Professional Documents
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Toanroirac (Phamthelong)
Toanroirac (Phamthelong)
Ton ri rc
H Ni 2003
Li ni u
Ton ri rc l mt trong nhng kin thc c s -c ging dy tt c cc khoa
Cng ngh Thng tin hin nay. Tuy nhin, tu theo yu cu kin thc v cu trc ca
ch-ng trnh o to m kt cu mn hc mi ni t nhiu c th khc bit. Nhm p ng
nhng yu cu a dng v kin thc, trong cun sch ny cc tc gi c gng gii thiu
mt cch c ng hu ht nhng ni dung c bn ca Ton hc ri rc, bao gm cc kin
thc c s v logic, tp hp v i s quan h (Ch-ng I); mt s bi ton trong l
thuyt t hp (Ch-ng II); th v cc bi ton trn th (Ch-ng III); i s Boole v
ng dng trong phn tch mch in t (Ch-ng IV); ngn ng hnh thc v tmat (Ch-ng
V). Trong cch trnh by cun sch, cc tc gi quan tm nhiu hn n k thut gii
quyt vn , khng qu cu n vo nhng i hi cht ch v mt ton hc theo kiu
nh l-chng minh, khng t khi nim v kt qu ch yu -c trnh by thng qua cc
v d v bi tp.
Ngoi kh nng t- duy lgic nht nh, gio trnh khng i hi t pha bn c mt
s chun b c bit no v ton hc ni chung, v vy c th b tr ging dy theo cun
sch ny ngay t hc k 1 nm th nht cc tr-ng i hc v cao ng. Nu c mt s
hiu bit c bn v lgic v tp hp (trong phm vi cc mc 1-3 ca ch-ng I), bn c
c th tm hiu bt k ch-ng sau no m khng cn tun th trnh t cc ch-ng nu
trong cun sch. Trong s cc ti liu tham kho -c nu cui sch, cc tc gi mun
bn c c bit l-u ti liu Ton ri rc ng dng trong Tin hc ca Kenneth H. Rosen.
S phong ph v a dng ca cc v d v bi tp trong cun sch s ht sc hu ch
cho bn c. Nhng ai quan tm n vic ch-ng trnh ho mt s thut ton nu trong
cun sch ny c th tham kho thm ti liu Ton ri rc ca Nguyn c Ngha v
Nguyn T Thnh.
Phn cng cng vic gia cc tc gi nh- sau:
Cc tc gi
Ch-ng 1
Mc lc
1.1 Mnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Mnh c iu kin v s t-ng -ng logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
7
9
9
10
3.1 Hm mnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3. L-ng t v v t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 V t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Ph nh ca v t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Quan h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
14
15
16
16
19
20
22
26
26
28
29
31
39
1. Cc nguyn l m c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
40
2.1. Chnh hp lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Chnh hp khng lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
42
42
42
2.3. Hon v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.5. T hp lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.4. T hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Hon v ca tp hp c cc phn t ging nhau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Sinh cc cu hnh t hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Nguyn l Dirichlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Nguyn l Dirichlet tng qut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Mt vi ng dng th v ca nguyn l Dirichlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. H thc truy hi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Nguyn l b tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. Nguyn l b tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ch-ng 3
44
47
48
49
49
50
51
52
56
56
57
58
60
60
65
70
75
75
77
79
85
th v ng dng
1. Cc khi nim c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Khi nim v thut ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
90
2. Biu din th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................
88
93
93
94
...........................................
95
97
98
2.3. S ng cu ca cc th.
97
4. th Euler v th Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
103
5.1. th c trng s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
6. th phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. T mu th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1. M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
106
108
110
110
112
113
115
115
119
8.1. M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
8. Cy v ng dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ch-ng 4
i s Boole v mch t hp
120
124
130
136
140
143
143
145
151
163
163
165
3. Hm Boole v vn t hp mch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. i s Boole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Hm Boole v vn tng hp mch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Mt vi ng dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
163
167
167
168
170
170
171
174
4.1 B cng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
174
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
Ch-ng 5
Automat, vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc
176
185
185
186
2. Automat hu hn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Vn phm v ngn ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Khi nim v nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. Hm Turing thc hin -c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4. phc tp ca thut ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bi tp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
188
188
189
189
191
192
197
197
199
201
203
205
207
207
210
212
218
220
221
221
222
224
226
228
234
Ch-ng I.
Nhng khi nim c bn v logic, tp hp v suy lun ton hc
Trong ch-ng ny chng ta nghin cu mt s vn mang tnh cht c s khng ch ca ton
hc ri rc ni ring, m ca c ton hc ni chung. l nhng khi nim c bn v logic
(khi nim mnh , cc php ton trn cc mnh ), tp hp (khi nim v tp hp v cc php
ton trn tp hp) v suy lun ton hc (cc lp lun ton hc c s v cc php chng minh
th-ng dng trong ton hc). Khi nim quan h nh- l mt tp con ca tp tch Decac cng s
-c cp n trong ch-ng.
1. Mnh , mnh c iu kin v s t-ng -ng logic
1.1 Mnh
Logic ton l mn hc nghin cu cc quy lut gia nguyn nhn v h qu, gia gi
thit v kt lun, t rt ra -c nhng quy tc quan trng nht nhn -c nhng nguyn l
ng n -c p dng cho hu ht cc ngnh khoa hc t nhin cng nh- x hi. Mt trong
nhng khi nim quan trng nht ca logic ton l logic mnh , logic ton -c t nn
mng trn i s mnh .
Khi ta ni Hu l mt thnh ph ca Vit Nam th chng ta -a mt khng nh m mi
ng-i u thy ng. Nh-ng khi ta ni 1 2 th ng-i ta li thy ngay ta ni sai.
nh ngha 1.1.1. Mnh l mt khng nh m ta c th bit -c n ng hoc sai. Khng
c mnh va ng va sai. Cc mnh -c k hiu bng cc ch Latinh in A, B, C... Khi
mnh ng th ta ni mnh nhn gi tr ng v vit A : T hay A T , nu mnh B sai
th ta ni B nhn gi tr sai v vit B : F hay B F .
V d 1.1.1. Tt c cc khng nh sau u l cc mnh
1. H Ni l Th ca Vit Nam
2. 2>3
3. 1+3=4
Cc mnh 1, 3 l cc mnh ng cn mnh 2 l mnh sai.
1.2 Cc php ton trn mnh
T cc mnh ban u A, B, C... ng-i ta c th xy dng cc mnh mi vi s
gip ca cc php ton logic tuyn, hi v ph nh sau y.
A B
A B
sau
A B
C A, C A u l cc mnh ng.
nh ngha 1.2.3. Gi s A l mt mnh , ph nh ca A, k hiu A , l mt mnh nhn
gi tr ng khi A sai v nhn gi tr sai khi A ng.
A B
A B
A B
A B
A B A B
Nhn trong bng ny ta thy mnh trn lun nhn gi tr ng vi mi gi tr khc nhau ca
cc mnh s cp A, B cho nn n chnh l mt nh l.
Ghi ch 1.3.1. n gin hn trong cch vit cc cng thc ng-i ta quy -c trt t cc php
ton nh- sau: cc php ton trong ngoc thc hin tr-c, cng thc no c ph nh phi thc
hin n tr-c sau theo th t -u tin nu khng c du ngoc th php hi thc hin tr-c
php tuyn thc hin sau, cui cng mi n cc php ton suy din v t-ng -ng. V d cng
thc
Sau y chng ta dn ra mt s tnh cht quan trng nht ca logic mnh . Cc tnh cht
u c th chng minh -c bng ph-ng php lp bng gi tr chn l t-ng t nh- xt
trong v d 1.3.3.
nh l 1.3.1. Cho A, B, C l cc mnh bt k. Khi ta c:
a) Lut giao hon A B B A ; A B B A
b) Lut kt hp
c) Lut phn phi
A B C A B C ; A B C A B C
A B C A B A C ; A B C A B A C
d) Lut lu ng
e) Lut hp th
A A A; A A A
A A B A ; A A B A
f) Cc lut De Morgan A B A B ; A B A B
g) Lut hai ln ph nh A A
h) Lut chng minh phn chng th nht A B B A
i) Lut chng minh phn chng th hai A B A B
2. Tp hp v cc php ton trn tp hp
2.1 Tp hp, tp con v tch Decac
Tp hp l mt khi nim ton hc khng nh ngha -c. Ng-i ta ch c th m t
tp hp thng qua cc phn t ca n. Tp hp th-ng -c k hiu bng cc ch Latin hoa nhA, B, C... , cn cc phn t ca tp hp -c k hiu bng cc ch Latin th-ng a, b, c,...
A a, b
trong v d ny
... , v
p ( A) l tp tt c cc tp con ca A.
V d 2.1.3. Nu A 1,2,3 th p ( A) s gm cc phn t l cc tp con ca A sau:
,a ,b ,c ,a, b ,b, c ,a, c ,a, b, c cho nn p A 8 .
K hiu
gi tp tt c cc tp con ca A l tp lu tha ca A.
2.1.4.
A 1, 2,3 , B a, b
1, a , 1, b , 2, a , 2, b , 3, a , 3, b .
A A
th
A B
gm
phn
gm c 9 phn t l 1,1 , 1,2 , 1,3 , 2,1 , 2,2 , 2,3 , 3,1 , 3,2 , 3,3 . D dng
v ch khi ai ai vi mi i 1, 2,..., n .
Cng nh- trn, c th d
A1 A2 ... An A1 A2 ... An .
dng
thy
rng,
nu
cc
tp
Ai
hu
hn
khi
th
A B x x A x B hay x A B x A x B
V d 2.2.1. Nu A a, b, c, d l tp cc hc sinh trong mt t tp bng chuyn cn
Ng-i ta th-ng minh ho cc php ton trn tp hp bng gin Venn: Cc tp A,B,... u l
tp con ca mt tp U gi l tp v tr U. Tp v tr -c biu din l mt hnh ch nht, cc
tp A,B,... l cc hnh trn trong U. Gin Venn ca tp A B c dng sau
A B
nh ngha 2.2.2. Gi s A, B l hai tp hp. Giao ca A, B, k hiu A B , l tp gm cc phn
t va l ca A, va l ca B. Nh- vy
A B x x A x B hay x A B x A x B
V d 2.2.2. Cng ly v d A,B t v d 2.2.1 ta c
t tp c hai mn bng chuyn v bi.
Ta c gin Venn ca tp
A B a , c
A B nh- sau:
AB
l tp cc hc sinh trong
A\ B
l mt tp hp
A \ B x x A x B hay x A \ B x A x B
Ta c gin Venn ca
A\ B
l:
A\ B
Khi B A th A \ B th-ng -c vit
tp v tr, ta c nh ngha sau:
nh ngha 2.2.4.
Ta c gin Venn ca
A
V d 2.2.3. Ly cc tp A, B t v d 2.2.1 th
A \ B b, d
cn
B \ A e, f .
Sau y chng ta nu ra mt s tnh cht ca cc php ton trn tp hp m chng minh chng
-c -a v cc lut t-ng ng ca logic mnh .
nh l 2.2.1. Gi s U l tp v tr, A, B, C l cc tp con ca U.
A B C A B C ;
a) Lut kt hp
A B C A B C
b) Lut giao hon
A B B A; A B B A
A B C A B AC ;
A B C A B A C
A A; A U A
d)
Lut ng nht
e)
Lut nut
A U U; A
f)
Lut lm y
A AU; A A
g)
Lut lu ng
A A A; A A A
h)
Lut hp th
A A B A ; A A B A
i)
Lut b
A A
j)
Lut 0, 1
U; U
k)
Lut De Morgan
A B A B; A B A B
Chng minh. Nh- ta ni trn tt c cc lut trong nh l 2.2.1 u -c chng minh bng
ph-ng php -a v cc lut t-ng ng ca logic mnh . V d ta chng minh lut hp th
A A B A
nh- sau.
x A A B x A x A B
x A x A x B
Theo lut hp th th hai trong logic mnh , iu sau cng t-ng -ng vi
Nh- vy ta chng minh -c
ny c ngha l
x A.
A A B A .
P a T .
0 K n n K : an a .
Hm mnh n K : an a
T nh l 1.3.1 ta c h qu sau:
H qu 3.3.1. Cc cng thc sau l cc nh l
a) x P x Q x x P x Q x
b) x P x Q x x P x Q x
Quan h gia hai tp theo ngn ngha trc gic -c hiu hiu l mi quan h gia mt s phn
x X y Y x, y R -c gi l tp xc nh ca quan h R. Cn tp
y Y x X x, y R -c gi l tp gi tr ca quan h R.
Tp
xc nh
xRy
Nu quan h hai ngi biu din d-i dng mt bng gm 2 ct th ct th nht gm cc phn t
ca min xc nh, ct th hai - min gi tr.
V d 4.1.1. Gi s X 2,3, 4,5 , Y 1,3, 4,5, 6, 7,9 . Ta xc nh quan h hai ngi
x, y R x y :
R 2,4, 2,6, 3,3, 3,6 , 3,9, 4,4, 5,5. Hay biu din d-i dng bng ta c
A
Trong cc phn t trn cng mt hng nm trong quan h R. Nhn vo bng ny cc phn t
nm trn ct th nht 2,3,4,5l tp xc nh ca quan h R cn cc phn t trn ct th hai
3,4,6,5,9 l tp gi tr ca R.
a, b R nu a b .
R 2, 2 , 2,3 , 2, 4 , 2,5 , 3,3 , 3, 4 , 3,5 , 4, 4 , 4,5 , 5,5 .
X 2,3,4,5 .
4.1.2.
Ta
ni
x X
Ta
x, x R vi mi
X 2,3,4,5 . Ta ni a, b R
R 2, 2 , 2, 4 , 3,3 , 4, 4 , 5,5
v ch khi
a b . R rng l
V d 4.1.4. Gi s X R tp cc s thc.
Ta ni
x, y R
nu
y x2 .
Tp R chnh l th ca parabol
v d nh-
3,3 R l do x 2 32 x 3 .
x, y R v y, z R suy ra x, z R .
x, y, z X
Cc quan h trong cc v d 4.1.2, 4.1.3 u c tnh bc cu, trong khi quan h trong v d
4.1.4 th khng c tnh bc cu v
2, 4 R, 4,16 R
nh-ng
2,16 R v 22 16 .
x, y R suy ra y, x R .
x, y X
Quan h trong cc v d 4.1.2, 4.1.3 u khng phi l cc quan h c tnh i xng v trong v
d 4.1.2 ta c
nh-ng
4,2 R .
x, y X t x, y R v y, x R
x, y R v x y th y, x R .
x, y R
x, y R
y, x R
V d v quan h chia ht trn tp s t nhin l quan h th t tng phn v khng phi hai s t
nhin no cng so snh -c vi nhau: 2 khng phi l -c ca 3 v 3 cng khng l -c ca 2.
Tp X vi quan h th t tng phn R m vi hai phn t bt k x, y X th hoc xRy hoc
yRx
yR 1 x xRy
R 1
R 1 l quan
y, x x, y R
j l
MR
y1 , y2 ,..., yn
x1 , x2 ,..., xn
trn mt hng. Gi s
trn mt ct, cn cc
X n, Y m.
mij 1 nu xi , y j R , mij 0
V d 4.2.1. Gi s
nu
x , y R .
i
X 2,3,4 , Y 5,6,7,8 ,
x, y R x y s c ma trn M R
nh- sau
quan h
R X Y
xc nh
5 6 7 8
2 0 1 0 1
3 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 0 1
hay khi bit trt t sp xp cc phn t ca tp X (theo ct) tp Y theo hng (v d y theo
th t tng dn) th ng-i ta ch vit
0 1 0 1
M R 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
mij 1 th ta t xi , y j R , nu mij 0
th
x , y R . y cng nhi
X n
th
MR
l ma trn vung cp n.
MR
R X X
l ma trn i
mij 1 m ji 0
mij 0 m ji 1 m ji 0
Quan h R trong tp X c tnh phn x khi v ch khi tt c cc phn t trn -ng cho
mij 1.
t1 , t 2 , t3 , 3 qu cu xanh:
nh nh- sau a, b X ,
x1 , x2 , x3 v 4 qu cu d1 , d 2 , d 3 . Quan h R -c xc
a, b R khi v ch khi a, b cng mu. D dng nhn thy R l mt quan h t-ng -ng:
a, a R , qu cu ch c mt mu
a, b R th b, a R : qu cu a cng mu vi b th b cng mu
vi a.
cng mu.
Gi R l quan h trong tp X m
a, b R
l a
l chiu di ca xu
khi v ch khi
a X
(s cc
l a l b . Nh- trn, y
X
iI
X i iI , X i X , X i
l mt phn hoch ca X nu
Xi X j
x, y X i
X i iI
x, y R
khi v ch khi tn ti
iI
R X X
x X
th
x, x R v
X X i , do tn ti i I
iI
n 0, n N * , m Z
n
V d 4.3.3. Xt tp
r1
thuc cng mt lp nu
m1
n1
r2
m2
n2
m1n2 m2n1
cc s hu t. Hai s hu t
v vit
r1 r2 : nh- vy mi lp
ca
gm tt c cc s hu t bng nhau. Ta c th chng minh -c cc lp ny to thnh
cc lp ca mt phn hoch s hu t.
r Q
v mi
thuc vo 1 lp no . Hai
r1 A c r1 r2 B nn r1 B
r3 r2 A cho nn B A vy l A B .
th ly
A B.
tc l
Ng-c li ly
r2
r3 B
m2
n2
th
R X X
x x X l mt phn hoch ca X.
x X
x x X
x a X
cho ta mi
x x
b c chung phn t
xRa .
Khi d h S
x X th vi mi y a ta
yRb c ngha l y b . Nh- vy a b .
vy hai lp c chung mt phn t th chng phi trng nhau; iu sau cng c ngha l hai lp
khc nhau th ri nhau. nh l -c chng minh.
T hai nh l 4.3.1 v 4.3.2 ta thy khi nim quan h t-ng -ng trong tp X v phn hoch
ca X l t-ng -ng vi nhau.
V d 4.3.4. Cho quan h t-ng -ng
V d 4.3.5. Ly
3 x y ). Khi chia
1, 2,3
l 3 6 ,
trong
nh-
khi
vy
A1 , A2 ,..., An
A1 , A2 ,..., An l mt tp
R A1 A2 ... An .
Cc tp
4.4.1.
Nu
ly
A1 A2 ... An .
h, s n gi l bc ca quan h; gi
A A1 A2 A3 1,2,3,4
a, b, c R A A A l quan h a b c th
Nh- vy l
quan
V d 4.4.2.
gio vin
S in thoi
Tn
B mn
Tui
1010001
Vui
Ton
40
1230401
37
2123456
Khoi
Ho
49
6106333
Ch
Sinh
27
6665555
Khoi
Ton
40
Hng th nht Gio vin ch tn ca quan h lit k d-i bng. Bng ny gm c 4 ct n biu
din quan h 4 - ngi vi cc thnh phn: s in thoi, tn gio vin, b mn v tui.
Mt c s d liu gm cc bn ghi l cc b n thnh phn n thnh phn ny ng vi n to
ca quan h n - ngi.
