ready to counter the reduced willpower brought on by bad days.
What action(s) will keep you from falling off your plan? What words will guide you
through a troublesome day? Be prepared.

Multiple Goals. When we choose to make a change, whether its to exercise more,
to stop drinking or something else, we dont do it in a vacuum. Were making the
change while the rest of our life is happening. That means you are also working on
other goals. What? You want to focus on just this one change? Well, that cant
happen. This is the real world of change life happens while we are changing.
That means that before you embark on any big change, you take a look at all your
other life goals. Your job needs your attention, arent you shooting for a big
promotion? Your kids must have your attention, their well-being is one of your most
committed goals. Your hockey team needs your amazing defense; you are shooting
for the championship, arent you? Oh yes, your choral group has a gig later this
month and you want it to be your best performance.
Social scientist Peter Gollwitzer suggests we blend our many life goals. How you
handle your job, your hockey playing and your chorus work are great examples for
your children; theyll learn from it. Your hockey, your work, your children and your
chorus group are so demanding that youll never have time to remember that you
arent smoking. The facets of our lives are intertwined. As you plan for change,
plan it in a way that each part of your life supports the others.
Reframe. The tough thing about change is that you have developed many habits
in support of the thing you want to change. Smoking is not just a habit, you also
have smoking routines and rituals that stimulate your desire for a cigarette. It
becomes automatic and habitual. You even identify as a smoker. What can you do
in mounting a change effort so that your brain accepts the new version of you.
Our brain is wired to find balance, especially when confronted by opposites. If we
lived our life as a sporting spectator, how do we suddenly introduce an active sport
into our routine? How do we explain it to our brain? Its a matter of degree, as we
reframe an important descriptor of our very being.
The sporting spectator/couch potato will need to explain to themselves exactly why
they are training for a three mile walk. When your mind is trying to balance couch
potato with vigorous walking, the brain seeks to correct the incongruity.
Its your story. Your entire life is your story. If youve created your persona
around your couch potato-ness, then add to your story as the fastest couch potato
jogger on the block. Shape your story to make it fit the life you choose.
Rewards. As noted under cheerleading above, verbal congratulations are good.
However, dont go overboard lest your brain think you are finished, youve
accomplished your goal. That is especially true of tangible rewards. Delaying
tangible rewards until youve reached your goal will help you keep your high energy
and focus.

Self Dialog. We all thrive with a good coach. For making a personal change, be
your own coach. Congratulate yourself on your successes. Monitor the
environment for unexpected barriers. Reframe as needed. Alter your environment
to avoid risk.
Setting Your Stage. The world around you isnt going to change just because
youve decided to. There will always be couch potatoes, smokers and drinkers.
Whether you choose to join them or not is just that, your choice.
The only person doing the changing is you and that means youll need to prepare
your surroundings so your change works best for you. That may mean removing
the prompts. That may mean storing the martini pitcher, giving extra bottles of
alcohol away, getting rid of chips and dips and bags of candy and generally
readying your home and workplace.
At the same time, develop lists of replacement items. If you love the crunch of
chips, load up on a crunch food that fits with your new diet. Do whatever you need
to do to make yourself a success.
Use Your Strengths. Use the character strengths you uncovered in Your Personal
Strengths to ease your path to change.

CRITICAL THINKING
Critical Thinking Exercise 1: Tour Guide for an Alien
Pretend that you have been assigned the task of conducting a tour for aliens who
are visiting earth and observing human life. You're riding along in a blimp, and you
float over a professional baseball stadium. One of your aliens looks down and
becomes very confused, so you tell him that there is a game going on.
Try to answer the following questions for him.
What is a game?
Why are there no female players?

Why do people get so passionate watching other people play games?

What is a team?
Why can't the people in the seats just go down on the field and join in?
If you try to answer these questions fully, it will quickly become apparent that we
carry around certain assumptions and values. We support a certain team, for
instance, because it makes us feel like we're a part of a community. This sense of
community is a value that matters to some people more than others.
Furthermore, when trying to explain team sports to an alien, you have to explain the
value we put on winning and losing.
When you think like an alien tour guide, you are forced to take a deeper look at the
things we do and things we value. They don't always sound so logical and true from
the outside looking in!

Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

An outstanding critical thinker has a set of characteristic traits that are essential for
effective and efficient thought. These traits help them to think more proficiently
about the problems they are confronted with. As a result they are able to gather
unexpected insights and understandings that help improve their decision making
abilities.
Open Minded
An outstanding critical thinker is always open minded to all possibilities,
interpretations and perspectives. They understand that unless they keep an open
mind at all times, that they may essentially miss important cues and pieces of
information that will provide them with new insights and understandings to
successfully overcome the problems confronting their reality.
Has Flexibility of Thought
An outstanding critical thinker understands that a flexible and fluid thought process
is required at all times in order to successfully gain new insights and perspectives
about events and circumstances .
They are fully aware that there are always a variety of ways to look at a situation,
and that there are an endless amount of possibilities and perspectives available to
them at any one moment in time. They therefore maintain their flexible nature and
change course with their thinking, decision making and actions whenever an
opportunity presents itself to move them forward in a more proficient way.

The Vocabulary of a Critical Thinker

An outstanding critical thinkers vocabulary is focused on breaking down the
problems and circumstances from a multitude of angles and perspectives. Their
words help bring clarity and understanding to situations that at first may seem
foggy and misdirected.
The following is a list of words that outstanding critical thinkers use to formulate
questions to the problems confronting their reality:
Meaning, Reasons, Example, Prejudice, Evidence, Reliability, Viewpoint, Credibility,
Explanation, Consequences, Assumptions, and Relevance.
Each of these words can be formulated into insightful and thought-provoking
questions that will help you to break down any problem or situation from a critical
perspective.
The following is a list of methods that critical thinkers use to analyze the
problems they are confronted with. Each step of this analysis process
allows them to dig ever deeper into the underlying factors of a problem,
and thusly enables them to gain a wider perspective of the events and
circumstances.
Facts vs. Opinion Analysis
An outstanding critical thinker understands and immediately picks up on the
differences between facts and opinions.
They realize that opinions are based on feelings, suggestions and future predictions.
On the other hand, facts are built upon evidence, past events and upon variables
that can easily be proven and measured.
They fully realize that the best way to work through their problems is to base their
understanding upon concrete facts that will help them reach effective solutions to
their circumstances.
Fact based words: Has Was Is
Opinion based words: Could Should Might Possibly Potentially
Definitive vs. Indefinitive Analysis
An outstanding critical thinker takes time to analyze each and every circumstance
from a definitive and indefinite perspective.
They understand that they must be very careful not to jump to any rushed
conclusions or make unnecessary assumptions about the events and circumstances
they are experiencing. Yet at the same time, they fully realize the importance of

bringing forth all the possible assumptions that could be made when dealing with
this particular problem. As a result, this conscious assumption awareness leads
them to the answers they are searching for.
Here are some questions that will help you to break through the assumptions that
may be hindering your understanding of your problems:
What can I directly observe?
What could potentially be misinterpreted here?
What is another explanation for this?
Reliable vs. Unreliable Analysis
An outstanding critical thinker takes time to judge whether or not a certain
perspective or piece of information is reliable or unreliable. They fully understand
that if they are unable to identify the reliability of something, that this could throw
them off the beaten track, thereby hindering their ability to overcome their
problems.

Here are some questions that will help you break down the reliability of the
perspectives you have taken:
Can this perspective be justified?
Where is the evidence for this?
What is it about this that doesnt quite compute?
Relevant vs. Irrelevant Analysis
An outstanding critical thinker does not waste their time on irrelevant perspectives
or pieces of information. They fully know that focusing on irrelevant information and
perspectives will lead them to a dead-end that could essentially exacerbate their
problems even further. As a result they zero-in on the most relevant information,
perspectives and solutions that will help them to successfully overcome the
obstacles and challenges standing in their way.
Here are some questions that will help you to identify the relevance and irrelevance
of the perspectives you have taken:
Is this really relevant to the outcome I seek to attain?
Is this really relevant to the solutions I hope to realize?
What is most relevant to my outcome, and what should I focus my attention on?

What is not relevant to my outcome at all?

Becoming an accomplished critical thinker can be considered a five-step

process:
Step 1:

Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

Step 2:

Recognize and Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

Step 3:

Identify and Characterize Arguments

Step 4:

Evaluate Information Sources

Step 5:

Evaluate Arguments

Each of these steps is described separately below.