Trong v d 4.4.2 quan h 4 ngi cho trn bng ng vi 5 bn ghi mi bn ghi c 4 thnh phn
l
(1010001, Vui, Ton, 40)
(1230401, V, L, 37)
(2123456, Khoi, Ho, 49)
(6106333, Ch, Sinh, 27)
(6665555, Khoi, Ton, 40)
Mi ct ca bng quan h n - ngi ng vi mt tiu ch (ca quan h hay ca c s d liu). Mt
tiu ch ca quan h n - ngi gi l kho c bn nu cc gi tr ca n xc nh hon ton cc b
ca quan h ny. Ni mt cch khc trong min ny mi phn t ch ng vi mt b duy nht
ca quan h R.
vi d 4.4.2 th tiu ch s in thoi l kho c bn ca quan h. Nhng t hp cc tiu ch
m cc gi tr ca chng xc nh duy nht cc b ca quan h R gi l kho phc hp. Trong v
d 4.4.2 th (Tn, b mn) chnh l mt kho phc hp v trong quan h ny khng c 2 gio
vin no trng c tn ln b mn.
Pi1i2 ...im
ch quan tm n cc ct mang s th t
i1i2...im th ch gi li mt.
i1i2 ...im , b
quan h
R1 , cc hng ca quan h R2
R1
t ct ca
R1
R2
i tuyn
1010001
Bng chuyn
6106333
Bng
R2 .
l quan h 2 ngi
Th thao
S in thoi
th ton t lin kt
R1 , R2
S in thoi
Tn
B mn
Tui
i tuyn
1010001
Vui
Ton
40
Bng chuyn
6106333
Ch
Sinh
27
Bng
R1 , R2
R1
R2
R1 , R2 thnh lp quan h
R1 , n l bc ca R2 , p l s tiu ch
l quan h
M khoa
B mn
th kt qu ca ton t t hp
S in thoi
M khoa
Ton
K12
K11
Ho
K13
Sinh
K14
B mn
Tui
M khoa
1010001
Vui
Ton
40
K12
1230401
37
K11
2123456
Khoi
Ho
49
K13
6106333
Ch
Sinh
27
K14
6665555
Khoi
Ton
40
K12
A A B B l mt nh l v vi mi gi tr ca A, B
hng ng. Trong lp lun th cng thc hng ng y -c vit nh- sau:
A, A B
B
Khi dng k hiu ny ta mun nhn mnh ti cc kha cnh ca lp lun: Gi thit A v
A B -c vit trn gch ngang; d-i du gch ngang vit kt lun B, k hiu thay cho
vy th trong lp lun. Quy tc suy din theo lp lun trn -c gi l lut tch ri.
V d 5.1.1: Gi s B l mnh nu n chia ht cho 3 th n chia ht cho 9, cn A l mnh
2
A
t-ng ng vi hng ng A A B
A B
i)
Lut cng
ii)
Lut rt gn
iii)
Lut tch ri
A, A B
B
iv)
AB
A
t-ng ng vi hng ng
t-ng ng vi hng ng
A A B B
Tam on lun gi nh
A B
BC
B C
v)
A B A
t-ng ng hng ng
A B B C A C
A B
A
B
t-ng ng vi hng ng
A B A B
n 2 9k 2 chia ht cho 9.
chng minh
A B ng
ta c
th chng minh
B A
mnh
A B A B C C
Nh- vy chng minh A suy ra B ta c th chng minh bng phn chng rng gi s A ng
A1 A2 ... An A1 A2 ... An A1
y cng l mt ph-ng php th-ng xuyn -c p dng trong cc chng minh t-ng -ng
ca nhiu mnh ton hc.
5.2 Quy np ton hc
chng minh mt mnh no
P 1
ii) T
P n
P n
ng cho mi s t nhin
n 1 nu
ng.
P n
ng suy ra
P n 1 ng vi mi s t nhin n.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng ph-ng php phn chng, gi s rng cho d c i), ii) trong
nh l 5.2.1 nh-ng vn m
* P m sai.
Gi
M m N P m F
.
m0
v v
P 1 T
m0 1 m0 ,v m0 2 nn m0 1 N
P m0 F nn P m0 1 T v theo
P m0 1 1 P m0 T
mu thun vi chn
nn
m0 1 tc l m0 2 .
m0
l s t nhin nh nht
m0 . nh l -c chng minh.
B-c i) trong chng minh bng ph-ng php quy np ton hc gi l b-c c s, b-c
ii) gi l b-c quy np.
D dng thy -c ph-ng php chng minh bng quy np ton hc trong nh l 5.2.1. t-ng
-ng vi
nh l 5.2.2. Gi s khng nh
Pn
i)
P 1
ng.
k n 1 suy ra P n 1 ng.
ii) T P k ng vi mi
Khi
P n
ng vi mi s t nhin.
V th tu theo tng bi ton m ng-i ta s dng quy np ton hc theo nh l 5.2.1 hay m
rng ca n l 5.2.2.
T-ng t nh- trn, chng minh mnh P(n) ng cho mi s t nhin n n 0 , n0 1 ta c
th thc hin theo hai b-c, trong b-c c s ch cn kim tra P( n0 ) ng.
A n
Tht vy
n 1, A a
i)
Vi
ii)
Gi s vi mi tp A m
c n+1 phn t th
Tht vy
B B1 b
c 2 tp con
A n
p B 2
trong
th
n 1
a c s quy np ng.
p A 2
B1 n, b B1 .
p B 2
2 n 2.2n 2 n 1
nn .
F n n! nh- sau
F 0 1
F n 1 n 1 F n
R rng l khi p dng nhiu ln ta s c
n0
a0 1
F n an
a n 1 a.a n a.a.a n1 a
.a
....
a . Vy ta c th -a ra nh ngha quy
ca hm F n a nh- sau
n ln
1.
F 0 1
2.
F n 1 a.F n
1.
3 A
2.
x y A
nu
x A v y A .
A B
Chng minh
A B : Gi P n
3 A v
ng A B .
vy, v
P 1
ng (theo nh
Pn
l mnh 3n thuc tp A. Ta c
ng, tc l
x y
x y B . Vy B A
. nh l
. Khi *
nu
w *
x .
Bi tp
Mnh
1. Trong cc cu sau y cu no l mnh ? Xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc mnh
?
a) 2 + 3 = 5
b) 5 + 7 = 10
c) x + 2 = 11
d)
x y y x
vi mi cp s thc x v y.
e) Khng -c i qua.
f)
By gi l my gi ?
g)
4 x 5
h)
x y y z
i)
x 1 5
nu
nu
xz
x 1
2. Tm ph nh ca cc mnh sau
a) Hm nay l th nm.
b) Khng c nhim H Ni.
c) 2 + 1 = 3
d) Ma h Hi Phng nng v nng.
3. Cho A v B l hai mnh
A : Ti mua v s tun ny.
B : Ti trng gii c c 200 triu ng vo hm th su.
Din t cc mnh sau bng cc cu thng th-ng:
a)
b)
A B
c)
AB
d)
A B
e)
A B
f)
A A B
AB
b)
A B B
c)
A B B A
d)
A B A B
A B A B
e)
A B A B
f)
Tp hp
a)
x x l s nguy n d-ng nh hn 12
b)
c)
d)
1,3,3,3,5,5,5,5,5,5
a)
b)
c) v
1,1
5,3,1
x x
b.
x x
e.
x x
c.
x x
f.
d.
9. Cho A l tp cc sinh vin sng cch xa tr-ng trong vng bn knh mt km, v B l
tp hp cc sinh vin ang trn -ng ti lp. Hy m t cc sinh vin thuc mt
trong cc tp hp sau
a.
AB
c.
A B
b.
AB
d.
BA
AB A
c.
AB A
b.
AB A
d.
AB B A
e.
AB B A
A B C
c.
C B A
b.
C A B
d.
B B B
L-ng t v v t
13. Cho
P x, y
x y P x, y
b)
x y P x, y
c)
y x P x, y
d)
x y P x, y
e)
y x P x, y
x y P x, y
f)
14. Cho
L x, y
x P x Q x
xP x xQ x
c cng gi tr
Quan h
16. Lit k cc cp -c sp trong quan h R t
B 0,1,2,3
trong
a, b R
nu v ch nu
a. a = b
b. a + b = 4
c. a > b
d. a b
e. UCLN(a,b) = 1
f. BCNN(a,b) = 2
A 0,1, 2,3, 4
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
2,4 , 4,2
1, 2 , 2,3 , 3, 4
1,1 , 2, 2 , 3,3 , 4, 4
x, y R nu v ch nu
a) x y
b) x l bi s ca y
c) x y2
19. Cc quan h no trong quan h trn tp mi ng-i cho d-i y l cc quan h t-ng
-ng. Xc nh cc tnh cht ca mt quan h t-ng -ng m cc quan h khc
khng c
a)
b)
c)
d)
a, b a v b cng tui
a, b a v b c cng b m
a, b a v b gp nhau
a, b a v b ni cng mt th ting
d) {1,4,5}, {2,6}
21. Trong s cc tp hp ca cc tp con sau, tp hp no l phn hoch ca tp cc s
nguyn ?
a) Tp con cc s chn v tp con cc s l.
b) Tp con cc s nguyn d-ng v tp con cc s nguyn m.
c) Tp con cc s nguyn chia ht cho 3, tp con cc s nguyn chia ht cho 3 cn
d- 1, tp con cc s nguyn chia ht cho 3 cn d- 2.
d) Tp con cc s nguyn nh hn 100, tp con cc s nguyn c tr tuyt i
khng v-t qu 100 v tp con cc s nguyn ln hn 100.
Suy lun ton hc
22. Quy tc suy lun no -c dng trong mi lp lun sau
a) An gii mn Ton. Do An gii mn Ton hoc mn Tin.
b) Hoa gii mn Ton v Tin. Do vy Hoa gii mn Ton.
c) Nu tri m-a th b bi s ng ca. Tri m-a do b bi ng ca.
d) Nu hm nay tuyt ri th tr-ng i hc s ng ca. Hm nay tr-ng i hc
khng ng ca. Do vy hm nay khng c tuyt ri.
e) Nu ti i bi th ti s phi nng -c nhiu. Nu ti phi nng nhiu th ti rm
nng. Do nu ti i bi th ti rm nng.
f)
Nu ti thc c m lm bi tp ny, th ti c th tr li -c tt c cc bi
tp. Nu ti tr li -c tt c cc bi tp th ti s hiu -c ti liu ny. Do
nu ti c m lm bi tp ny th ti s hiu -c ti liu ny.
23. Chng minh rng bnh ph-ng ca mt s chn l mt s chn bng ph-ng php
a) Chng minh trc tip.
b) Chng minh gin tip.
c) Chng minh phn chng.
24. Hy tm cng thc tnh tng n s nguyn chn u tin.
25. Chng minh bng quy np rng
3 5n1 1
4
vi n l s nguyn khng m.
26. Chng minh bng quy np rng
n n 1 n 2 n 3
4
vi mi n nguyn d-ng.
27. My tr tin t ng ngn hng ch c loi tin 20 v loi tin 50 nghn ng. My
c th tr -c cc khon tin l bao nhiu, nu s l-ng cc t giy bc thuc hai
loi trn l khng hn ch. Hy chng minh cu tr li bng quy np ton hc.
28. Hy tm
f 1 , f 2 , f 3
f 4 , nu f n
vi
f 0 1 v vi n 0,1,2...
a)
f n 1 f n 2
b)
f n 1 3. f n
c)
f n 1 2
d)
f n 1 f n f n 1
e)
f n 1 2. f n
f)
f n
f n 1 3
f n
3
F n
F n .
Ch-ng II.
Cc ph-ng php m v nguyn l Dirichlet
L thuyt t hp l mt phn quan trng ca ton ri rc, i t-ng chnh ca n l cc
1. Cc nguyn l m c bn
Trong phn ny ta s cp n hai nguyn l m c bn nht. Vic m cc i t-ng
bng ni cch khc nhau. Khi s c n1+n2 ++nk cch lm mt trong k cng vic .
Gii: C 23 cch chn thi t danh sch th nht, 17 cch t danh sch th hai v 29
cch t danh sch th 3. V vy c 23 + 17 + 29 = 69 cch thi trc nghim.
K hiu ba b thi l A, B, C. T-ng t nh- v d 1.1.1, ta c s cch chn thi l
Nguyn l cng. Cho A1,A2,., An l cc tp hu hn, khng giao nhau tng i mt.
Khi
N ( Ai ) N ( Ai )
n
i 1
i 1
hin bng ni cch sau khi phn on 1,2,, i-1 hon thnh. Khi s c n1n2 nk cch khc
nhau thc hin cng vic .
giy khc kiu. Nu mi ngy sinh vin mc mt kiu khc nhau, th sau bao nhiu ngy th
sinh vin s phi lp li cch trang phc ngoi?
Gii: Cc cch trang phc khc nhau khc nhau mt trong ba thnh phn o s mi, qun
v giy. chn o c 5 cch, chn qun c 3 cch v chn giy c 2 cch, nh- vy c tt c 5
x 3 x 2 = 30 cch. Ngha l ti a sau 30 ngy sinh vin s phi lp li cch trang phc ca
mnh.
bng 1. Bi vy, quy tc nhn cho thy c tng cng 28 = 256 xu nh phn khc nhau c di
bng 8.
Gii: C tt c 26 cch chn ch ci; 9 cch chn cho ch s tip theo. V th theo quy tc
k t. Theo quy tc cng ta c: P = P6 + P7 + P8. By gi chng ta s tnh P6, P7, P8. Tnh trc
tip P6 s rt kh. tm P6 d hn ta tnh s cc xu di 6 k t l cc ch in hoa hoc ch s,
P8 = 368 - 268 = 2 821 109 907 456 - 208 827 064 576 = 2 612 483 063 360
Cui cng ta -c: P = P6 + P7 + P8 = 2 684 483 063 360
Tng qut, bng ngn ng tp hp, nguyn l nhn c th pht biu nh- sau:
i 1
Ank n k
V d 2.1.3. Cc dy nh phn c di n l mt chnh hp lp chp n t hai phn t {0,
V d 2.1.4. B mn Khoa hc my tnh c 3 thnh vin l Anh, Bnh, Dng k hiu l (A,
Gii: Mi cch sp xp gio vin l chnh hp lp chp 2 t 3 phn t. Theo cng thc
n!
( n k )!
V d 2.2.3. C bn ng-i thi u c vua l Bnh, C-ng, Dng, Kin tranh hai v tr nht,
ng-i cn li, s ph-ng n l 3: (C B) (C, D) (C, K). Vy xc sut C-ng ot gii nht l
P = 3/ 12 = 25 %.
2.3. Hon v
Hon v ca n phn t khc nhau l mt cch sp xp c th t n phn t .
V d 2.3.1. C bn ng-i r nhu i chp nh l Anh, Bc, Cc, D-ng. Hy tnh xem c
ng bn tri cng, sau khi chn ng-i ng tri ta c 3 kh nng chn ng-i ng k theo, tip
Pn n .( n 1)( n 2 )..... 1 n !
t n phn t, tc l khi k = n ta c
Pnn Pn
n!
n!
( n n )!
ta phi tnh tng qung -ng cn i cho mi l trnh c th, tc l tng cng phi tnh cho 5
040 l trnh.
2.4. T hp
T hp chp k t n phn t l cch chn khng phn bit th t k phn t ly t tp n phn
V d 2.4.2. C 5 sinh vin l Anh, Bc, Cc, D-ng, Giang ca khoa CNTT. Ch nhim
khoa mun chn thnh lp mt t 3 ng-i thc hin mt ti khoa hc. Hi c bao nhiu
l t hp chp 3 ca tp 5 phn t . C th l:
(A, B, C) (A, B, D) (A, B, G) (A, C, D) (A, D, G)
(B, C, D) (B, C, G) (B, D, G) (C, D, G) (A, C, G)
Cnk
n!
( n k )! k !
Cnk
n!
n!
Cnn k
(n k )!k ! k !(n k )!
n!
(n k )!k!
2.5. T hp lp
V d 2.5.1. Gi s trong mt a qu c to, cam, l mi loi c t nht 4 qu. Tnh s
4 cam
4 l
3 to, 1 cam
3 to, 1 l
3 cam, 1 to
3 cam, 1 l
3 l, 1 to
3 l, 1 cam
2 to, 2 cam
2 to, 2 l
2 cam, 2 l
2 to, 1 cam, 1 l
2 cam, 1 to, 1 l
2 l, 1 to, 1 cam
10, 20, 50 v t 100 ngn ng, nu th t m cc t tin -c chn ra l khng quan trng, cc
trong 6 loi tin nn bi ton ny lin quan ti vic tnh t hp lp chp 4 t 6 phn t. Chng ta
s dng k thut m cc t hp lp gii bi ton ny. Ta c th coi kt ng tin c 6 ngn,
cc ngn -c phn cch bng cc vch ngn, mi ngn ng mt loi tin nh- minh ho trn
hnh 1.
2000
5000
10 000
20 000
50 000
100 000
Hnh 2a, 2b minh ho s t-ng ng ny cho 2 cch chn 4 t tin, trong 5 vch ngn -c
biu din bng 5 thanh ng, 4 t tin biu din bng 4 ngi sao.
1 t
2000
5000
3 t
10 000
20 000
50 000
100 000
***
1 t
2000
5000
2 t
10 000
20 000
* *
**
50 000
100 000
sao. Do , s cch chn 4 t tin bng s cch chn cc v tr cho 4 ngi sao vo 9 v tr c th,
tc l bng:
C115
9!
126
4!5!
Rnk C nk k 1
( n k 1)!
k !n!
t mt tp c 3 loi, sao cho c x1 phn t loi 1, x2 phn t loi 2, x3 phn t loi 3 -c chn.
V vy s nghim bng s t hp chp 11 t tp gm 3 phn t. Theo cng thc trn ta c:
11
11
2
R311 C 11
3 1 C 13 C 13
13.12
78
1.2
chn 11 phn t gm x1 phn t loi 1, x2 phn t loi 2, x3 phn t loi 3, trong c t nht
mt phn t loi 1, hai phn t loi 2 v ba phn t loi 3. V th, tr-c tin ta chn 1 phn t
loi 1, 2 phn t loi 2 v 3 phn t loi 3, sau chn thm 5 phn t na thuc 3 loi. Do vy,
R 35 C 55 3 1 C 57 C 72
7.6
=21
1 .2
ca t SUCCESS.
C 73 C 41 C 32 C 11
7 ! 4 !3 !1!
7!
420
3 !4 !1!3 ! 2 !1!1!0 ! 3 !2 !1!1!0 !
Bng cch l lun t-ng t nh- trong v d trn chng ta c th -a ra cng thc tnh s
hon v ca n phn t trong c n1 phn t nh- nhau thuc loi 1, n2 phn t nh- nhau thuc
n!
n 1 ! n 2 !... n k !
C nn 1 C n 2 n ... C nn k n
n
.... n k 1
n!
( n n 1 )!
...
n 1 ! ( n n 1 )! n 2 ! ( n n 1 n 2 )!
( n n 1 ... n k 1 )!
n!
n k !0 !
n 1 ! n 2 !... n k !
2.7. Phn b cc vt vo trong hp
Mt s bi ton m c th gii bng cch lit k nhng cch t cc i t-ng khc nhau
V d 2.7.1. C bao nhiu cch chia nhng xp bi 5 qun cho mi ng-i trong 4 ng-i
Gii: Chng ta s dng quy tc nhn gii bi ton ny. Tr-c tin chng ta thy ng-i
u tin c th nhn -c 5 qun bi bng C525 cch. V ch cn 47 qun bi, ng-i th hai c th
5
-c chia 5 qun bi bng C 47
cch. Tip , ng-i th ba c th nhn -c 5 qun bi bng C425
cch. Cui cng, ng-i th t- nhn -c 5 qun bi bng C375 cch. V vy tng cng c:
5
C 52
C 457 C 452 C 357
52 ! 47 ! 42 ! 37 !