Step 1: Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

The first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker is developing the proper
attitude. Such an attitude embodies the following characteristics:
Open-mindedness
Healthy skepticism
Intellectual humility
Free thinking
High motivation
The first two characteristics may appear contradictory, but they are not. The critical
thinker must be willing to investigate viewpoints different from his or her own, but
at the same time recognize when to doubt claims that do not merit such
investigation. A critical thinker must be neither dogmatic nor gullible. Being both
open-minded and skeptical means seeking out the facts, information sources, and
reasoning to support issues we intend to judge; examining issues from as many
sides as possible; rationally looking for the good and bad points of the various sides
examined; accepting the fact that we may be in error ourselves; and maintaining
the goal of getting at the truth (or as close to the truth as possible), rather than
trying to please others or find fault with their views. Too much skepticism will lead
one to doubt everything and commit oneself to nothing, while too little will lead one
to gullibility and credulousness.

Having intellectual humility means adhering tentatively to recently acquired

opinions; being prepared to examine new evidence and arguments even if such
examination leads one to discover flaws in ones own cherished beliefs; to stop
thinking that complex issues can be reduced to matters of right & wrong or black
& white, and to begin thinking in terms of degrees of certainty or shades of grey.
Sometimes I dont know can be the wisest position to take on an issue. As
Socrates noted: Arrogance does not befit the critical thinker.
A critical thinker must also have an independent mind, i.e., be a free thinker. To
think freely, one must restrain ones desire to believe because of social pressures to
conform. This can be quite difficult or even impossible for some. One must be
willing to ask if conformity is motivating ones belief or opinion, and if so, have the
strength and courage to at least temporarily abandon ones position until he or she
can complete a more objective and thorough evaluation.
Finally, a critical thinker must have a natural curiosity to further ones
understanding and be highly motivated to put in the necessary work sufficient to
evaluate the multiple sides of issues. The only way one can overcome the lack of
essential knowledge on a subject is to do the necessary studying to reach a
sufficient level of understanding before making judgments. This may require the
critical thinker to ask many questions, which can be unsettling to those asked to
respond. A critical thinker cannot be lazy.
Step 2: Recognize & Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances
Each day of our lives we become exposed to things that hinder our ability to think
clearly, accurately, and fairly. Some of these hindrances result from unintentional
and natural human limitations, while others are clearly calculated and manipulative.
Some are obvious, but most are subtle or insidious. Armed with the proper attitude
(from Step 1), a critical thinker must next understand how to recognize and avoid
(or mitigate) the gauntlet of deception that characterizes everyday life. These
hindrances can be divided into four categories, presented in tables at the end of this
paper:

Table 1: Basic Human Limitations

Table 2: Use of Language
Table 3: Faulty Logic or Perception
Table 4: Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls
Each table provides: a) a listing of hindrances applicable to that category; b) a
concise definition of each hindrance; c) illustrative examples; and d) tips to avoid or
overcome such hindrances.

Basic Human Limitations (Table 1) applies to everyone, including the most proficient
critical thinkers. These limitations remind us that we are not perfect and that our
understanding of facts, perceptions, memories, built-in biases, etc., preclude us
from ever seeing or understanding the world with total objectivity and clarity. The
best we can do is to acquire a sufficient or adequate understanding depending on
the issue at hand.
The Use of Language (Table 2) is highly relevant to critical thinking. The choice of
words themselves can conceal the truth, mislead, confuse, or deceive us. From ads
which guarantee easy weight loss to politicians assuring prosperity for everyone, a
critical thinker must learn to recognize when words are not intended to
communicate ideas or feelings, but rather to control thought and behavior.
Misconceptions due to Faulty Logic or Perception (Table 3) or Psychological and
Sociological Pitfalls (Table 4) can also lead one to erroneous conclusions. A critical
thinker must understand how numbers can be used to mislead; perceptions can be
misinterpreted due to psychological and sociological influences; and reasoning can
be twisted to gain influence and power.
Step 3: Identify & Characterize Arguments
At the heart of critical thinking is the ability to recognize, construct, and evaluate
arguments. The word argument may be misleading to some. It does not mean to
quarrel, complain, or disagree, even though the word is often used informally in that
context. In the context of critical thinking, an argument means the presentation of
a reason(s) to support a conclusion(s), or:
Argument = Reason + Conclusion
There must be one or more reason statements and one or more conclusion
statements in every argument. Depending on usage and context, reasons are
synonymous with: premises, evidence, data, propositions, proofs, and verification.
Again, depending on usage and context, conclusions are synonymous with: claims,
actions, verdicts, propositions, and opinions.
A critical thinker must learn to pick out arguments from verbal or written
communication. Sometimes arguments will have indicators such as since,
because, for, for the reason that, and as indicated by to separate the
conclusion statement(s) from the reason statement(s) that follows (see above
example). At other times, arguments will have indicators such as therefore, thus,
so, hence, and it follows that to separate the reason statement(s) from the
conclusion statement(s) that follows. In some cases there will be no indicator words
at all; the context alone will indicate if a statement is intended as a reason, a
conclusion, or neither.