52 !
39953049823666054595520 !
4 7 !5 ! 4 2 !5 ! 3 7 !5 ! 3 2 !5 ! 5 !5 !5 !5 !3 2 !
k) bng
n!
n 1 ! n 2 !... n k !
Khi nim
K n th t ly
Chnh hp lp chp k t n
C
phn t
Lp li
C
Cng thc
Ank n k
Khng
Khng
Cnk
T hp lp chp k t n
Khng
phn t
Hon v t n phn t
Khng
Khng
Pnk
n!
(n k )!
n!
(n k )!k!
k -1
i 0
Pn n!
3. Sinh cc cu hnh t hp
Chng ta m t cc ph-ng php m s cc cu hnh t hp vi cc thuc tnh khc
nhau. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu tr-ng hp, ta cn phi lit k cc cu hnh , hoc la chn cc
cu hnh c th theo nhng tiu chun khc nhau. Trong v d 2.3.3 ta nu mt minh ho c
th, khi m ng-i bn hng cn chn cho mnh mt l trnh i ti -u nht trong s 5040 l trnh
t t in ca hon v cho tr-c a1a2an. Cch xy dng hon v lin tip ny.-c tin hnh
nh- sau. u tin ta gi s an-1 < an. R rng nu i ch an-1 v an cho nhau th s nhn -c
hon v mi ng sau (ln hn) hon v cho v khng th c mt hon v no khc ln hn
hon v xut pht m li b hn hon v nhn -c bng vic i ch an-1 v an. V d, hon v
lin tip sau hon v 234156 l hon v 234165. Nu an-1 > an th khng th nhn -c hon v
hng cui cng trong hon v a1a2an. Nu an-2 < an-1 th c th sp xp li ba s cui cng
c th nhn -c mt hon v mi lin sau hon v xut pht. Trong hai s an-1 v an ta chn s
nh hn t vo vo v tr n - 2, sau t s nguyn cn li v s an - 2 vo hai v tr cui cng
Nu an-2 > an-1 (v an-1 > an), th khng th nhn -c hon v ln hn bng cch i ch
Tr-c tin, tm cp s nguyn lin k u tin tnh t phi qua tri ca hon v m s u
nh hn s sau, tc l tm cc s nguyn aj v aj+1 sao cho aj < aj+1 v aj+1 > aj+2 > >an. Sau
, nhn -c hon v lin sau, ta t vo v tr th j s nguyn nh nht trong cc s ln hn
nh hn hon v va to ra.
t t in.
132. Tip theo, v 3 > 2 v 1 < 3 nn phi xt c 3 s trong nhm hon v ny. t s nh nht
nhn -c hon v ln nht 321. Kt qu trnh t cc hon v xy dng -c l : 123; 132; 213;
3.2. Sinh cc t hp
V t hp ca mt tp hu hn chnh l mt tp con ca tp , nn ta c th dng php
0000.
Thay ai bi ai +1
1, 3, 4, 5.
5!
10 . p dng thut ton bt u t t hp 1 2 3 ta thu -c tt c
(5 3)!2!
cc t hp cn tm:
1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 5 1 3 4 1 3 5 1 4 5 2 3 4 2 3 5 2 4 5 3 4 5
3.3. Nh thc Newton
Mt s tnh cht quan trng lin quan n cc h s t hp c ng dng rng ri. Trong
a. Cn0 C nn 1
i 0
Chng minh. Cc cng thc a-c c th chng minh mt cch trc tip. V d, xt cng
thc c, ta c:
C nk C nk 1
n!
n!
n!
1
1
[
]
C nk 1
( n k )! ( k 1)! ( n k 1) k
( n k 1)! k !
Cng thc c cng c th -c chng minh nh- sau, gii s c tp = a1, a2, , an
{a} c n+1 phn t, c bao nhiu tp con ca c k phn t ? R rng l, s tp con c k phn
cha phn t {a} l C nk 1 v s tp con cha phn t {a}l C nk t ta c: Cnk Cnk 1 C nk1 .
chng minh cng thc mc d, ta c th dng ph-ng php quy np theo n.
B-c 1. Cng thc d ng vi n=1: (x+y) = x+y v n=2 : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
Tht vy, ta c
C y
0
k
k 1
C x y
1 2
k
k 1
i 0
C xy C x y
1
k
2 3
k
k 2
i 0
L-u ta s dng ng thc Pascal trong qu trnh bin i trn. Cng thc d th-ng
-c gi l cng thc trin khai nh thc Newton. D dng thu -c mt s h qu hin nhin
ca nh thc Newton:
Khi x = y =1, ta c: C ni 2 n
n
i 0
Khi x = -1 , y =1 ta c : ( 1) i C ni 0
i
i
( 1) C n
i
i
( 1) Cn
[n / 2]
[ n / 2]
i0
i 2 k ; k 0
i 2 k 1; k 1
Chng ta xt thm mt vi v d.
V d 3.3.1. Tnh tng cc h s ca cc s hng cha x2 trong trin khai biu thc
(x + y + z)n
( x y z ) n [ x ( y z )] n Cni x i ( y z ) n i
i 0
n2
Cn2 ( C nj 2 )
j 0
n( n 1) n 2
2
2 n 3 n( n 1)
2
k i
i 0
sau:
....
....
Cnk m Cmk Cn1Cmk 1 Cn2 Cmk 2 ... Cnk 1Cm1 Cnk Cni Cmk i
n
i 0
n2 n -1
k 0
k 0
k 1
Gii : Ta c ( x 1) n k 1 ( x 1) k 1 ( x 1) n
Trin khai cng thc nh thc Newton c hai v:
Xt v tri:
( x 1) n k 1
n k 1
j 0
k
k
Cnj k x j . Do vy, h s ca s hng cha x l Cn k 1
Xt v phi:
k
k 1
n
( x 1) k 1( x 1) n ( Cki 1 xi )( Cnj x j ) . Do vy, h s ca s hng cha x l
i 0
j 0
k 1 i
k i
Ck 1Cn
i 0
V h s ca s hng cha xk hai v ca ng thc phi bng nhau, ta suy ra iu phi chng
minh.
Cn i
i
i 0
Cnk k 1
Cni
i
i 0
Cn1 2
C2nn (Cni ) 2
i 0
Gii : p dng ng thc Vandermonde v d 3.4.2 khi k=n; m=n v tnh cht b ta c:
i0
i 0
Mt cch tng qut, nguyn l Dirichlet -c pht biu nh- sau: Nu xp nhiu hn n
i t-ng vo n ci hp th tn ti t nht mt hp cha khng t hn 2 i t-ng.
Vic chng minh nguyn l ny c th tin hnh bng lp lun phn chng rt n gin:
hoc khng tt, c 50 chi tit -c nh gi l tt. Chng minh rng c t nht hai chi tit
-c nh gi l "khng tt", ta xy dng tp * = a1, a2, , a30, a1+3, a2+3, , a30 +3,
bj = ak +3 , tc l ai = ak +3 hoc bi = ai v bj = aq +6 , tc l ai = ak +6 hoc bi
= ak+3 v bj = aq +6 , tc l ak = aq +3.
4.2. Nguyn l Dirichlet tng qut
Chng minh. Ta dng ph-ng php phn chng, khng gim tnh tng qut ta k hiu ta
k hiu X = x1, x2, , xn v Y = y1, y2, , ym, Xi = {x X / f(x)= yi}. Gi s N(Xi) k1 vi 1 i m, n= N(X) = N(Xi) (k-1)(n/m)<k(n/m)<n, t suy ra tn ti N(Xi) > k.
V d 4.2.1. Trong 150 ng-i c t nht [150/12] = 13 ng-i cng thng sinh.
V d 4.2.2. Cn phi c ti thiu bao nhiu sinh vin ghi tn vo lp ton hc Ri rc
0,1,2,3,4,5?
Gii. c t nht 6 ng-i cng im thi s sinh vin ti thiu l s nguyn nh nht sao
V d 4.2.3. Chng minh rng c p s 1 v q s 0 xp thnh vng trn theo trt t ngu
nh-ng c thng lm khng qu 45 sn phm. Chng minh rng c nhng ngy lin tip ng-i
ny lm ra 14 sn phm.
Su m-i s nguyn d-ng a1, a2, , a30, a1 + 14, a2 + 14, , a30 + 14 lun nh hn
hoc bng 59. Theo nguyn l Dirichlet c t nht hai trong 60 s ny bng nhau. V cc dy a1,
ng 14 sn phm.
Gii: Ta vit mi s nguyn a1, a2, , an+1 d-i dng tch ca mt lu tha c s 2 vi
Dirichlet tn ti hai trong s l q1, q2, , qn+1 bng nhau, tc l c hai ch s i v j sao cho qi
kj
gim c di no trong mt dy cc s nguyn khc nhau cho tr-c. Tr-c khi trnh by
nhn c tt c n2 cp (ik, dk) v theo nguyn l Dirichlet c t nht hai trong s n2 + 1 cp bng
khng th xy ra. Tht vy, v cc s hng ca dy l khc nhau, nn hoc l as < at hoc l as >
at . Nu as < at, khi , v is = it ta xy dng t as dy con tng c phn t av. Dy ny c di
5. H thc truy hi
5.1. Khi nim v cc v d
= 2.2.2.2a0 = 24.5=80.
Trong tit ny v tit sau, chng ta s cp ti mt s ph-ng php tm cng thc
nh ngha 5.1.1. Xt dy s an. Nu c mt cng thc biu din an qua mt hay nhiu
m, th cng thc -c gi h thc truy hi (cng thctruy hi, biu thc truy hi)
i vi dy an. Dy s an -c gi l li gii hay l nghim ca h thc truy hi nu cc s
v gi s a0 = 5, a1 = 9. Tm a2 v a3 ?
v an = 5.
1 - an-2
cho.
su tm hiu cc ph-ng php gii h thc truy hi, chng ta xt mt s v d lin quan n vic
m hnh ho bng cc h thc truy hi.
hng vi li sut kp 8% mi nm. Hi sau 20 nm anh ta c bao nhiu tin trong ti khon ca
mnh?
Gii: Gi Fn l tng s tin c trong ti khon ngn hng sau n nm. V s tin c trong
F2 = (1,08)F1 = (1,08) F 0
Fn = (1,08)Fn-1 = (1,08) F 0.
ng. Khi n = 20 ta c:
F20 = (1,08)
20
i th con. Tm cng thc truy hi tnh s cp th trn o sau n thng, nu coi cc con th l
tr-ng th.
vng vi -ng knh gim dn (hnh 1). Ngy m cc nh s- dch chuyn a sang mt ci cc
khc theo quy tc: mi ln ch -c dch chuyn mt a, mt a c th dch chuyn t mt cc
ny sang cc khc bt k, nh-ng khng -c mt chic a ln trn mt a khc c -ng
knh nh hn. Ngy tn th s n khi tt c cc a -c chuyn sang mt ci cc khc.
sang cc C, theo quy tc nu trn, v phi dng Hn-1 ln dch chuyn, (xem hnh 2) v chic
B
Trng thi trung gian ca Thp H ni.
= 2(2Hn-2 + 1) + 1 = 2 Hn-2 + 2 + 1.
2
= 2 (2Hn-3 + 1) + 2 + 1 = 2 Hn-3 + 2 + 2 + 1.
=2
n-1
=2
n-1
H1 + 2
n-2
+ . . . 2 + 1.
- 1.
thc cui cng chnh l cng thc tnh tng cc s hng ca mt cp s nhn.
h thc truy hi cho an, ta thy rng theo quy tc cng, s cc xu nh phn di n v khng
c hai s 0 lin tip bng s cc xu nh- th kt thc bng s 1 cng vi s cc xu nh- th kt
bit th n - 1 bng 1, nu khng th chng c hai s 0 hai bit cui cng. T suy ra, cc xu
nh phn di n, khng c hai s 0 lin tip v kt thc bng bit 0 chnh l cc xu nh phn
khng c hai s 0 lin tip c di n - 2 v thm 10 vo cui ca n. Do vy s chng l an-2.
Cui cng ta rt ra:
an = an-1 + an-2 vi n 3.
v a2 = F4 ta suy ra an = Fn+2.
Cc h thc truy hi khc nhau c th gii bng nhiu cch khc nhau. Mt s c th gii
bng cch lp nh- trong cc v d nu trn, mt s khc c th gii bng nhng k thut c
bit. D-i y chng ta s cp ti mt ph-ng php gii t-ng minh mt lp cc h thc truy
hi theo mt cch h thng.
a n c 1a n 1 c 2 a n 2 ... c k a n k
trong c1, c2, , ck l cc s thc v ck 0, -c gi l h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun
nht bc k vi h s hng s.
H thc truy hi trong nh ngha l tuyn tnh v v phi l tng cc tch ca cc s hng
tnh thun nht bc 1. H thc truy hi Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 trong v d 5.1.5 l h thc truy hi
tuyn tnh thun nht bc 2. H thc truy hi an = an-5 l h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht
bc 5.
V d 5.2.2. H thc an = an-1 + (an-2)2 khng l h thc truy hi tuyn tnh. H thc truy
Ph-ng php c bn gii h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht l tm nghim d-i
r n c 1r n 1 c 2 r n 2 ... c k r n k
Chia c hai v cho rn-k v tr v phi cho v tri chng ta nhn -c ph-ng trnh t-ng
-ng:
r k c 1 r k 1 c 2 r k 2 ... c k 1 r c k 0
Vy, dy an vi an = rn l nghim khi v ch khi r l nghim ca ph-ng trnh i s
Tr-c tin chng ta s trnh by cc kt qu i vi h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht
bc hai v xt tr-ng hp khi ph-ng trnh c tr-ng c hai nghim phn bit.
nghim phn bit r1 v r2. Khi dy an l nghim ca h thc truy hi an = c1an-1 + c2an-2
(c1 C 0 r2 )
r1r2
2 C 0 1 C 0
( C 1 C 0 r2 )
r1 r2
( C 0 r1 C 1 )
r1 r2
a0 = 2 = 1 + 2
a1 = 7 = 12 + 2(-1).
Gii ra ta -c 1 = 3 v 2 = -1. Vy nghim ca h thc truy hi v iu kin u l dy
an vi an = 3.2n - (-1)n.
r1
1 5
1 5
v r2
2
2
1 5
1 5
2
f n 1
2
2
f 0 1 2 0
1 5
1 5
2
f1 1
2 1.
2
1
5
,2
1
5
1 1 5
1 1 5
5 2
5 2
n
Trong tr-ng hp ph-ng trnh c tr-ng ca h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht bc 2 c
mt nghim c tr-ng l nghim bi hai, bng cch chng minh t-ng t nh l 5.2.1, ta c nh
l sau y :
0. Gi s r2 - c1r - c2 =0 ch c mt
nghim r0. Dy an l nghim ca h thc truy hi an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 khi v ch khi
a n 1r0n 2 nr0n vi n = 0, 1, 2, Trong 1 v 2 l cc hng s.
nh l 5.2.2. Cho c1 v c2 l cc s thc v c2
an = 13n + 2n3n,
xc nh cc hng s 1 v 2 , ta s dng cc iu kin u:
a0 = 1 = 1.
a1 = 6 = 13 + 23.
Gii ra ta -c
kin u cho l:
an = 3n + n3n.
- ck = 0 c k nghim phn bit r1, r2, , rk. Khi dy an l nghim ca h thc truy hi
an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + + ckan-k khi v ch khi
2, , k l cc hng s.
a2 = 15 = 1 + 24 + 39.
Gii h ph-ng trnh trn ta nhn -c 1 = 1, 2 = -1, 3 = 2. V th, nghim duy nht
(thi gian thc hin) thut ton sp xp theo cch la chn nh- l mt minh ho cho vic ng
hi vi dy {sn}, trong sn l thi gian (tt nht, trung bnh hoc ti nht) cn thit thc
hin thut ton vi u vo c kch th-c n, sau gii h thc truy hi -a ra cng thc
nh gi phc tp ca thut ton nu.
th t tng dn. Ta c th thc hin iu ny bng thut ton sp xp theo cch la chn nhsau: Tm phn t ln nht ca dy gm n s cho, sau i ch phn t xung v tr cui
cng ca dy, thc hin t-ng t vi cc dy con c (n-1), (n-2),1 s u ca dy. Thut ton
-c m t nh- sau:
max_index)
rng l cc dng 1-3 khng i hi thc hin bt k php so snh no; dng 4 i hi n-1 php
so snh. Tip , dng 5 cng khng c php so snh no -c thc hin, cn dng 6, do li
gi quy thut ton sp xp dy c n-1 phn t, cn phi thc hin sn-1 php so snh. T cc
phn tch trn, ta nhn -c h thc truy hi sau:
sn = sn-1 + (n-1)
Gii h thc truy hi ny ta thu -c:
sn = sn-1 + (n-1)
= (sn-2 + (n-2)) + (n-1)
= (sn-3 + (n-3)) + (n-2) + (n-1)
......
2
Nh- vy, thi gian cn thit thc hin thut ton sp xp theo cch la chn l 0(n2).
bi ton nh hn. S phn chia ny -c p dng lin tip cho ti khi c th tm -c li gii
ca cc bi ton nh mt cch d dng.
na bn tri). Trong tr-ng hp ng-c li, tc l key > sk, t i:=k+1 (thc hin vic tm kim
tip theo na bn phi).
6. [ quy] Thc hin cc b-c ca thut ton tm gi tr key trong dy si, si+1,... ,sj,
vi cc gi tr i, j mi.
Nh- vy, vic tm kim nh phn -c chng ta thc hin bng cch rt gn vic tm kim
mt phn t trong mt danh sch ti vic tm phn t trong mt danh sch c di gim i
mt na. Chng ta rt gn lin tip nh- vy cho ti khi cn li mt phn t. Cc thut ton kiu
nh- vy -c gi l cc thut ton chia tr. D-i y chng ta s nghin cu cc h thc truy
hi th-ng gp khi phn tch phc tp ca cc thut ton loi ny.
c c bng s nguyn gn nht ln hn hoc nh hn hay bng n/b). Cng vy, ta gi s tng
cc php ton thm vo khi thc hin phn chia bi ton c n thnh cc bi ton c c nh hn
l g(n). Khi , nu f(n) l s cc php ton cn thit gii bi ton cho, th f(n) tho mn
h thc truy hi sau:
n
f ( n ) af g( n )
b
v bi ton tm kim phn t ny trong dy tm kim c n/2, khi n chn. Khi thc hin vic rt
nu f(n) l s php so snh cn phi lm khi tm kim mt phn t trong danh sch tm kim c
(khi n chn), bng vic dng hai php so snh, mt l so snh cc phn t ln nht v sau l
so snh cc phn t nh nht ca hai tp con. V th, chng ta nhn -c h thc truy hi f(n) =
2f(n/2) + 2 khi n chn.
hn thut ton thng th-ng nhn hai s nguyn. D-i y ta s trnh by mt trong cc thut
ton nh- vy. l thut ton nhn nhanh. Tr-c tin ta phn chia mi mt trong hai s nguyn
2n bit thnh hai khi mi khi n bit. Sau php nhn hai s nguyn 2n bit ban u -c thu
v ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit cng vi cc php dch chuyn v cc php cng.