Formal logic divides arguments into inductive and deductive arguments. While
critical thinking is an informal application of logic, the critical thinker should at least
understand the fundamental differences between the two forms. If one thing
follows necessarily from another, this implies a deductive argument. In other words,
a deductive argument exists when B may be logically and necessarily inferred from
A. For example, if one makes the statement All bachelors are unmarried (A)
and John is a bachelor (B), then one can deductively reach the conclusion that
John must be unmarried.
However, most arguments that one encounters in daily life are inductive. Unlike
deductive arguments, inductive arguments are not black and white, because they
do not prove their conclusions with necessity. Instead, they are based on
reasonable grounds for their conclusion. A critical thinker should understand that
no matter how strong the evidence in support of an inductive argument, it will never
prove its conclusion by following with necessity or with absolute certainty. Instead,
a deductive argument provides only proof to a degree of probability or certainty.
Arguments presented by courtroom attorneys are good examples of inductive
arguments, whereupon a defendant must be found guilty beyond a reasonable
doubt (equivalent to reasonable grounds). It is always possible that an inductive
argument that has sound reasons will have an erroneous conclusion. For example,
even though a jury finds a defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt, there is
always a possibility (even if remote) that the defendant had not committed the
crime. The critical thinker should assess the cogency of inductive arguments. An
argument is cogent if, when the premises are all true then the conclusion is
probably true. That is, one should assess an inductive argument in terms of degrees
of probability rather than absolute right & wrong or black &white. This applies
even if a yes/no or either/or decision must be made or judgment must be
rendered on the argument.
Step 4: Evaluate Information Sources
Most arguments reference facts to support conclusions. But an argument is only as
strong as its weakest link. If the facts supporting an argument are erroneous, so will
be the argument. A critical thinker must have a sound approach for evaluating the
validity of facts. Aside from ones personal experiences, facts are usually acquired
from information sources such as eyewitness testimony or people claiming to be
experts. These sources are typically cited in the media or published in reference
books.
In a society where entertainment and amusement have become lifelong goals, it is
often difficult to find unbiased and objective information on a subject. For example,
the mass media has found what if journalism sells very well: What if the President
did some horrible thing; What if the Secretary was motivated by some criminal
behavior, etc. It is common to see reputable journalists reporting on inflammatory

speculation as if it was an important news event. How can we expect to cut through
the advertising, hype, spin, innuendos, speculation, distortions, and misinformation
overloads on TV, radio, newspapers, magazines and the internet, in order to
ascertain what is factually correct? Even some reputable publishers seem to have
more interested in selling books or periodicals than confirming the truth of what
they publish. So how are we to know which information sources to trust?
While there is no simple answer, a critical thinker should look for information
sources which are credible, unbiased, and accurate. This will depend on such things
as the sources qualifications, integrity and reputation. In order to assess these
conditions, the critical thinker must seek answers to the following types of
questions:
Does the information source have the necessary qualifications or level of
understanding to make the claim (conclusion)?
Does the source have a reputation for accuracy?
Does the source have a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased?
Are there any reasons for questioning the honesty or integrity of the source?
If any of the answers are no to the first two questions or yes to the last two, the
critical thinker should be hesitant about accepting arguments which rely on such
sources for factual information. This may require additional investigation to seek
out more reliable information sources.
Information sources often cite survey numbers and statistics, which are then used to
support arguments. It is extremely easy to fool people with numbers. Since the
correct application of numbers to support arguments is beyond the scope of this
paper, it is important that a critical thinker become educated in the fundamental
principles of probability and statistics before believing statistical information
supporting an argument. One does not need to be a math major to understand
these principles. Some excellent books exist for the layman, such as How to Lie
With Statistics by Darrell Huff, and Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and Its
Consequences by John Allen Paulos. There are a few right ways and many wrong
ways to sample populations, perform calculations, and report the results. If a
source is biased because of self-interest in the outcome, it more often than not used
one of the wrong ways. Perhaps the most important question the critical thinker
should ask of any statistical result is: Were the samples taken representative of (a
good cross section of) the entire target population? Also see the Clustering Illusion
and Law of Truly Large Numbers in Table 3.