Gi s a v b l cc s nguyn c cc biu din nh phn di 2n (trong tr-ng hp cn
nhau):
Trong :
A1 ( a 2 n 1 a 2 n 2 ...a n 1 a n )2 ,
B1 ( b2 n 1b 2 n 2 ...b n 1b n )2 ,
b 2 n B1 B 0
A0 ( a n 1 ...a1 a 0 )2
B 0 ( b n 1 ..b1 b0 )2
ng thc ny ch ra rng php nhn hai s nguyn 2n bit c th thc hin bng cch
dng ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit v cc php cng tr v php dch chuyn. iu c
ngha l nu f(n) l tng cc php ton nh phn cn thit nhn hai s nguyn n bit th
Ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit cn 3f(n) php ton nh phn. Mi mt trong cc php
cng, tr, hay dch chuyn dng mt hng s nhn vi n ln cc php ton nh phn v Cn l
tng cc php ton nh phn -c dng khi lm cc php ton ny.
Nh- cc v d trn ch ra, cc h thc truy hi dng f(n) = af(n/b) + g(n) xut hin
n
f ( n ) af g ( n )
b
n
n
a 2 f 2 ag g( n )
b
b
n
n
n
a 3 f 3 a 2 g 2 ag g( n )
b
b
b
...
n k 1
n
ak f k a jg j
b j0
b
V b k 1 ta suy ra:
n
f ( n ) ak f (1 )
a
k 1
j0
n
g j.
b
Khi :
O( n log b a )
f(n)
O(log n )
nu a 1
nu a 1
Chng minh. Tr-c tin gi s n = bk. T cng thc ca f(n) nhn -c trong phn bn
f ( n ) a k f ( 1 ) a jc a k f ( 1 ) c a j
k 1
k 1
j 0
j0
tng ta suy ra f(n) f(bk +1) = f(1) + c(k+1) = (f(1) + c) + ck (f(1) + c) + clogbn. Do , trong
c( a k 1)
a 1
c
c
a k f (1)
a 1 a 1
f ( n ) a k f (1)
C 1 n log b a C 2
c
c
V a k a log b n n log b a , trong C 1 f (1)
v C 2
a 1
a 1
f ( n ) f ( b k 1 ) C 1 a k 1 C 2
(C1a )a
(C1a )n
log b n
log b a
C2
C2
v k lognn < k + 1.
Do vy, chng ta c f(n) = O ( n log b a ) .
n
f ( n ) a k f (1)
a
1
a
3 3
31 3
5 k 7 5 k .
4 4
4 4
) O ( n log 2 5 )
V d 5.3.6. Hy -c l-ng s php ton so snh dng trong thut ton tm kim nh phn.
Gii: Trong v d 5.3.2 ta chng minh rng f(n) = f n + 2 khi n chn, cn f l s
2
V d 5.3.7. Hy -c l-ng s php ton so snh dng trong thut ton cho trong v d
ton so snh cn dng trong thut ton ny. V th t nh l 5.3.1 suy ra:
f(n) = O ( n log 2 ) = O(n).
By gi chng ta s pht biu mt nh l tng qut hn v phc tp hn nh-ng rt c
ch khi phn tch phc tp ca thut ton chia tr.
nh l 5.3.2. Gi s f l hm tng tho mn h thc truy hi:
n
f ( n ) af cn d ,
b
n = b k,
Khi :
O ( n d )
nu a b d
f ( n ) O (n d log n ) nu a b d
log a
nu a b d
O (n b )
V d 5.3.8. Hy -c l-ng s php ton nh phn cn dng khi nhn hai s nguyn n bit
n
+ Cn, khi n chn, trong f(n) l s cc
2
php ton nh phn cn dng khi nhn hai s nguyn n bit bng thut ton nhn nhanh. V th, t
nh l 5.3.2 ta suy ra f ( n ) O( n log 3 ) . Ch l log3
th-ng dng O(n2) php ton nh phn, thut ton nhn nhanh s thc s tt hn thut ton
ton m.
V d 6.1.1. Trong k thi hc sinh gii cp thnh ph, mt tr-ng PTCS c 20 hc sinh t
9 hoc 11?
d-ng nh hn hoc bng 1000 chia ht cho c 9 v 11. Trong s cc s nguyn d-ng nh hn
hoc bng 1000 c [1000/9] s chia ht cho 9 v [1000/11] s chia ht cho 11. V 9 v 11 l hai
11 1 90 10 19 1
9 1 1 99
Tc l c 191 s nguyn d-ng nh hn hoc bng 1000 chia ht cho 9 hoc 11.
V d 6.1.3. Gi s mt tr-ng i hc c 1503 sinh vin nm th nht. Trong s c
453 sinh vin tham gia Cu lc b (CLB) tin hc, 267 sinh vin tham gia CLB ton hc v 99
sinh vin tham gia c hai CLB. Hi c bao nhiu sinh vin khng tham gia c CLB ton hc
cng nh- CLB tin hc?
Gii: S sinh vin khng tham gia CLB ton hc cng nh- CLB tin hc s bng tng s
sinh vin tr i s sinh vin tham gia mt trong hai CLB. Gi A l tp cc sinh vin nm th
nht tham gia CLB tin hc, cn B l tp cc sinh vin tham gia CLB ton hc. Khi ta c N(A)
= 453, N(B) = 267 v N(AB) = 99. S sinh vin tham gia hoc CLB tin hc hoc CLB ton hc
l:
tin hc.
cc tp hp.
6.2. Nguyn l b tr
Tr-c tin, chng ta s trnh by cng thc tnh s phn t ca hp 3 tp hp A, B, C.
Tr-c khi xy dng cng thc ny ta l-u rng N(A) + N(B) + N(C) m mt ln nhng phn
t ch thuc mt trong ba tp, m hai ln nhng phn t thuc ng hai trong ba tp, v m 3
Hnh 1. Hp ca 3 tp hp
loi b vic m trng lp cc phn t thuc nhiu hn mt tp cn phi tr i s cc
ln no. Do vy, ta cn thm vo s cc phn t thuc giao ca ba tp (xem hnh v). Biu thc
cui cng ny tnh mi phn ng mt ln d n thuc mt hay hai hoc ba tp:
sinh vin hc ting Nga, 103 sinh vin hc c ting Anh v ting Php, 23 hc c ting Anh v
ting Nga, 14 hc c ting Php v ting Nga. Nu tt c 2092 sinh vin u theo hc t nht mt
ngoi ng, th c bao nhiu sinh vin hc c ba th ting?
N(E) = 1202
N(EF) = 103
N(ER) = 23
N(FR) = 14
N ( Ai ) N ( Ai )
n
i 1
i 1
1 i j n
N ( Ai A j )
1 i j k n
N ( Ai A j Ak ) ....
(1) n 1 N ( Ai )
n
i 1
Chng minh. Chng ta s chng minh cng thc trn bng cch ch ra rng mi phn t
C r1 C r2 .... ( 1 ) r 1 C rr
ln khi tnh gi tr v phi ca cng thc h s t hp ta c
C r0 C r2 .... ( 1) r C rr 0
V th:
1 C r0 C r1 C r2 .... ( 1 ) r 1 C rr 1
d-ng. N gm c 2n - 1 s hng.
H qu 6.2.1. Cho Ak , 1 k
N k C nk ( n k )!
v
n!
k!
1 1
( 1) n
N n! 1 ...
1! 2!
n!
T xc sut cn tm l
_
N
1 1
1
1 ..... (1) n
N
1! 2!
n!
Bi tp
1. Trong mt lp hc c 50 sinh vin, c 26 sinh vin t yu cu mn thi th nht, 21
sinh vin khng phi thi li mn Ton ri rc. Nu c 15 sinh vin phi thi li c hai mn, th
3. Trong mt tr-ng i hc c 18 sinh vin ton v 325 sinh vin tin hc.
a) C bao nhiu cch chn hai i din sao cho mt l sinh vin ton cn ng-i kia l
b) C bao nhiu cch chn mt i din hoc l sinh vin ton hoc l sinh vin tin hc ?
4. C bao nhiu kh nng chn 2 s nguyn trong cc s t 1 n (n-1) sao cho tng
ca chng ln hn n ?
A (0,0)
7. Mt l-i vung n x m (s hng m < n s ct) mt con kin cn leo t im A ln
B (n,m)
A (0,0)
8. Mt nhm sinh vin gm n nam v n n. C bao nhiu cch xp thnh mt hng sao
9. Mt cu lc b c 25 thnh vin
a) C bao nhiu cch chn 4 thnh vin vo u ban th-ng trc?
b) C bao nhiu cch chn ch tch, ph ch tch, th- k v th qu?
bng ch s bn phi ?
nht ?
12. C bao nhiu kh nng chia 2n ng-i thnh n cp, ngi i din hai bn mt bn ch
13. C bao nhiu kh nng chn 2 s nguyn trong 100 s nguyn u tin sao cho tng
ca chng l s chn, s l ?
14. a) Ch ra rng trong 5 s chn t 8 s nguyn d-ng u tin nht thit phi c mt
cp c tng bng 9 ?
C
17. Chng minh cng thc sau :
k
n 1
(n 1)C nk 1
C nr C kr C nk C nr kk
100
nhin.
2 1
19. Tm cng thc tnh h s ca x trong khai trin ca x
x
100
nhin
trong k l s t
trong k l s t
(x+y+z) n
22. Chng minh cng thc sau :
k 2
n 1
k ( C n ) nC 2 n 1
n
k 1
ba ch s 2, mt ch s 3, hai ch s 4, ba ch s 5, hai ch s 7 v ba ch s 9?
27. C bao nhiu xu nh phn khc nhau nu chng -c bt u bng bit 1 v cha
thm ba bit 1 na, n cn cha tt c 12 bit 0 v sau mi bit 1 c t nht hai bit 0?
2.
30. Khi chn tu n+1 s nguyn d-ng khc nhau, chng minh rng tn ti t nht 2 s
ng d- theo modulo n.
31. Ch ra rng trong mt nhm c 5 ng-i (trong hai ng-i bt k hoc l bn hoc l
32. Cho (Xi, Yi ,Zi ) i=1,,9 l to nguyn ca 9 im trong khng gian ba chiu.
ng ln l-t cc ng 5 xu v 10 xu.
34. Tm h thc truy hi tnh s cch khc nhau m ng-i li xe c th tr mt khon thu
phn chia bi n -ng thng nu khng c hai -ng no song song v khng c ba -ng no
cng i qua mt im. Tnh Rn bng ph-ng php lp.
b nh bt.
mt my thu hnh, 98% c in thoi, v 95% c in thoi v t nht mt my thu hnh. Tnh t
l phn trm cc gia nh M khng c in thoi hoc khng c my thu hnh.
40. C bao nhiu s nguyn d-ng nh hn 200 l:
a)
b)
Ch-ng III.
th v ng dng
Nhng t-ng c bn ca l thuyt th -c xut t th k 18, bt u t bi bo
(cc cung) sao cho mi cnh e E lin thuc mt cp c th t cc nh thuc V. Ta cng vit e
= (v, w) nu e ni cp c th t hai nh (v, w). Cnh e trn th (c h-ng hoc v h-ng) ni
v1
v h-ng. Tp cc nh l v1, v2 , v3 ,
v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 ; tp cc cnh l e1, e2
e7
v6
e9
e1
e5
v5
V2
V6
e4
Hnh 1.
e2
e6
v4
e3
v3
e8
v1
e4
e1
v2
e2
e3
v4
v3
Hnh .2
e5
V d 1.1.2: th cnh tranh trong sinh thi hc. S t-ng tc ca cc loi vt trong mi
Sc
Chut
Chut tr
Nhn vo ta thy C,
Qu
Ct
Lan
Tuyt
Thu
Hnh 4.
Nhung
i 1
i 2
i 4
i 5
Hnh 5.
deg (v1) = 3, deg (v2) = 3, deg (v3) = 4, deg (v4) = 3, deg (v5 ) = 4, deg (v6) = 0, deg (v7) = 1.
Nh- vy, nh c lp cng c th nh ngha l nh c bc bng 0.
nh c bc bng 1 -c gi l nh treo, tc l nh lin k (lin thuc) vi ng 1 nh
2m deg v
vV
chn, v2 l cc nh c bc l. Ta c.
vV1
vV2
Do deg (v) l chn vi v V1 nn tng th nht trong v phi trn l s chn. Suy ra s s
u (nh ra).
m deg v deg v
vV
vV
d
Hnh 1
th a, b, c, d l mt -ng i, cn a, b, c, e li
l 1 cnh ca th (cnh ni 2 nh e v d l
cnh (e, d)!). Cng trn th a, b, c, d, b, e,
Hnh 2
u c th trao i thng tin vi nhau bng cch gi cc thng ip cho nhau mt cch trc tip
hoc qua cc my trung gian hay khng? Nu biu din mng my tnh bng th, trong
mi my -c biu din bng mt nh, cn mi -ng truyn thng -c biu din bng mt
V, F E.
Hnh 3
Hnh 4
yu nu th v h-ng t-ng ng vi n l th v
h-ng lin thng.
C th thy rng nu th c h-ng l lin thng mnh th n cng lin thng yu, song
c
e
e
Hnh 5
thng mnh, cn H khng phi l lin thng mnh. Tht vy, trn th H khng c -ng i
(c h-ng) no ni a vi tt c cc nh cn li.
1.3. Mt s dng th n c bit
D-i y l mt vi lp th n th-ng gp trong cc ng dng.
th y . th y n nh, k hiu l K n l mt n th cha ng 1
hnh 1.
Hnh 1. Cc th Kn , 1 n 6 .
n cnh (v1 , v2 ), (v2 , v3 ), , (vn-1 , vn ), (vn , v1 ). Cc chu trnh C3, C4, C5, C6 biu din trn hnh 2.
mt nh ca Cn bng nhng cnh mi, ta s nhn -c th hnh bnh xe. Cc bnh xe W3,
Hnh 3. Cc bnh xe W n , 3 n 6 .
W4, W5, W6 biu din trn hnh 3.
11
10
1
0
Q
01
00
Q
10
11
10
11
00
01
00
01
pha). Mt th n G -c gi l
th phn i nu tp cc nh V c th
phn thnh 2 tp con khng rng ri
nh ca V2 . V d, th biu din
V2
v
v
v
V1
v
v
v
quan h hn nhn ca mt lng, mi ng-i biu din bng mt nh, cn cnh biu th quan h
v chng gia hai ng-i. Tp cc nh c th chia thnh hai tp con, mt tp gm n ng v
mt tp gm ton n b.
K2,
K3,
K3,
K2,
Hnh 6. Mt s th phn i y
2. Biu din th
C nhiu cch biu din th. Trong cc mc trn chng ta dng hnh hc
biu din th. Cng c th biu din th bng cch lit k tt c cc nh v cc cnh.
Trong mc ny chng ta s cp thm hai ph-ng php biu din th na bng cch s dng
ma trn. Tu thuc vo tng bi ton c th m la chn cch biu din th cho ph hp.
i khi hai th c dng ng nh- nhau theo ngha tn ti php t-ng ng mt - mt gia
v1
v1 0
v2 1
v3 0
v4 0
v5 2
v6 0
v7 0
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
v7
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
a b c d e
a 0
b 1
c 0
d 0
e 0
a b c d
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
a 0
b 0
c 0
d 0
e 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
a ijp
a ijp
s cho ta s -ng i di p
s C l ma trn vi cc phn t.
c vi , v j nu vi , v j
Cij
nu vi , v j E
2 nh u v v c phi l hai nh k nhau trn th hay khng ta ch phi thc hin mt php so
snh. Tuy nhin, khng ph thuc vo s cnh ca th, cch biu din ny lun i hi phi
dng n2 n v b nh trong my tnh l-u tr n (n = s nh ca th).
2.2. Ma trn lin thuc.
Mt cch biu din th th-ng dng khc l dng ma trn lin thuc. Gi s G = (V, E)
l mt th v h-ng, V= {v1 , v2, vn }, E = {e1, e2en} khi ma trn lin thuc theo th t
trn ca V v E l ma trn
1
mij
0
M = [mij] trong :
Nu cnh ej ni nh vi
Nu cnh ej khng ni vi nh vi
V d 2.2.1: Ma trn lin thuc ca th trn hnh 1 (tit 1.1) l ma trn sau:
v1
e1
1
e2
0
e3
0
e4
0
e5
1
e6
0
e7
1
e8
0
e9
0
v4
v5
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
v2
v3
v6
v7
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
ma trn lin thuc; cn 2 cnh song song t-ng ng vi 2 ct ging nhau trong ma trn lin
thuc. Nu th khng c khuyn th tng cc phn t trn mt hng ca ma trn lin thuc
chnh l bc ca nh t-ng ng trn th.
2.3. S ng cu ca cc th
Trong ho hc th th-ng -c dng to m hnh cc hp cht. Cc hp cht khc
nhau c th c cng cng thc phn t nh-ng cu trc c th khc nhau. Khi y cc th t-ng
mt php ng cu.
u1
u3
u2
u4
v1
v2
v3
v4
Hnh 1. G v H l hai th ng cu
th ng cu.
gia hai th c cng n nh tn ti ti n! song nh gia hai tp nh. Tuy nhin, trong thc t,
th th nht tt c cc nh u c bc bng 2.
D-i y chng ta s cp ni dung chnh ca hai thut ton tm kim ph bin trn th: tm
kim theo chiu rng v tm kim theo chiu su. Vic chi tit ha hai thut ton ny ty thuc
vo tng yu cu tm kim c th.
V d 3.1.1. Xy dng thut ton kiu tm kim theo chiu su tm -ng i gia 2 nh s
v t ca th G cho tr-c.
hai nh s, t trong s cc nh ca V.
e
Hnh 1. -ng i t a ti d xy dng
bng thut ton tm kim theo chiu su
3.2. Tm kim theo chiu rng
Thut ton bt u tm kim t mt nh v0 no ca th. b-c tng qut, gi s ta
V d 3.2.1. Xy dng thut ton kiu tm kim theo chiu rng xc nh xem c tn ti
hai nh s, t trong s cc nh ca V.
li chuyn ti b-c 4.
hp ng-c li t S : S '
ri quay li b-c 2.
ni 2 nh s v t.
V d 3.2.2. -ng i t nh a
ti nh d trn th hnh 1 -c xy
4. th Euler v th Hamilton
Mt s bi ton thc t nh- bi ton ng-i -a th-, bi ton ng-i du lch dn n
-c chia thnh bn vng bng cc nhnh sng Pregel. Cc vng ny gm hai vng bn b
sng, o Kneiphof v mt min nm gia hai nhnh ca sng Pregel. Vo th k th 18
Vn t ra l c th xut pht ti mt
e
d
G1
c
G3
e
c
G2
Hnh 3. Cc th v h-ng G1 , G2 v G3 .
V d 4.1.2. Trn hnh 4, th H2 c chu trnh Euler, v d a, b, c, d, e, a. C hai
c
d
H1
H2
H3
Hnh 4. Cc th c h-ng H1 , H2 , H3 .
Cc v d trn cho thy, mt th c th l mt th Euler/na Euler hoc cng
nh ca n u c bc chn.
Vic xy dng chu trnh Euler cho mt th Euler bt k c th thc hin theo thut
nh-ng khng c chu trnh Euler. Cnh u tin ca -ng i gp 1 vo deg(a). Sau
f
d
G1
G2
Hnh 5. Ba th v h-ng.
G3
c
d
G1
G2
G3
Hnh 1. Ba n th
Hamilton trong G2 (v bt c chu trnh no cha mi nh cng phi cha cnh {a,
b} hai ln). Nh-ng G2 c -ng i Hamilton a, b, c, d. G3 khng c c chu trnh
c chu trnh Hamilton hay khng, tuy rng c nhng th d dng xy dng -c
chu trnh Hamilton nh- v d sau.
V d 4.2.2. th Kn c chu trnh Hamilton vi mi n 3. Chng ta c th
xy dng chu trnh Hamilton trong Kn xut pht t bt k nh no. Mt chu trnh
d-i dng s. Mt cch th hin l chia -ng trn thnh 2 n cung c di bng
nhau v cho mi cung ng vi mt xu nh phn di n. Trn hnh 2 biu din 2
cch chuyn i nh cc xu nh phn di 3.
111 000
110
101
100
001
011
010
100 000
101
111
110
001
010
011
Bt th ba l 1
y
Bt th
l 1
hai
l 1
l 1
Bt th hai
ba
l 1
l 1
Bt th ba
Bt th
Bt th
Bt th nht
Bt th nht l 1 y
Bt th ba
l 1
Bt th ba l 1
y
ba
l 1
Bt th hai l 1 y
gn cc xu nh phn cho 2 n cung sao cho cho hai xu biu din bng hai cung k
nhau ch sai khc nhau mt bit. iu ny -c th hin trong s m ho trn Hnh
2b. Li khi xc nh v tr ca kim ch th cho xu 010 thay cho xu 011. Ch mt bit
b sai.
M Gray l cch gn nhn cho cc cung ca -ng trn sao cho cc cung k nhau -c
101
010
111
110
000
011
001
thut ton sinh m Gray di l s n nguyn d-ng bt k (ng thi cng chng minh
th -c biu din bng khi hp n chiu Qn c chu trnh Hamilton).
Gn-1
G1
R
1
'
1
''
1
G2
R
2
'
2
''
2
G3
0 1
1 0
00 01
11 10
00 01 11 10
10 11 01 00
mt cung l cnh ca th. Trn mi cnh ta vit cc s t-ng ng vi thi gian dch
chuyn t l khoan ny n l khoan kia. Ta thu -c th c trng s hnh 2. Trn
th , di cnh (d,b) ni nh d vi nh b l 12, di cnh (c,e) l 5.
a
c
4
d
2 c
3
4
12
6+6+3+4=19
a, b, d, c, e
6 +12+3+5=26
a, c, d, b, e
2+3+12+9=26
a, c, b, d, e
a, d, b, c, e
a, d, c, b, e
2+6+12+4=24
4+12+6+5=27
4+3+6+9=22
ti -u ni hai nh cho tr-c trn th t-ng ng (khng nht thit phi i qua tt
c cc nh nh- v d 5.1.1) nh- cc bi ton ny sinh trong vn chuyn hng ho
v du lch, trong thit k cc mng my tnh sao cho chi ph cp truyn nh nht...
(Cn l-u khi nim di y khc vi khi nim di l s cc cnh trong
nh ca th.
a0
4
2
(a)
b
1
2
3
10
b
4
3(a,c)
10
2(a)
2
3
10
e 12(a,c
)
0
a
10(a,c,b,d)
2(a)
3(a,c)
2
10
2(a)
14(a,c,b,d)
8(a,c,b)
6
e 14(a,c,d,b
)
0 4
a
1
10
(g)
d 8(a,c,b)
(e)
c 2(a) e
(c)
14(a,c,b,d)
b 3(a,c d
5)
10
b 3(a,c)
8(a,c,b)
6
0
a
c 2(a) e
2(a)
5
1
10
(d)
(f)
(b)
d 8(a,c,b)
5
1
0
a
b 3(a,c)
0
a
0
a
b 4(a) d
13(a,c,b,d,e)
10(a,c,b,d)
Bng ph-ng php quy np ton hc, c th chng minh -c rng thut ton
t nh- sau: Tn ti hay khng cch v K3,3 trn mt mt phng sao cho khng c hai
cnh no ct nhau?
Cu hi t-ng t cng th-ng -c t ra vi cc th khc, nht l trong
khng?
Hnh 2. th K4
Hnh 4. th Q3
cnh no ct nhau.
V d biu din phng ca th trn hnh 6 chia min phng thnh 4 min. Chng -c gn
nhn nh- hnh v.
B
C
Hnh 2. th K3,3
phng, mi cnh thuc vo nhiu nht 2 chu trnh gii hn cc mt. Nh- vy : 2e
4f. S dng cng thc Euler ta suy ra :
2e 4(e v 2).
Hnh 3. th y K5
6.3. nh l Kuratowski
Xut pht t nhn xt ny, nh ton hc ng-i Ba Lan Kuratowskii chng minh
mt nh l rt quan trng mang tn ng lin quan n c im ca cc th
phng. pht biu nh l , chng ta cn -a vo mt s khi nim sau.
G1 a
G2
a
f
G3
b
k
Hnh 1. Cc th ng phi
j
i
g f
G
gf
H
c
g
K5
a
f
j
d
g
h
a)
g
i
b) H
c) K3,3
cnh lin thuc vi n nh- trn Hnh 3b, l ng phi vi K3,3 vi cc tp nh {f,d,j}
v {e, i, h}. Tht vy, H c th nhn -c t K3,3 (hnh 3c) bng mt dy cc phn
chia s cp: xo {d, h}, thm {c, h} v {c, d}; xo {e, f}, thm {a, e} v {a, f}; xo
{i, j}, thm {g, i} v {g, j}. V th th Petersen khng l th phng.
7. T mu th
7.1. M u
phn bit cc min c chung bin gii trn bn , ng-i ta phi t mu
B
A
F
E
C
D
B
A
B
A
t mu th ny.
s khng ln hn 4.
C l mt chng minh sai ni ting nht trong ton hc l chng minh sai bi
b
a
e
g
d
c
b
d
a
c
Hnh 3. Cc n th G v H
g
H
b Lam
a
c Lc
e Lc
g
e Lc
b Lam
d
f Lam
c Lc
Hnh 4. T mu th G v H
Nu
f Lam
V d 7.1.2. Tm s mu ca th Kn .
b
e Nu
c Lc
d Vng
Hnh 5. T mu th K5
d Lam
e Lam
f Lam
g Lam
Hnh 6. T mu th K 3,4
3
4
Nu 7
3 Lc
5 Lc
4 Nu
t thi
I
II
III
IV
Mn thi
1.6
2
3,5
4,7
cho cc i truyn hnh Bc M sao cho khng c hai i pht no cch nhau khng qu 150
dm li dng cng mt knh. Vic chia knh truyn hnh ny c th -c gii quyt bng m
hnh t mu th. C th, ta xy dng th bng cch coi mi i pht l mt nh. Hai
nh -c ni vi nhau bng mt cnh nu chng cch nhau khng qu 150 dm. Vic
phn chia knh t-ng ng vi vic t mu th, trong mi mu biu th mt knh.
V d 7.2.3. Cc thanh ghi ch s. Trong cc b dch hiu nng cao, vic thc hin cc
vng lp -c tng tc khi cc bin dng th-ng xuyn -c l-u tm thi trong cc thanh ghi
cng thi im khi thc hin vng lp. Nh- vy s mu ca th chnh l s thanh ghi cn c
v nhng thanh ghi khc nhau -c phn cho cc bin khi cc nh biu th cc bin ny l lin
k trong th.
8. Cy v ng dng
8.1. M u
Mt th lin thng v khng c chu trnh n -c gi l cy. Nm 1957 Arthur
d
c
G1
c
e
G2
G3
G4
f
d
c
g
e
d
e
f
c
T
e
f
Vi gc a
g
Vi gc c
Hnh 2. Cy v cc cy c gc
trong danh sch l mt trong nhng cng vic quan trng nht trong tin hc. Vn
t ra l cn -a ra mt thut ton hiu qu nht tm kim mt phn t trong dy
11
12
8
7
10
16
14
17
t-ng -ng :
a) T l mt cy.
Chng minh: chng minh cc khng nh trn t-ng -ng vi nhau, chng
c chu trnh. Tht vy, gi s T c cha chu trnh. Do vic loi b mt cnh no
nm trong chu trnh hon ton khng lm mt tnh lin thng ca th, cho nn ta
c th loi b dn cc cnh, nh-ng vn gia nguyn cc nh, ra khi cc chu trnh
c th c trong T cho ti khi th T nhn -c cui cng l th lin thng v
khng c chu trnh. L-u rng T cng c n nh. Do s dng kt qu chng
minh b) c) ta -c T c n-1 cnh. Th nh-ng iu c ngha l T c nhiu hn
n-1 cnh. Mu thun ny chng t T phi l th khng c chu trnh.
H a ch ph dng
Cc th tc duyt tt c cc nh ca cy c gc v -c sp th t u da trn
0 < 1 < 1.1 < 1.2 < 2 < 3 < 3.1.1 < 3.1.2 < 3.1.2.1 < 3.1.2.2 < 3.1.2.3 < 3.1.2.4 < 3.1.3 <
3.2 < 4 < 4.1 < 5 < 5.1 < 5.1.1 < 5.2 < 5.3
3,1,2,1
3,1
3,1,2
3,1,2,2 3,1,2,3
3,1 4,1
3,1,3
5,1
5,2 5,3
5,1,1
3,1,2,4
Hnh 1. H a ch ph dng ca cy c gc
-c sp th t
s T l mt cy c gc v -c sp th t vi gc r. Nu T ch c duy nht gc r th r l
T1
T2
B-c 2:
Thm T1
kiu tin
th t
B-c 3:
Thm T2
kiu tin
th t
B-c 1: Thm r
Tn
B-c n+1:
Thm T1
kiu tin
th t
j
n
l
o
T
d
g
h i
m
cy con gc d bt u bng vic lit k d sau l duyt cy con c gc g theo kiu tin
a
e
n
b
p
f
h i
l
o
l m
T1
T2
B-c 1:
Thm T1
kiu
trung th
t
B-c 3:
Thm T2
kiu
trung th
t
B-c 2: Thm r
Tn
B-c n+1:
Thm Tn
kiu trung
th t
kiu trung th t, tip tc duyt T3 theo kiu trung th t, v c tip tc cho n khi Tn
-c duyt theo kiu trung th t.
V d 8.2.3. Th t duyt cc nh ca cy T cho trn hnh 3 theo kiu trung th
t l j, e, n, k, o, p, b, f, a, c, l, g, m, d, h, i.
tc cho n khi Tn -c duyt theo kiu hu th t, v cui cng kt thc bng vic
ving thm r.
T1
T2
B-c 1:
Thm T1
kiu hu
th t
B-c 2:
Thm T2
kiu hu
th t
Tn
B-c n:
Thm Tn
kiu hu
th t
l j, n, o, p, k, e, f, b, c, l, m, g, h, i, d, a.
bng cch lit k mi nh khi -ng cong i qua n. Danh sch cc nh -c duyt
theo kiu trung th t -c xy dng bng cch lit k cc l khi i ngang qua n ln
b
d
c
f
u v lit k cc nh trong khi i ngang qua n ln th hai. V cui cng, danh sch
8.3. Cy v bi ton sp xp
nh- th no.
C kh nhiu thut ton sp xp khc nhau. nh gi hiu qu ca mi
th. Nh- vy, thut ton sp xp da trn so snh nh nguyn c th -c biu din
bng cy quyt nh nh phn vi cc nh trong l cc php so snh hai phn t, mi
l l mt trong n! hon v ca n phn t.
V d 8.3.1. Trn hnh 1 l biu din cy quyt nh sp xp cc phn t
ca danh sch a, b, c.
phc tp sp xp da trn so snh nh nguyn -c o bng s cc php
a>b
a>c
b>c
a>b>c
a:c
b:c
b<c
a>c>b
b<c
b>c
a<c
c>a>b
b:c
a<b
c>b>a
a:c
a>c
b>a>c
a<c
b>c>a
V d 8.3.2. Sp xp
3, 2, 4, 1, 5, theo th t tng
2
4
1
5
3
4
1
5
3
4
1
5
3
1
4
5
B-c 2
2
3
1
4
5
2
3
1
4
5
2
1
3
4
5
B-c 3
2
1
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
B-c 4
1
2
BB-c 1
4 vi 1. V 4 > 1 nn i
ch 4 vi 1, ta nhn -c
danh sch 2, 3, 1, 4, 5. V 4
< 5 nn vng duyt th
nht -c hon thnh. Vng
ny m bo phn t ln
nht 5, -c t vo ng v
tr ca n.
Vng duyt th hai
bt u bng vic so snh 2
v 3. V chng ng th t
cn sp xp nn ta so snh 3
v 1. V 3 > 1 nn i ch
chng cho nhau ta -c
danh sch 2, 1, 3, 4, 5. V 3
< 4 nn cc s ny
ng th t. Khng cn so
snh tip v cc phn t 4 v
5 ng v tr ca
chng.
3
4
: i ch
: cp ng th
t
Cc s trong khung
m bo th t ng
Hnh 2. Cc b-c sp xp theo kiu ni bt
cn phi thc hin (n-i) php so snh, nn tng hp cc php so snh trong sp xp
kiu ni bt l :
(n-1) + (n-2) + ... + 2 + 1 = n(n-1)/2.
824
8
8
82
2
2
82
82469
4
8 2 4 6 9 7 10 1 5
69
824
9
69
24689
7 10 1
7
7
7 10
1
1
7 10
7 10 1
7 10 1 5
1
5
7 10 1 5
53
3
53
123456789
10 sch 8, 2, 4, 6, 9, 7, 10, 1, 5, 3 .
Hnh 3. Sp xp kiu ho nhp danh
V d 8.3.3. Chng ta s sp xp danh sch 8, 2, 4, 6, 9, 7, 10, 1, 5, 3 theo
thut ton sp xp kiu ho nhp. Theo thut ton ny tr-c tin ta chia i lin tip
danh sch cho thnh hai danh sch con. Dy cc danh sch con ng vi v d ny
-c biu din bng cy nh phn cn i c chiu cao bng 4 (xem na trn ca
hnh 3).
giai on ny danh sch u l 5, 6 danh sch th hai rng cn danh sch ho nhp
l 1, 2, 3.
Cui cng v danh sch th hai rng nn tt c cc phn t ca danh sch 1
-c ni vo cui ca danh sch ho nhp theo th t m chng c danh sch 1.
Kt qu chng ta nhn -c danh sch -c sp theo th t tng dn 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Bng 1. Ho nhp hai danh sch 2, 3, 5, 6 v 1, 4
Danh sch 1
Danh sch 2
Danh
2 3 5 6
1 4
2 3 5 6
3 5 6
4
4
nhp
1 2
1 2 3
sch
ho So snh
1< 2
2< 4
3< 4
5 6
5 6
4
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6
4< 5
Thut ton 8.3.3. Ha nhp hai danh sch c th t. Mt cch tng qut, vic
v xo n khi danh sch m n c mt. Tip theo, nu mt trong hai danh sch
L 1 v L 2 l rng th ni danh sch kia (danh sch khng rng) vo L v th tc ho
nhp kt thc. Nu c L 1 v L 2 u khng rng th lp li qu trnh trn.
By gi chng ta s nh gi s php so snh cn dng trong th tc ho nhp
hai danh sch c th t, mt th tc c bn ca thut ton sp xp ho nhp. Mi ln
c mt php so snh phn t ca L 1 vi mt phn t ca L 2 th li c mt phn t
-c ghi vo danh sch ho nhp L. Tuy nhin khi L 1 hoc L 2 l rng th khng cn
phi so snh na. K hiu m v n t-ng ng l cc phn t ca L 1 v L 2 . R rng
ho nhp. Thay cho vic nghin cu bi ton tng qut chng ta gi s s phn t
ca danh sch l lu tha ca 2, tc l n = 2 m. iu lm cho vic phn tch bt
cng knh hn, nh-ng khi n 2 m, dng nhng thay i khc nhau cng s cho mt
nh gi nh- th.
1 php so snh.
Th tc tip tc sao cho mc k (k= m, m - 1, m - 2, ... 3, 2, 1), 2 k danh sch,
2 k 1 (2 m k 1 1)
m
k 1
2 m (2 k 1 1)
m
k 1
k 1
= m 2 - ( 2 - 1)
= nlogn -n + 1 , v m = logn v n = 2 m .
m
Hnh 1. th n G
xo cnh {a,e}
xo cnh {e,f}
xo cnh {c,g}
g
b
Hnh 3. Cc cy khung ca G.
j
i
b
Hnh 4. th G
i hi phi nhn bit -c cc chu trnh n. Thay cho vic xy dng cy khung
bng cch loi b cc cnh, c th xy dng -c cy khung bng cch ln l-t ghp
cc cnh. Chng ta s gii thiu hai thut ton da trn nguyn tc ny. Cy khung
-c xy dng l mt cy c gc.
Thut ton 8.4.1. Xy dng cy khung bng ph-ng php tm kim theo chiu
su.
t no v1 , v2 ,, vn .
Output: Cy khung T ca th G.
1.
2.
[Chn cnh] Chn cnh (w, vk) vi k nh nht c th -c sao cho khi
3.
4.
5.
thm cnh vo T khng to thnh chu trnh trong T. Nu cnh nhvy khng tn ti th ti b-c 4.
b
g
g
k
rng.
Thut ton 8.4.2. Xy dng cy khung bng ph-ng php tm kim theo chiu
Input: Cho th lin thng G vi tp cc nh -c sp xp theo mt trnh
t no v1 , v2 ,, vn .
Output: Cy khung T ca th G.
1.
2.
3.
ta ln l-t thm cnh (x,y) v nh y theo th t sao cho vic thm cnh
vo T khng to thnh chu trnh trong T.
[Thay i S] Nu tt c cc nh ca G -c ghp vo T th kt
a
b
a
d
j
k
Hnh 6. th G
i
c
g
b
e
j
d
h
f
j
i b
k a
c
l
h
m
a
3
c
6
4
2
3
6
2
f
Hnh 1. th G
u -c tin hnh bng cch ghp cc cnh c trng s nh nht trong s cc cnh
c mt tnh cht no m ch-a -c dng. Nhng thut ton ny l nhng v d v
cc thut ton tham lam. Thut ton tham lam l mt th tc thc hin mt la chn
ti -u mi giai on. Ti -u ho mi giai on ca thut ton khng m bo to
ra li gii ti -u ton cc. Nh-ng hai thut ton gii thiu trong mc ny xy
dng cy khung nh nht l cc thut ton tham lam to ra cc li gii ti -u.
Thut ton 8.5.1. Thut ton Prim. Do Robert Prim -a ra vo nm 1957, mc
d t-ng c bn ca n c t sm hn rt nhiu. Thut ton bt u bng vic
Ph tn
{c, d}
{c, a}
{a, e}
{e, f}
{a, b}
Tng cng
2
12
1
2
3
4
s nhng cnh ni vi mt nh ca
cy v khng to thnh mt chu trnh (xem hnh 2). Cc cnh -c t m trn hnh
3 l cy khung nh nht nhn -c bng thut ton Prim.
c
6
4
2
3
6
2
f
Thut ton 8.5.2. Thut ton Kruskal. Do Joseph Kruskal pht minh vo nm
v khng to ra chu trnh. Trong khi theo thut ton Kruskal s l chn cc cnh
c trng s ti thiu m khng nht thit phi lin thuc vi cc nh ca cy
chn v khng to ra chu trnh. Ch rng cng nh- trong thut ton Prim nu cc
cnh khng -c sp th t c th c nhiu cch chn trong mi b-c ca thut ton
ny. Do cho th tc xc nh cn sp xp cc cnh theo mt trt t no . V
d sau y s minh ho cch dng thut ton Kruskal.