Step 5: Evaluate Arguments

The last step to critical thinking, evaluating arguments, is itself a three-step process
to assess whether: 1) assumptions are warranted; 2) reasoning is relevant and
sufficient, and 3) relevant information has been omitted. Each step is described
below.
Assumptions. Assumptions are essentially reasons implied in an argument that are
taken for granted to be true. Using our earlier argument example, Dont trust John
because hes a politician, the implied assumption is that politicians cannot be
trusted. The first step to evaluating arguments is to determine if there are any
assumptions, and whether such assumptions are warranted or unwarranted. A
warranted assumption is one that is either:
1)

Known to be true; or

2)

Is reasonable to accept without requiring another argument to support it.

An assumption is unwarranted if it fails to meet either of the two above criteria.

Regarding the first criterion, it may be necessary for the critical thinker to perform
independent research to verify what is known to be true. If the critical thinker,
despite such research, is unable to make a determination, he or she should not
arbitrarily assume that the assumption is unwarranted. Regarding the second
criterion, a critical thinker normally evaluates the reasonableness of assumptions in
relation to three factors: a) ones own knowledge and experience; b) the
information source for the assumption; and c) the kind of claim being made.
If an argument has an unwarranted assumption, and if this assumption is needed to
validate the arguments conclusion, the critical thinker has good cause to question
the validity of the entire argument. Some of the hindrances listed in the tables,
especially Tables 3 and 4, provide the basis for many unwarranted assumptions.
Reasoning. The second step to evaluating arguments is to assess the relevance and
sufficiency of the reasoning (or evidence) in support of the arguments conclusion.
It is helpful to think of relevance as the quality of the reasoning, and sufficiency
as the quantity of the reasoning. Good arguments should have both quality (be
relevant) and quantity (be sufficient).
It is generally easier (although not always) to pick out reasoning that is relevant
(i.e., on the subject or logically related) than it is to determine if the reasoning is
sufficient (i.e., enough to validate the argument). So how can one evaluate the
sufficiency of reasoning (evidence) to support a conclusion? The term reasonable
doubt, as used in a court of law, is considered a good guideline. But how does one
go about determining reasonable doubt? Unfortunately, there is no easy answer,
but here are some criteria. First, it is important to maintain the attitude of a critical
thinker (from Step 1) and be aware of critical thinking hindrances (from Step 2).
Second, ask yourself the purpose or consequences of the argument being made.

This will sometimes determine how much (sufficiency) evidence is required. Third,
become aware of contemporary standards of evidence for the subject. For example,
you could not judge the sufficiency of evidence for a scientific claim unless you were
knowledgeable of the methods and standards for testing similar scientific claims.
Finally, the sufficiency of evidence should be in proportion to the strength to which
the conclusion is being asserted. Thus, evidence that is not sufficient to support a
strong conclusion (Example: John definitely bought the painting) may be sufficient
to support a weaker conclusion (Example: John may have bought the painting). In
these examples, if the evidence was limited to a photograph of John at an art store
on the same day the painting was purchased, this evidence would not be sufficient
to prove the stronger conclusion, but it may be sufficient to prove the weaker
conclusion.
When evaluating multiple pieces of evidence, both pro and con, how does one
weigh the evidence to determine if, overall, the argument is cogent? Again, there is
no hard and fast rule. All else being equal, the more reliable the source (from Step
4), the more weight should be given to the evidence. Additionally, more weight
should generally be given to superior evidence in terms of its relevance and
sufficiency to validate the argument, all else being equal.
Many of the hindrances listed in Tables 3 and 4 provide examples of irrelevant or
insufficient reasoning.
Omissions. A cogent argument is one that is complete, in that it presents all
relevant reasoning (evidence), not just evidence that supports the argument.
Arguments that omit relevant evidence can appear to be stronger than they really
are. Thus, the final step to evaluating arguments is attempting to determine if
important evidence has been omitted or suppressed. Sometimes this happens
unintentionally by carelessness or ignorance, but too often it is an intentional act.
Since it is usually unproductive to confront arguers and ask them to disclose their
omissions, the critical thinkers best course of action is usually to seek opposing
arguments on the subject, which could hopefully reveal such omissions. It is a rare
arguer who actively seeks out opposing views and treats them seriously, yet that is
precisely what a critical thinker must do when developing his or her own arguments.
Many of the hindrances listed in Tables 1 through 4 allow one to become easily
fooled by not taking into consideration possible omissions that could invalidate an
arguments conclusion.