Ph tn
V d 8.5.2. Nu kt qu B-c chn Cnh
1
{c, d}
1
2
{c, a}
2
3
{e, f}
2
4
{a, e}
3
5
{a, b}
4
Tng cng
12
Hnh 4. Thut ton Kruscal xy dng cy khung
nh nht i vi th c trng s hnh 1
chuyn ca lung du trong ng dn. Cc s trn cc cung l kh nng thng qua (c th hiu l
tit din) ca cc ng dn du t-ng ng. Vn l ch cn xc nh lung du ln nht c
th bm t tu ch du vo
b cha v bm bng cch
no. th c h-ng trn
hnh 1 l mt v d v mng
vn ti (gi tt l mng).
Bi ton nh- vy
5
d
Hnh 1. Mng ng dn du G
iu kin:
v (lung vo nh v) bng tng lung trn cc cung i ra khi nh (lung ra khi nh v):
f ( w, v)
f (v, w)
Sau ny, trong cc tng kiu nh- trn, nu khng c l-u g khc, ta c th coi
Trn hnh 2 chng ta v li lung cho trong v d 9.1.1 trn mng G ca hnh 1.
Cc cp s x,y vit trn mi cung t-ng ng l kh nng thng qua v lung trn cung
y. Cch biu din ny s -c s dng trong sut nhng phn tip theo ca mc ny.
2,
3,
c
4,
2,
5,
d
2,
4,
f ( a , v ) f (v , z ) .
v
f (v, w) f (w, v) ,
wV
vV
wV
vV
f (e) . Do vy:
eE
0 f (v, w) f (w, v)
wV vV
vV
w a , z
f ( v, z ) f ( a , v )
vV
vV
vV
vV
Do nh l trn, ta c th nh ngha:
vV
Chng ta s xem xt mt thut ton gii bi ton sau: Cho mng G = (V, E) vi
nh pht a v nh thu z. Trong s tt c cc lung c th c ca mng G hy tm lung
f* sao cho gi tr lung val(f*) l ln nht. Lung nh- vy ta s gi l lung cc i trong
mng. t-ng chnh ca thut ton l: xut pht t mt dng ban u no (v d
dng ng nht bng 0 trn mi cung) tng b-c ta tm cch tng dn gi tr ca lung
cho ti khi khng th tng -c na.
ln 1.
3,1
b
2,1
3,2
4,1
b
2,2
1a)
4,2
c
1b)
ngay c trong tr-ng hp -ng i c cung thun v cung nghch. Tht vy, gi s P l
-ng i t nh a ti z v x l mt nh nm trn P ( x a , x z ). C 4 kh nng nh
h-ng cc cung e1 v e2 lin thuc vi x (hnh 2).
a
a
a
a
e1
e
e1
e
e1
e
e1
e
x
x
x
x
2a)
2b)
2c)
2d)
lung i vo x vn bng lung i ra khi x. Tr-ng hp 2c) t-ng t nh- 2b) ngoi
tr vic ta tng lung trn e1 ln mt i l-ng v gim lung trn e2 i mt i l-ng
. Trong tr-ng hp 2d) chng ta gim lung trn c hai cung ni trn mt i l-ng
cc cung thun, cn (c,b) l cung nghch. Chng ta tng lung trn cc cung thun ln 1,
gim lung trn cung nghch (c,b) i 1. Kt qu ta -c lung mi c gi tr ln hn
lung c l 1 n v nh- -c ch ra trn hnh 3b).
3,1
a
3,2
5,1
3,2
c
5,2
3,3
4,1
z
4,2
3a)
3b)
f *(u , v ) f (u , v ) , thun
f (u , v ),
nu (u,v)P l cung
b-c 3.
6. [Xc nh li lung] Gi s ( , ) l nhn ca z. K hiu u0 z , u1 . Nu
P : a uk , uk 1 ,..., u1 , u0 z
Gii: Ta bt u t lung khng (hnh 4). Sau 3 b-c tng lung ta thu -c
lung cc i. Kt qu thc hin thut ton trn mng cho hnh 1 -c th hin trn
cc hnh 4-6.
3,
a
(a,3)
(, )
2,
(b,2)
4,
2,
(c,2)
5,0
(a,5)
(d,2
2,
4,
3,
a
2,
(a,1
(,
4,
2,
5,
(a,3
(e,2
2,
(d,2
e
4,
3,
a
2,
(a,1
(,
4,
2,
5,
d
(a,3
2,
4,
Bi tp.
3.
U1
U2
U3
U6
U5
4.
U4
U8
U7
u1
v1
5.
v4
v6
v5
v1
u1
v2
u2
u8
u7
u4
u5
v6
v5
u3
u6
v3
v7
u4
v8
v4
v4
v2
v8
u3
u5
v8
v1
u7
u6
v7
v5
v3
u2
u8
v6
v2
v7
v3
b) K2,2,2
c) K1,2,3,4
9.
e
11.
g
h
f
b
k
j
h
e
i
12
.
13.
a
c
e
c
d
f
14
e
i
e) C n nh c lp ;
f) th phn i.
3. L th khng phng ?
19.
20.
21.
a
d
b) K1,3
c) K2,3
d) K3,3
e) Q3
f) C5
b) K4,5
c) Q3
d) C6
c.
2 3 2
4
2
1
3
4
z
4
b.
2
6
3
4
6
4
2
2
1
p
1
q
r
3
8
b) a v f
d) b v z
trong tp ny -c ni vi nhau. S c lp ca mt th l s cc i cc nh
ca tp c lp ng vi th .
32. Tm s c lp ca
a) Kn
b) Cn
c) Qn
d) Km n
a) th G lin thng
f) th G c s mu bng 4
g) th G c bn knh bng 3
B
C D
A B C D
F
C
B
D
38. Tnh s mu ca th Wn .
39. Chng minh rng mt n th c chu trnh v c mt s l cc nh khng th
nht cc t thi, nu khng c sinh vin no thi c hai mn Gii tch v Tin hc, Gii tch v
i s, Ngoi ng v Tin hc, Gii tch v Vt l, nh-ng c sinh vin thi trong mi t hp
khc ca cc mn.
41. Su i truyn hnh cch nhau nh- cho trong bng d-i y. Hi phi
cn bao nhiu knh khc nhau pht sng, nu hai i khng th dng cng mt
knh khi chng cch nhau khng qu 150 dm?
1
2
85
100
175
200
175
100
160
250
50
200
-125
175
100
125
100
175
85
3
4
200
50
100
200
250
100
160
210
220
220
100
210
160
100
a) Kn
b) Km,n
c) Cn
d) W n
43. By bin xut hin trong vng lp ca mt ch-ng trnh. Cc bin v cc b-c
44.
45.
46.
c) v c ti thiu my anh em ?
d) T c t nht bao nhiu nh ?
e) Hy tm cc a ch khc phi c.
48. Gi s nh c a ch ln nht trong cy T c a ch 2.3.4.3.1. C th xc nh
-c s nh trong T hay khng ?
49. Cc l ca cy c gc v -c sp c th c danh sch a ch ph dng nh- sau
-c khng ? Nu c, hy xy dng cy c gc .
a). 1.1.1, 1.1.2., 1.2, 2.1.1.1., 2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2, 3.1.1, 3.1.2.1, 3.1.2.2,
3.2
b) 1.1, 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, 2.1, 2.2.1, 2.3.2, 2.4.2.1, 2.4.2.2, 3.1, 3.2.1, 3.2.2
51.
c
e
52.
c
e
d
g
f g
j
m n o
e
l
k
p
c
f
l m
r
g
n
h
o
s
d
j
i
p
v c u c 1 con cn tt c cc nh khc u l l.
56. Hy chng t rng cy c gc -c sp li xc nh duy nht khi cho
danh sch cc nh ca n sinh ra bng cch duyt tin th t v s con ca mi
nh l -c cho tr-c.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ; 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
5. 6. 7. 8; 2. 3. 4. 9. 10
Sp xp kiu chn lc bt u bng vic tm phn t nh nht trong danh
thut ton ny bt u bng vic ly phn t u tin a 1 v to hai danh sch con,
danh sch u cha cc phn t nh hn a 1 theo th t xut hin ca chng, danh
65.
h
g
67.
j
g
66.
69.
a
4
c
2
3
1
e
1
3
2
b
3
a
2
d
6
b
5
7
8
6
e
3
4
4
3
1
4
4
2
70.
2
a
d
2
1
1
c 1
e
2
f 3 g 2
2
3
4
h
3 i
3
j 4 k 3
3
4
3
l
2 m 2 n 2 o 3
p
2
72. Hy xut mt thut ton t-ng t thut ton Prim xy dng cy khung cc i ca
mt th lin thng c trng s.
73. Hy xut mt thut ton t-ng t thut ton Kruskal xy dng cy khung cc i
ca mt th lin thng c trng s.
a.
b
5
3, 1
5, 2
6
2
4, 2
4, 3
e
g
4, 2
4
b.
b
8
10
11
a
9
2
4
12
9
12
10
10
10
14
8
6
12
14
6
6
10
(1
10
(1
12
10
Ch-ng IV
i s Boole v mch t hp
Trong ch-ng ny chng ta s cp mt s khi nim c bn ca mch t hp
thc hin cc nhim v khc nhau. Mt trong cc ph-ng php ti -u ho biu thc
Boole - ph-ng php Quine-McClusky cng s -c gii thiu ch-ng ny. Cn phi
nhn mnh rng th tc ti -u ho biu thc Boole ng vai tr ht sc quan trng
thit k cc mch t hp t hiu qu cao trong thc t.
1. Khi nim v mch t hp
1, nu x1 1 hoc x2 1
x1 x2
0, trong cc tr-ng hp cn li.
x1 x2
x1 x2
x1
x2
x1 x2 x1x2 x1 x2
1
z ( x y ) ( x y) .
x
y
xy
x
x
y
xy
x
y
xy
x
y
Biu thc kiu nh- biu thc trn -c gi l biu thc Boole m ta s nh
ngha d-i y.
1.2. Biu thc Boole
Mt bin x -c gi l mt bin Boole nu n ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr
lgic k hiu l 0 hoc 1. Biu thc Boole i vi cc bin Boole x1 , x2 ,..., xn -c nh
ngha mt cch quy nh- sau.
a) ( X 1 )
b) X 1 X 1
b) X 1 X 2
c) X 1 X 2
x2
x2
x3
x3
Hnh 3.
x1
x2
x3
x2
x2
x3
Hnh 4.
x1 (x2 x3 )
x1
x2
x1 (x2 x3 )
x2
x2
x3
x3
(x1 (x2 x3 )) x2
Hnh 5.
Bng logic ca mch t hp l:
x1 x2 x3 ( x1 ( x 2 x 3 )) x 2
1
a) Lut kt hp: ( x y ) z x ( y z ); ( x y ) z x ( y z )
b) Lut giao hon: x y y x; x y y x
d) Lut ng nht: a 0 a; a 1 a
e) Lut b: x x 1; x x 0
f) Lut lu ng: x x x; x x x
g) Lut De Morgan: ( x y ) x y ; ( x y ) x y
C th kim tra trc tip cc tnh cht trn bng cch s dng bng logic so
snh gi tr ca hai v ng thc t-ng ng. D-i y l mt minh ho dng bng logic
chng minh tnh cht c):
x y z
x ( y z)
( x y) ( x z)
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
tng cp. Mi quan h gia hai ng thc trong mi cp lin quan n mt khi nim
-c gi l i ngu. i ngu ca mt biu thc Boole nhn -c bng cch i ch
a
b
a)
y1
a
y1
b
b)
x1
y1
x2
x3
x1
x2
y1
x3
xy
1 vi hai php ton hai ngi +, . v mt php ton mt ngi trn B sao cho vi mi
x,y,z thuc B ta lun c:
= y(x+x)
= y.x+y.x
= x.y+y.x
= 0 + y.x
[Theo gi thit]
= x.x +y.x
= x.x +x.y
= x.(x+y)
= x.1
[Theo gi thit]
= x
Do nh l trn, ta c th nh ngha:
ca x.
lun c:
i) x + x.y = x; x(x+y)= x, x, y S
j) (x) =x, x S
k) 1 =0; 0 =1.
3.2. Hm Boole v vn tng hp mch
Gi s X(x1,x2,...,xn) l mt biu thc Boole. Khi hm s f(x1,x2,...,xn) =
X(x1,x2,...,xn) -c gi l hm s Boole. K hiu B={0,1}, ta c hm Boole
f(x1,x2,...,xn) l mt nh x t Bn vo B. Ng-c li, mi hm n bin f(x1,x2,...,xn) t Bn
vo B bt k u c th biu din d-i dng mt biu thc Boole. Khi thit k mt mch
x1 x2 x3 f(x1,x2,x3)
1
x1 x 2 x3 (1)
D dng kim tra li -c l biu thc trn ch nhn gi tr bng 1 khi v ch khi
V d 3.2.1 minh ho mt ph-ng php xy dng biu thc Boole biu din mt
f ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ( x1 x 2 ) x3
Chng ta c th xy dng bng logic ca f ri sau bng ph-ng php trnh
by trn xy dng dng tuyn chun tc t-ng ng. Tuy nhin, ta cng c th s
dng cc tnh cht ca cc php ton AND, OR, NOT v nh ngha dng tuyn chun
tc gii bi ton t ra. Tht vy, tr-c tin, ta p dng lut phn phi -a biu
thc ca f v dng sau:
( x1 x 2 ) x 3 ( x1 x3 ) ( x2 x3 )
Mc d biu thc thu -c l tng ca cc tch Boole, song y ch-a phi l
dng tuyn chun tc, v mi tiu hng c mt trong biu thc trn khng cha tt c cc
bin x1,x2,x3. Tuy nhin, ta c th bin i biu thc nh- sau:
( x1 x3 ) ( x2 x3 ) ( x1 x3 1) ( x2 x3 1)
( x1 x3 ( x2 x 2 )) ( x2 x3 ( x1 x1 ))
( x1 x2 x3 ) ( x1 x 2 x3 ) ( x1 x2 x3 ) ( x1 x2 x3 )
( x1 x2 x3 ) ( x1 x 2 x3 ) ( x1 x2 x3 )
B cng
Trong phn ny chng ta s thit k cc mch logic thc hin php cng hai s
nguyn d-ng t cc khai trin nh phn ca chng. S mch s -c xy dng t
mt s mch thnh phn. dn gin trong cch vit, chng ta s thay cc k hiu ,
bng cc du . v +.
u ra
x
y
Hnh 1. B na cng
u ra
ci
ci+1
x
y
z
c
Hnh 2. B cng y
4.2.
c nhiu cng thc biu din khc nhau. T-ng t nh- vy, mt mch t hp c th c
nhiu thit k vi cc phn t khc nhau. Hiu qu ca mt mch t hp ph thuc rt
nhiu vo s l-ng cc cng v s b
tr cc cng . Qu trnh thit k
mt mch -c bt u bng vic xy
dng bng logic ch r cc gi tr u
x
y
z
ra t-ng ng vi mi mt t hp u x
vo. S dng cc bng logic d, ta
lun c th dng khai trin tng cc
tch ca mch (dng tuyn chun tc)
tm ra tp cc cng logic thc hin
mch . Tuy nhin, khai trin y c
xyz
xyz+xy z
x y z
z
x
Hnh 1.
xz
x. y. z x. y. z x. y.( z z ) x. y.1 x. y
Biu thc cui cng cng l mt biu din ca mch cho nh-ng vi s l-ng
php ton t hn. Hai thc hin khc nhau ca mch -c cho trn hnh 1.
Ta s biu din cc tiu hng trong tng trn bng cc xu bit. Bit u tin s l
1 nu xut hin x v l 0 nu xut hin x . T-ng t, bit th hai (bit th 3) s l 1 nu
xut hin y (z) v l 0 nu xut hin y(z ) . Sau chng ta nhm cc s hng theo s
l-ng cc tr 1 trong cc xu bit t-ng ng. Thng tin ny -c ghi trong bng 1.
Bng 1
Tiu hng
Xu bit
S cc s 1
x.y.z
111
x. y. z
101
x. y. z
011
x. y. z
001
x. y. z
000
hai bin. Cc tc bin ny ch khc nhau i vi mt trong hai bin . Ni theo ngn
ng cc xu biu din cc tch , th hai xu phi c gch ngang cng mt v tr v
ch khc nhau mt trong hai v tr cn li. V d, chng ta c th t hp cc tch
y.z , y.z -c biu din bi cc xu 11, -01 thnh z vi biu din t-ng ng bi xu 1.
Tt c nhng t hp c th -c to theo cch -c cho trong bng 2.
Bng 2
B-c 1
S hng
bit
Xu
hng
B-c 2
S
bit
Xu
x. y. z
111
(1,2)
x. z
1-1
x. y. z
101
(1,3)
y.z
-11
x. y. z
011
(2,4)
y.z
-01
x. y. z
001
(3,4)
x.z
0-1
x. y. z
000
(4,5)
x. y
00-
hng
(1,2,3,4)
S
z
tc bin nh hn song khng nht thit phi c mt trong biu thc cc tiu. Th tc
tip theo ca ph-ng php l nhn dng tp cc tiu cc tch cn thit c mt trong biu
din cn tm. Cng vic ny -c bt u vi tt c cc tch ch-a -c dng xy
dng cc tch c s tc bin t hn (trong v d ang xt l z , x. y ). Tip theo, ta lp
bng 3, trong c mt dng dnh cho mi ng vin -c to ra bng cch t hp
bit
Xu
--1
x. y. z
x. y.z
x. y.z
x. y.z
x. y
x. y.z
s tc bin bt i 1.
7. Lp bng xc nh mi tch thu -c ph nhng tiu hng gc ban u no
vi iu kin mi tiu hng phi -c ph t nht bi mt tch. Trn c s xc
nh tp nh nht cc tch Boole sao cho tng ca chng biu din hm cho
ban u.
kt thc, ta xt thm mt v d minh ho sau:
V d 4.2.1. Tm biu thc cc tiu t-ng -ng vi tng cc tch Boole sau:
v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z v.x. y.z
Xu bit
S cc s 1
v.x.y.z
1111
v. x. y. z
0111
v. x. y. z
1011
v. x. y. z
1101
1110
v.x. y.z
0011
v.x. y.z
1010
v. x. y. z
0001
v. x. y. z
Bng 5
B-c 1
S hng
B-c 2
Xu bit
S hng
Xu bit
S hng
v.x. y.z
1111
(1,2)
x. y. z
-111
(1,2,3,6)
v.x. y.z
0111
(1,3)
v. y.z
1-11
(1,3,5,7)
v. x. y.z
1011
(1,4)
v. x.z
11-1
v. x. y.z
1101
(1,5)
v.x. y
111-
v. x. y.z
1110
(2,6)
v. y.z
0-11
v.x. y.z
0011
(3,6)
x. y. z
-011
v. x. y.z
1010
(3,7)
v. x. y
101-
0001
(6,8)
v.x.z
00-1
v. x. y.z
Xu bit
y.z
v.y 11
1-
-1-
Bng 6
v.x. y.z
v.y
y.z
v. x.z
v. x. y. z
v. x. y.z
v. x. y. z
x
x
v. x. y. z
v. x. y.z
v. x. y.z
v. x. y. z
x
x
x
x
v.x.z
Bi tp.
x1
x2
2.
3.
x1
x1
x2
x2
x3
4.
x1
x2
x3
5.
x1
x2
x3
x4
Cho x1=1, x2=1, x3=0, x4=1, tnh gi tr cc biu thc Boole sau:
6. ( x1 ( x 2 ( x1 x 2 ))) (( x1 x 2 ) ( x1 x 3 )
7. ((( x1 x 2 ) ( x 3 x 4 )) (( x1 x3 ) ( x 2 x3 ))) ( x1 x 4 )
Kim tra cc ng thc sau:
8. x1 ( x 2 x 3 ) ( x1 x 2 ) ( x1 x 3 )
9. ( x1 x 2 ) ( x 3 x 4 ) ( x 3 x1 ) ( x 3 x 2 ) ( x 4 x1 ) ( x 4 x 2 )
10. Gi s X ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) l mt biu thc Boole bt k trn cc bin x1 , x2 ,..., xn .
x1 x2
1 trong cc tr-ng hp cn li.
x1 x2
ng ca chng.
15.
x1
x2
f(x,y)
Biu din hm XOR qua cc cng AND, OR, NOT -c cho trong hnh v d-i y.
x
y
x y
16.
x
f(x,y,z)
f(x,y,z)
17.
18.
x
f(x,y,z,t)
19. f ( x , y ) ( x y )( x y )
20. f ( x , y , z ) ( xy xz )( x yz )
21. f ( x, y, z ) x ( y ( x y xz ))
22. f ( x, y, z ) ( xy xz )( xyz yz )( x yz x y x yz xyz )
23. f ( w, x, y, z ) (wx yz x yz )( xyz yz )( x yz x. y x yz xyz )
24. Chng minh rng, tng Boole y1 y2 ... yn trong yi xi hoc yi x i c gi
tr 0 i vi ch mt t hp gi tr cc bin, c th l khi xi 0 nu yi xi v xi 1
nu yi x i . Tng Boole ny -c gi l mt i hng (maxterm).
25. Chng minh rng mt hm Boole c th -c biu din nh- tch cc i hng (dng
hi chun tc ca hm). (Gi : -a mt i hng vo tch ny i vi mi t hp gi tr
ca cc bin lm cho hm nhn gi tr 0).
27. Thit k cc mch thc hin s b phiu theo a s cho 3 v cho 5 thnh vin.
28. Thit k h thng mch n -c iu khin bi 2 cng tc sao cho n sng khi c hai cng
tc cng m hoc cng ng, n tt trong cc tr-ng hp cn li.
Tm cc khai trin cc tiu ca cc biu thc sau:
29. xyz xyz xyz xy z
30. x. y. z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y. z.t
31. x. y. z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y.z.t x. y. z.t x. y. z.t
32. Tm cc mch n gin hn c cng u ra i vi cc mch sau:
x
y
z
xyz
xyz +xyz
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
y
z
xyz
xyz
x y z
x
y
z
x y z
Ch-ng V.
Automat, vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc
Trong ch-ng ny chng ta s nghin cu ba loi cu trc ri rc, l cc my hu hn
trng thi, cc vn phm v my Turing. Cc loi my hu hn trng thi -c dng trong vic
m hnh ho; cc vn phm -c dng cu to cc t ca mt ngn ng v xc nh mt t c
thng x l thng tin trong thc t, thng tin u ra khng ch ph thuc vo thng tin u vo
m cn ph thuc vo kt qu cc b-c x l trung gian. phn nh cc h thng x l thng
tin trong thc t, ng-i ta th-ng s dng cc m hnh mch in c gn thm b nh hoc b
x l thng tin. H thng mch c kt ni vi b nh hoc b x l thng tin gi l h thng
mch tun t hay h thng mch lin tip (sequential circuit).
1.1. Mch tun t
nh ngha 1.1.1. Mt cch trc quan chng ta c th m t h thng mch tun t nh-
nhn tn hiu vo, pht tn hiu ra v vic thay i trng thi ca b x l thng tin xy ra lin
tip ti nhng thi im khc nhau. Ni mt cch khc chng ta c th phn chia qu trnh hot
ng ca h thng theo thi gian sao cho ti mi thi im trong dy thi im t1, t2 ,.., tn, vic
nhn tn hiu vo, pht tn hiu ra v thay i trng thi ca b x l thng tin xy ra ng thi.
Mt h thng hot ng theo nguyn l trn gi l h thng hot ng theo qu trnh ri rc.
st+1=(st, xt );
yt=(st, xt );
y k hiu ch nguyn tc ph thuc ca trng thi st+1 i vi st, xt ; k hiu ch nguyn
V d 1.1.1. B cng hai s nh phn x=0xnxn-1 ....x0 v y=0ynyn-1 ....y0 l mt h thng mch lin
tip. B cng ny hot ng theo nguyn tc cng cc bt t-ng ng theo th t vo t phi sang
tri , tng nhn -c l dy cc bt zn+1 zn zn-1.... z1 z0 . Hnh 2 m t trng thi lm vic ca b
B cng
z0= 1
B cng
z1 = 0
t0 = 0
t1 = 1
a)
b)
B cng
c)
t2 = 2
Hnh 2.
- l nh x; : S x X Y; -c gi l hm ra
- s0 S l trng thi bt u ca my trng thi
V d 1.2.1. B M=(S, X, Y, , , s0) cho sau y l mt my hu hn trng thi:
q0
q1
q0
q1
q1
q1
Theo bng trn ta c (a,q0)= q0; (a,q1)= q1 ; (b,q0 )= q1; (b,q1)= q1.
+ Bng xc nh hm ra
X/S
q0
q1
Ph-ng php th
Trong ph-ng php th, ng-i ta biu din mi my hu hn trng thi vi th c
a/1
a/0
start
q0
b/1
q1
b/0
Hnh 3. Biu din th ca my hu hn trng thi
Ph-ng php bng
Trong ph-ng php bng hay cn gi l ph-ng php ma trn biu din my hu hn
trng thi ng-i ta s dng 2 ma trn gm m dng v n ct, trong m l s trng thi ca S, n
l s k t vo ca bng vo X. Ma trn th nht dng xc nh hm chuyn trng thi: phn
t hng i, ct j ghi trng thi qk nu (qi,aj) = qk. Ma trn th hai dng xc nh hm ra :
phn t hng i, ct j ghi kY nu (qi,aj) = k (xem v d 1.2.1).
2. Automat hu hn
Automat hu hn l mt tr-ng hp c bit ca my hu hn trng thi, tuy vy n li l
cng c rt quan trng nghin cu ngn ng thut ton v s l thng tin tun t.
2.1. Khi nim v nh ngha
automat nhn k t vo a.
quan tm n tp trng thi kt thc FS, tp trng thi F cn -c gi l tp trng thi chp
nhn -c (accept) ca automat.
S\
q0
q0
q1
q1
q0
q2
q2
q0
q2
b
a
b
q1
q2
a
Hnh 1. Biu din th ca automat hu hn
2.3. Ngn ng on nhn bi automat
Tr-c ht chng ta nh ngha xu -c gi l on nhn bi Automat hu hn M
nh ngha 2.3.1. Cho automat hu hn M = (S,,,q0,F). Gi s =x1 x2..... xn l mt xu
- qk 0=q0;
- (xi, qki -1 )= qki vi i=1,2,...,n
- qkn F.
Dy (qk0,qk1, qk2,..., qkn - 1) -c gi l dy trng thi on nhn xu trn M.
Hnh 2 minh ho cho nh ngha trn:
W =X 1 X2 X3 .Xn
q0
q1
q2 ..qn -1
qn
Hnh 2.
nh ngha 2.3.2. Cho automat hu hn M = (S,,,q0,F), tp tt c cc xu on nhn
sao cho khi automat trng thi ban u q0, nhn xu vo x th automat c th chuyn dch v
nh ngha trn coi hai automat cng on nhn mt ngn ng l t-ng -ng.
V d 2.3.1. Cho automat hu hn M = (S, ,,q0,F):
S={q0,q1,q2,q3}; ={0,1}; F={q0}
Hm chuyn xc nh nh- sau:
(q0,0)=q2
(q0,1)=q1
(q1,0)=q3
(q1,1)=q0
(q2,0)=q0
(q2,1)=q3
(q3,0)=q1
(q3,1)=q2
bi M.
start
q0
0
q2
1
1
q1
0
q3
Hnh 3.
2.4. Automat khng tt nh (nondeterministic automat)
nh ngha 2.4.1. Automat hu hn M = (S, , , q0, F), -c gi l automat tt nh nu
a, q S , (a,q) 1 (*)
M -c xc nh l tp :
N(M) = {x(q0,x)F, x *}
Chng ta thy rng i vi automat tt nh, vi mi k t vo v t mt trng thi n xc
nh khng qu mt trng thi chuyn tip theo. Ng-c li, i vi automat khng tt nh, vi
mi k t vo v t mt trng thi, trng thi chuyn tip ni chung l mt tp con ca S.
i vi automat khng tt nh, nh x c th m rng trn S x * nh- sau:
p(q,x) (p,a) vi
(q,)={q} ;(q,xa)=
x*; p,qS.
khng tt nh.
0,1
0
0
q0
q3
q4
1
q1
q2
1
0,1
Hnh 1.
nhin ng.
'('({q},w),a)=Uq''(q,w) (q',a)=Uq'(q,w)(q',a)=(q,wa)=(q,x)
T (*) ta suy ra:
xN(M)(q0,x)F'({q0},x)F'(q0,x)F'xT(M')
V d 2.5.1. Cho M = (S, , , q0 , F) l automat khng tt nh: S=q0,q1; =0,1
ng. Tuy nhin v ph-ng din cu trc v vit ch-ng trnh dch th automat khng tt nh
phc tp hn nhiu so vi automat tt nh, v vy ng-i ta cn bin i automat khng tt nh
v automat tt nh. D-i y chng ta s tm hiu mt thut ton bin i automat khng tt
nh v automat tt nh.
ED(s) = {qS(s, ) = q}
nh ngha 2.5.2. Ta gi tp ED(T) l tp cc trng thi m M c th t n -c t mt
Dstate c T
ch-a nh du
Stop
Hnh 1.
Ch rng thut ton trn chc chn s kt thc sau mt s b-c hu hn no , bi v
Start
1
E
E
E
a
b
6
E
Hnh 2.
Tnh A =ED(0) = {0,1,2,4,7}; -a A vo Dstate;
Tnh Move(A,a) = {3.8};
10
b
start
B
a
b
b
C
a
D
a
E
a
y l bng chuyn trng thi ca automat v hnh 3 l th biu din automat ny.
Trng thi
Hnh 3.
kt thc mc ny, chng ta xem xt mt thut ton kim tra xu on nhn bi mt
automat cho.
a
a
Hnh 4.
Input: S n l di xu ; xu =x1 x2 x3 ... xn ; vi xia,b.
Output: In ra Accept nu T(M) hoc No Accept trong tr-ng hp ng-c li.
1. t state:=E ; i:=1;
2. Nu state=E th chuyn ti b-c 3, ng-c li state=f, chuyn ti b-c 4.
3. Nu xi=a th t state:=f; nu xi=b th t state:=E. Chuyn n b-c 5.
4. Nu xi=a th t state:=E; nu nu xi=b th t state:=f.
5. Nu i<n th i:=i+1 quay li b-c 2, ng-c li chuyn ti b-c 6.
6. Nu state=f in thng bo accept; nu state=E in thng bo no accept. Kt
thc thut ton.
3. Vn phm v ngn ng
3.1. Cc khi nim v nh ngha
Ta tng nghe, tng ni nhiu v ngn ng nh- ngn ng ting Anh, ting Vit, ngn ng
lp trnh Pascal, ngn ng thut ton v.v... Tuy nhin, t ai c th tr li chnh xc ngn ng l g?
C bao nhiu loi ngn ng? V iu quan trng hn l lm th no c ngn ng?
thin v cc kha cnh x hi, lch s ca ngn ng nh- qu trnh hnh thnh ngn ng, cc c
tr-ng ngn ng ca cc dn tc v.v... T khi my tnh ra i, ng-i ta c nhu cu phi to ra
ngn ng din t thut ton, phi dch t ngn ng thut ton ny sang ngn ng thut ton
khc v.v... Khi buc ng-i ta phi gii quyt mt lot cc vn -c t ra nh-: Ngn ng
l g? Lm th no c ngn ng? Ngn ng thut ton cn phi c c tr-ng g?...
Quan tm nghin cu, gii quyt nhng vn nu trn l i t-ng nghin cu ca ngn
ng hnh thc. Phn ny s gip chng ta b-c u lm quen vi mt s khi nim, thut ng v
ph-ng php tip cn gii quyt vn ca cc b mn khoa hc nu trn.
phn t gi l cc ch ci hoc cc k t.
15U, aL.
,0,1,00,01,10,11,000... , V+ = 0,1,00,01,10,11,000... .
bng ch ci V.
li L l v hn.
V ngn ng L l mt tp hp, cho nn cc php tnh trn tp hp nh- php hp, php
giao, php ly phn b... trong l thuyt tp hp u c th p dng trn cc ngn ng ca cng
mt bng ch ci. Chng hn cho V l bng ch ci, L1, L2 l hai ngn ng trn V th
P: (NT)+ (NT)*
Gi s p (NT)+, q(NT)* v q l nh ca p qua nh x P, khi ta k hiu p q v
gi n mt qui tc dn xut ca G.
nh ngha trn cho php chng ta c th coi ngn ng sinh bi mt vn phm G cho
G = <N,T,P,k> :
1) <Cci > a
2) <Cci > b
3) < Cci > c
4) <Cs> 0
5) <Cs> 1
6) <s> <Cs>
7) <s> <Cs> <s>
8) <t > <Cci >
9) <t > <Cci > < t >
10) <tngi> <t> <t><s><t><s><t>
trn chng ta nh ngha vn phm, mt cng c sinh ra ngn ng . Tip theo chng
ta s xem xt cc vn lin quan n cu hi c bao nhiu loi ngn ng ? Quan h gia cc loi
nh- th no? Lin quan n cc cu hi ny c nhiu nh khoa hc -a ra cc cch phn loi khc
nhau, song cch phn loi -c coi l ph hp v thun tin cho mc ch nghin cu l thuyt ln
ng dng l cch phn loi ca nh ton hc Chomsky. Chomsky ngh mt h thng phn loi
cc vn phm da vo c tr-ng ca cc qui tc sn xut hay cc lut sinh ca vn phm . Cch phn
loi ca Chomsky -c s dng nh- l cch phn loi ch yu trong l thuyt ngn ng hnh thc.
Vn phm loi 0
nh ngha 3.3.1. Vn phm m cc qui tc dn xut ca n khng c bt k mt iu kin
chnh qui nu trn cn -c gi l vn phm tuyn tnh tri. Trong tr-ng hp cc qui tc sn
xut ca vn phm G c dng A Ba hoc A a th G -c gi l vn phm tuyn tnh phi.
Ch : T cch phn loi trn chng ta c nhn xt: vn phm loi 3 cng l vn phm
loi 2, vn phm loi 2 cng l vn phm loi 1, vn phm loi 1 cng l vn phm loi 0. T
y suy ra nhn xt trn cng ng vi cc loi ngn ng. C th minh ho quan h gia cc loi
vn phm v ngn ng nh- hnh 1.
G0
G1
G2
L0
G3
Hnh 1
Chng ta xt mt s v d v vn phm.
V d 3.3.1. Cho G = (N,T,P, k):
N=S,A,B
V=a,b
P:
S aB
A bAA
S bA
B b
A a
B bS
A aS
B aB
L1
L2
L3
1) k akBC
5) bB bb
2) k aBC
6) bC bc
3) CB BC
7) cC cc
4) aB ab
Khi G l vn phm loi 1 hay vn phm cm ng cnh.
V d 3.3.3. Cho G = (k, A, B, 0,1, P, k):
P:
k 0A
B 1B
k 1B
B 1
A 0A
B 0
A 0k
k 0
A 1B
Khi G l vn phm loi 3, vn phm chnh quy.
V d 3.3.4. Xt vn phm G m L(G) l tp ccs nguyn, G = (N, T, P, k):
N=<digit>,<signed integer>,<unsigned integer>, <integer>
T=0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,+,-; k=<integer>
P:
<digit> 0; <digit> 1;......., <digit> 9;
<integer> <signed integer> ;
<integer> <unsigned integer>
<signed integer> + <unsigned integer>
<signed integer> - <unsigned integer>
<unsigned integer> <digit>
<unsigned integer> <digit><unsigned integer>
3.4. Mt s tnh cht ca ngn ng
Bn cht ca ngn ng l tp hp, v vy ngn ng mang y cc tnh cht ca tp hp.
Tnh cht 3.4.1. Loi ca ngn ng ng vi php hp. Ni cch khc, hp ca hai ngn
ch c th: kk1*w hoc kk2 *w. Nh-ng t k1*w hoc k2*w ta suy ra wL1L2.
Ng-c li nu wL1L2, khi wL1 hoc w L2 . Theo nh ngha suy ra k1*w hoc
k2 *w. Nu wL1 c ngha l k1*w suy ra k k1*w hay wL, t-ng t nu wL2 c
ngha l k2*w . Suy ra kk2*w hay wL.
Tnh cht 3.4.3. Cho G = <N,T,P,k> khng phi vn phm loi 0, c k hiu ban u k
v phi ca qui tc dn xut. Khi tn ti vn phm G cng loi v t-ng -ng vi G khng
c k hiu bt u v phi ca qui tc dn xut.
Tnh cht 3.4.4. Cho G =<N,T,P,k> khng phi vn phm loi 0, khi L(G)\{} hoc
Chng minh: Tnh cht 3.4.4 d dng -c chng minh nh tnh cht 3.4.3, v nu vn
ngn ng L(G){} hoc L(G)\{} s t-ng ng vi vic loi b hay b sung qui tc k ra
vo tp P v iu ny r rng khng lm thay i loi ca ngn ng...
3.5. Tnh qui ngn ng.
nh ngha 3.5.1. Chng ta ni rng vn phm G l qui nu tn ti thut ton xc nh
rng thuc L(G) khi v ch khi tp P c qui tc k. Nh- vy chng ta cn phi kim
tra qui tc k c trong P hay khng? Bng cch loi qui tc k khi P ta c vn
phm cm ng cnh mi G = <N,T,P,k>. Vn phm G sinh ra tp L(G)\ , mi
dn xut trong G tho mn iu kin ca vn phm cm ng cnh. Ngha l trong mi
K1...rs+1...m=w.
Nhn xt 3 cho ta nhn xt trc gic rng nu c mt dn xut ca w th n s c dn
S aSBC;
S aBC ;
CB BC; aB ab;
bB bb;
bCbc ;
cCcc;
qui. Chng ta s chng t s t-ng -ng ca hai quan im, quan im sinh v quan im on
nhn ngn ng.
Chng minh: Khng gim tng qut ta gi s G l vn phm tuyn tnh tri. Chng ta xy
khng xut hin trong v phi cc lut sinh khc. Hm -c nh ngha nh- sau:
(B,a) cha C B aC P
(B,a) cha A B a P B,CN v (A,a)= cho mi aT
By gi ta chng t L(M) = L(G) :
L(M) L(G)?
Ly xL(G), gi s x=a1 ... an . Khi ta c dn xut sau trong G:
ka1A1...a1a2 ...an-2 An-2 a1a2 ... an-1B a1 ... an-1an , vi Ai,BN, aiT.
Theo cch xc nh hm ta suy ra:
(k,a)A1, (A1,a2)A2,..., (An-2,an-1)B, (B,an)A
V A F suy ra L(G)L(M)
L(G) L(M)?
Gi s x=x1x2...xn , xT(M), ngha l (q0,x)F suy ra phi tn ti dy k,A1,A2,...An-1,A
sao cho:
L(G).
B 1B
k 1B
B 1
A 0A
B 0
A 0k
k 0
A 1B
Chng ta c th xy dng automat hu hn on nhn cc xu ca L(G):
M = <S,,, q0,F)>
S = { k,A,B }{C}, q0={k}, F={k,C}
= {0,1}
1
C
Hnh 1.
nh l 4.1.2. Cho automat M = (S, , , q0, F) khi tn ti vn phm G loi 3 sao cho
L(G) = T(M).
Chng minh: Khng gim tng qut gi s rng M l automat n nh M = (S, , , q0,
G2=<N2, T2, P2, k2> y L1=L(G1); L2=L(G2). Chng ta xy dng vn phm G3 nh- sau :
trong . Ta xy dng automat A' = <S', 1, ', q0, F'> on nhn tp 1*\T(A) nh- sau:
S' = {S}{d}; F' = {K\F}{d};
' xc nh nh- sau:
'(q,a) = (q,a) nu qS, a
'(q,a) = d nu qS, a1\
'(d,a) = d nu a1
Vi cch xy dng A' nh- trn r rng A' l m rng ca A trn tp 1 bng cch thm
thi gm: q0, q1 , q2,..., qn v p, trong q0 l trng thi u, qn l trng thi kt thc. A hot ng
nh- sau khi n nhn ra k hiu thuc X, n s dch chuyn n trng thi c ch s cao hn, nu
A khng nhn ra k hiu khng thuc X n s chuyn sang trng thi p l trng thi "by". C
th hm chuyn ca A nh- sau:
(qi-1,ai) = qi vi i = 1,2,...n
(qi-1,a) = p; vi a ai v i = 1, 2,...n
(qn ,a) = (p,a) = p vi mi a
D dng kim tra -c rng A on nhn xu x.
Trong tr-ng hp x l xu rng chng ta c th xy dng A = <S,,, q0,F>, trong
S={q0,p}; F={q0}; ( q0,)=q0;( q0,a)=( p,a)=p vi a
Tnh cht 4.2.4. Lp cc ngn ng loi 3 ng vi php nhn ghp
Chng minh: Gi s M1 = (S1, 1, 1 , q1, F1) on nhn L1 = T(M1); M2=(S2,2,2,q2,F2)
Khng gim tng qut, ta gi s S1,S2 giao nhau bng rng v 1=2=. Ta xy dng
kt thc ca M1. Qui tc th hai cho php x l tnh hung khi q l trng thi kt thc ca M1 v
bt u t on nhn bi M2 . Qui tc th ba m phng s hot ng ca M2 trn M.
Tnh cht 4.2.5: Lp cc ngn ng loi 3 ng vi php ly bao ng
Chng minh: Gi s M = (S,,,q0,F) l automat on nhn L ta gi L* = n=0 Ln l php
Qui tc th nht i vi trng thi q'0 chp nhn t rng . Nu q0 khng thuc F th trng
(q0 ,x i) u cha q 0 v mt trng thi p no trong F, cng do vy (q0 ,xi) phi cha
mt trng thi no trong F suy ra xT(M).
q1 ,q2 ,...,qn sao cho (q0,a1) cha q1 v (qi,ai+1) cha qi+1 vi i = 1,2,...,n v qn F. Nh- vy vi
mi i hoc cha qi+1 = q0 v (qi,ai+1)F hoc (qi,ai+1) = qi+1. T y suy ra c th vit (q0,
ai)F vi i = 1,2,...n ngha l aiL.
V d 4.3.1. Khi cng b ngn ng chun Pascal, ng-i ta s dng cch ghi ca Bakur-
Naur (dng Bakur-Naur) gi tt l cch ghi BNF. Cch ghi ny s dng k hiu '::=', c l
-c nh ngha l. Bin trong Pascal -c m t nh- sau:
<Ch ci>:: = a b .... z A B ... z
<Ch s>:: = 0 1 2 .... 9
<S nguyn>: = <Ch s> <s nguyn> <ch s>
<T> : : =<ch ci > <t > <ch ci>
<Tn gi>::= <T> <Tn gi > <T> <tn gi> <s>
<Bin n gin>::=<Tn gi>
D dng thy rng cch ghi BNF l mt cch ghi ngn gn cc qui tc dn xut ca vn
phm. Ta c th chuyn i t-ng -ng gia hai cch ghi ny. Chng hn vi cch ghi BNF
trn ta c th chuyn v cch ghi dng qui tc dn xut ca vn phm G nh- sau:
T={a,b...,z,A,B,...,Z,0,1....,9}
N = {<Ch ci>, <Ch s>, <S nguyn>, <T>, <Tn gi>,<Bin n gin>} (mi
phn t dng < ... > ca tp N -c hiu l mt k t).
k= <Bin n gin>
Chng ta xc nh P l tp cc qui tc -c chuyn t cng thc siu ng:
<Ch ci>
<Ch ci>
<Ch ci>
<Ch ci>
<Ch ci>
...........................
<Ch ci>
<Ch s>
<Ch s>
<Ch s>
<ch ci>
<t>
<t>
...........................
<Ch s>
Gi s cho vn phm G phi ng cnh = (N, T, P, k). Chng ta d dng nhn thy rng tp
cc bin thuc N v tp cc qui tc dn xut P l hai tp quyt nh to ra ngn ng. Khi vit
ch-ng trnh dch, s phc tp, cng knh, tnh hiu qu ca ch-ng trnh dch ph thuc rt
Ta gi cc k hiu khng tham gia sinh ra ngn ng l cc k hiu tha, khi cc k hiu
ng cnh G.
Chng minh: Gi s cho vn phm phi ng cnh G = (N, T, p, k), thut ton -c xy
i=0 ly Vo = {k}
b chn bi tp N T do Vi N T vi mi i.
Ta c: N' = V N ; T' = V T.
nh-ng theo cch xy dng P' dn xut ny phi gm cc qui tc trong p, do vy xL(G')
L(G') = L(G).
v1
B
B1
v0
A1
B2
v2
A2
B3
A4
A3
B4
B5
C th minh ho cch xy dng tp V ca thut ton trong nh l trn theo hnh trn.
V d 4.3.1. Ta xt mt v d minh ho cho thut ton ca nh l 3.
Cho G = (N, T, P, k)
N = { k, , , }
T = { x, y, z}
P:
kx
ky
y
x
y
x
Vo = {k}
Vi = {, , x, y} {k}
V2 = V1 {k} = V1
N' = V2 N = {k, , }
T' = V2 T = { x, y}
P':
k x
ky
x
y
nh l 4.3.1 cho php loi b k hiu khng t n -c, tuy nhin trong vn phm
vn cn cc k hiu tha. nh l d-i y cho php chng ta tip tc loi b i cc bin khng
tham gia trong qu trnh sinh ra ngn ng.
a/ Vi mi nonterminal A trong G u tn ti mt t w T+ A * w
b/ L(G) = L(G).
Chng minh: Vi mi A N ta xt vn phm GA = (N, T, P, A), nh nh l 3 ta c th
k 1A2 * w vi A N \ N'.
T y suy ra w c th vit -c w=w1w2w3 sao cho:
1 * w1; A* w2; 2 * w3
iu ny suy ra L(GA) hay A N' mu thun vi L(GA) = v A N \ N'. T y
suy ra L(G)=L(G') .
Rt gn cc qui tc dn xut
nh ngha 4.3.3. Cho vn phm phi ng cnh G ta gi dn xut dng: k 1 2 ...
nh ngha trn cho chng ta khi nim dn xut tri nht. l dn xut m trong mi
b-c p dng cc qui tc trong G, k hiu nonterminal tri nht trong xu v tri -c thay th
bng mt xu nh p dng mt quy tc no ca P.
nh l 4.3.4. Cho vn phm phi ng cnh G = (N, T, p, k) lun lun tn ti vn phm G'
t-ng -ng vi G sao cho trong G' khng c cc quy tc dn xut dng:
AB
A,B G'
Chng minh:
Gi s cho G = (N, T, P, k). Ta chia cc quy tc dn xut ca P thnh 2 loi:
Loi 1: Gm cc qui tc dn xut dng A B A,B N
Loi 2: Gm cc quy tc cn li ca P
Ta xy dng tp P' cc quy tc dn xut ca G' nh- sau:
Tr-c ht P' gm tt c cc quy tc kiu 2 ca P
Nu A B
k *i-1 i * k*n
Trong on dn xut ii+1i+2 ... k , p dng quy tc loi 1.
Do on dn xut cng l ii+1i+2 ...k l dn xut tri nht v p dng quy tc
loi 1, cho nn cc xu i, i+1, ... k c di bng nhau. Mt k hiu thay bng mt k hiu
trong G cng v tr, nh-ng khi c th thay th mi b-c dn xut trong dy dn xut i
*k bng mt s quy tc trong G' . Do vy suy ra w L(G') hay L(G) L(G'), t y suy ra
L(G) = L(G').
dng AB, c bit nu A=B chng ta loi b -c nhng quy tc chu trnh trong G. tin
tc nu:
A N.
-quy tc, khng c k hiu tha, khng c k hiu khng t -c, khng cha qui tc n gin.
nh l 4.3.5. Cho vn phm phi ng cnh G = (N, T, p, k) bt k khi tn ti mt vn
phm ti gin. Tuy nhin mi ch nh- vy thi ch-a . Khi vit cc ch-ng trnh dch, ch-ng
trnh s phc tp ln rt nhiu nu mi qui tc dn xut c dng khc nhau. Vn t ra y
l liu c th -a cc qui tc dn xut ca P v cng mt dng no -c khng. Vic i tm
nh l 4.4.1. Dng chun Chomsky. Cho G = (N, T, P, k) l vn phm phi ng cnh, khi
A,B,C N
a T.
T = a,b
1) kbA
2) kaB
3) Aa
4) Bb
5) Aak
6) Bbk
7) AbAA
8) BaBB
(quy tc 3 ca P)
2) Bb P'
(quy tc 4 ca P)
D2BB.
1) Aa
8) C3 a
2) Bb
9) BC4k
3) kC1A
10) C4b
4) C1b
11) AC5D1
5) kC2B
12) D1AA
6) C2a
13) BC6D2
7) BC3 k
14) D2BB
tm -c vn phm phi ng cnh G' =(N', T, P', k) t-ng -ng sao cho mi quy tc dn xut
ca G' c dng:
Aa
Vn phm G' nh- trn -c gi l vn phm dng chun GreiBach t-ng -ng vi G.
4.5. Lc l-ng ca vn phm phi ng cnh
Chng ta cp n tnh rng ca vn phm phi ng cnh. Chng ta khng nh tn
ti thut ton on nhn ngn ng phi ng cnh l rng hay khng. Do yu cu din t thut
vuviwxiy L
hay v hn.
nguyn cho tr-c c l s nguyn t hay khng? Tnh gn ng gi tr ca sinx, cosx, v.v... Nu
khng c cc bi ton dn n vic nghi ng c hay khng c thut ton gii quyt mt bi ton
no th ng-i ta khng cn bn ci n khi nim mang tnh trc gic nu trn. Bi v v mt
logic, mun ni c hay khng c thut ton th phi xc nh -c chnh xc thut ton l g?
Xut pht t cc bi ton khng bit c thut ton gii n hay khng? buc ng-i ta phi t
-a ra m t ton hc cho khi nim thut ton. Cc khi nim v thut ton ca cc tc gi nu
trn ni chung u t-ng -ng vi nhau. Trong s cc khi nim ton hc chnh xc v v
thut ton, khi nim do nh ton hcTuring -a ra nm 1937 -c tha nhn rng ri bi v n
thun tin cho vic nghin cu cc vn trong l thuyt v ng dng. My Turing m nh ton
hc Turing dng m t khi nim thut ton c gi tr c trong nghin cu l thuyt tru
t-ng ln trong cc qu trnh tnh ton c th. Sau khi xut hin my tnh in t, my Turing
tr thnh mt m hnh ton hc cho cc my tnh thc t.
Nh- chng ta bit, mi qu trnh thc hin theo thut ton, xt cho cng u l qu
nim chnh xc v thut ton, ng-i ta c c s chuyn bi ton khng c thut ton gii n
v bi ton khng c my Turing tnh n. Trn c s khi nim thut ton, cch y gn na th
k Turing v Church nu ra lun mang tn Turing Church. Mc d lun khng c
chng minh nh-ng cho n nay ng-i ta vn khng tm -c phn v d ph nh gi tr chn l
My Turing -c s dng nghin cu trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau, tin cho vic
nghin cu, trong mi lnh vc ng-i ta -a ra cc nh ngha khc nhau v my Turing, trong
phm vi ca gio trnh ny, chng ta s nu nh ngha my Turing v kho st n theo gc
ngn ng.
control), mt bng vo (Input tape), bng ny -c chia thnh tng ngn hay tng (cell). Bng
khng cha k hiu vo -c coi cha k hiu trng (blank), ta k hiu l B. Hnh 1 m t cu to
ca my Turing.
# a1 a2 a3 ai an # # #
B iu khin
Hnh 1.
pha tri hoc pha phi ca ai v thay ai bng bj no Ni mt cch khc, ph thuc vo k
Trong :
- S l tp hu hn cc trng thi.
- l tp hu hn k hiu vo.
- l nh x, -c gi l hm chuyn trng thi, : S x x {L,R } S x .
Ch rng c th khng xc nh vi mt vi b gi tr ca cc i s no ; L,R l k
hiu ch h-ng dch chuyn sang tri hoc sang phi t-ng ng ca u c. Khi k hiu
s
s
a/b
a.
L
s
L
s
c) R
s
d)
R
s
a/b
a/b
s
s
Hnh 2.
Hnh 2 m t cch lm vic v chuyn i trng thi ca my Turingng vi cc tr-ng hp:
a/(s,a,L)=(s,b)
b/(s,a,L)=(s,a)
c/(s,a,R)=(s,b)
d/(s,a,R)=(s,a)
vo n, x l t bn tri u c, y l t bn phi u c.
(s,x,,y)(s1,x1,1,y1)(s2,x2,2,y2)...(sn,xn,n,yn).
Khi ta k hiu ngn gn l: (s,x,,y)*(sn,xn,n,yn).
Nu my Turing T ang mt hnh trng no m khng th chuyn sang hnh trng
My ang hnh trng c cha trng thi qfF S, khi ta ni my Turing hnh
trng kt thc.
My Turing mt trong hai hnh trng kt thc hoc tt gi l hnh trng dng hoc cht.
Hnh trng (q0,e,#,x) -c gi l hnh trng ban u ca my Turing T, y e l k hiu
hm Turing thc hin -c, nu tn ti my Turing T = <S, , , q0, F> sao cho
(q0,e,#,x)*(q,z,,y) v hnh trng (q,z, ,y) l hnh trng dng khi v ch khi (x)=y. Nu i
dng.
Hnh 1 m t tnh trng trn bng vo khi my Turing trng thi bt u v trng thi
t vo trn bng
#
.. .. .. ..
Hnh 1.
Ch : My Turing T = <S,,,q0,F> -c gi l tt nh, nu 0(s,a,M) 1; ng-c li
(yes)
s3
c/z
s4
s6
s2
R
b/y
s1
a/x
R
R
b/z
R
#, c
a, b, c
s5
L
R
a, b, c, x, y, z #, a
#
(no)
s7
Hnh 2.
Khi nim vn phm, ngn ng v phn loi ngn ng s -c cp phn sau, tuy
nhn bi my Turing .
Chng ta s khng chng minh nh l ny, tuy nhin kt qu nh l trn cho chng ta
nhn nhn mt cch h thng vn ang xem xt: C th nghin cu ngn ng theo quan im
sinh v quan im on nhn, hai quan im ny ng vi hai cng c l vn phm v Automat.
Kt qu thu -c t hai cng c ny l t-ng -ng nhau.
Nh my Turing chng ta -a ra khi nim hm Turing thc hin -c. Thc cht ca
a/ (1x1+1&1x2+1&......,&1xk+1)=1y+1, nu (x1,x2,....xk)=y ;
b/ (1x1+1&1x2+1&.....,&1xk+1)= khng xc nh, nu (x1,x2 ,.....xk) khng xc nh.
V d 5.3.2. Hm f(x,y)=x+y l hm Turing tnh -c.
Ta xy dng my Turing T=<S,,,q0,F >
'=1,&,B ,S==q0, q1, q2,q3
Hm chuyn trng thi -c cho trong hnh 3c. Hnh 3a, 3b t-ng ng l trng thi ca bng vo
lc bt u v khi kt thc.
# 111&111..1
a)
1/B
q0 R
q0
#B111
b)
R q1
&/1
Stop
q3
B/B
c)
R
q2
1/1
Hnh 3.
5.4. phc tp ca thut ton
Nh my Turing, chng ta c -c khi nim chnh xc v thut ton. Tuy nhin vi
thut ton khc nhau thc hin mt bi ton. Mt cch t nhin cu hi -c t ra l: trong
cc thut ton tnh hm f, ton thut no tt hn, tt hn theo ngha no ? y l vn rt quan
trng trong khoa hc tnh ton v ng dng thc tin. Lin quan n vn ny chng ta lm
quen vi mt s khi nim sau:
nhn t w, hnh trng i my T s dng i nh trn bng khi ta xc nh L(w) nh- sau:
tch b nh.
Gi s f l hm xc nh thi gian tnh hoc hoc xc nh dung tch b nh khi thc hin
gim theo thut ton ni bt. Theo thut ton ny chng ta thc hin so snh v i ch hai
dy,ln th 2 cn k-2.....S php so snh sp xp dy s gm k phn t l (k-1)+(k1)+....+1=k(k-1)/2. T y suy ra phc tp ca thut trn l O(k2).
Bi tp
1. Hy xc nh cc thnh phn ca cc my hu hn trng thi M=(S, X, Y, , , s0), khi bit
biu din th ca chng:
a)
a/1
b/1
q0
q1
a/0
b/1
b)
a/0
A
b/0
b/1
D
a/1
B
a/0
b/0
b/0
a/0
c)
b/0
a/2
a/0
c/2
b/1
a/1
b/2
b/0
B
c/0
c/0
c/2
a/2
a
c
b
y
a)
q0
b)
a/0
b/0
q1
b/1
a/1
a/1
A
B
b/0
a/0
C
b/0
4. Cho L l tp hu hn cc xu sinh ra t tp a,b ch ra rng tn ti automat hu hn on
nhn tp L.
q0
q1
q2
a
a)
b)
a
b
b
a
b
b
A
a
b
C
D
b
B
a
11. Vit vn phm G c tp T=a,b sao cho xu L(G) c mt trong cc tnh cht sau:
a/ Bt u bng k t a
b/ Kt thc bng hai k t ab
c/ Kt thc bng hai k t ba
d/ Khng kt thc bng ab
12. Gi s G l vn phm v l xu rng. Hy ch ra rng nu G c cc qui tc dn xut sau:
15. Chng minh rng khng c my hu hn trng thi c tnh cht sau :
a/ Nhn dng vo l dy cc bt
b/ Dng ra l 1 khi dng vo c s ch s 1 bng s ch s 0, dng ra bng 0 trong
tr-ng hp ng-c li
k bA
B b
A bAA
k aB
A ak
B aBB
A a
B bk
S [S S]
Hy ch ra dng tng qut ca L(G)?
26. Chng minh rng mi vn phm phi ng cnh u c th sinh ra bi vn phm m mi qui
tc dn xut ca n c th mt trong cc dng sau:
A a, A aB, A aBC.
27. Gi s L1, L2 l ngn ng chnh qui trn bng ch ci , S l tp tt c cc xu trn
chng minh rng :