Psychosocial Development

The stages of psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson describes eight developmental
stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each
stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful
completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to
reappear as problems in the future.

Stages

Trust vs.
Mistrust

Approximat
e Age

Birth to 1218 months

Autonomy
18 months to
vs.shame/dou
3 years
bt

Initiative vs.
Guilt

3 to 6 years

Related

Important
Event

Description

Feeding

The infant must form a first

loving, trusting relationship
with the caregiver or
develop a sense of mistrust.

Toilet training

Independence

Psychopathology

The child's energies are

directed toward the
development of physical
skills, including walking,
grasping, controlling the
sphincter. The child learns
control but may develop
shame and doubt if not
handled well.

The child continues to

become more assertive and
to make more initiative but
may be too foreceful,
which can lead to guilt
feelings.

Psychosis

Addictions

Depression

Paranoia

Obsessions

Compulsions

Impulsivity

Conversion
disorder

Phobia

Psychosomatic
disorder

Inhibition

Industry vs.
Inferiority

6 to 12 years

Indentity vs.
Role
Adolescence
Confusion

Intimacy vs.
Isolation

Young
adulthood

Generativity
vs. Stagnation

Middle
adulthood

Ego integrity
vs Despair

Late
adulthood

School

Peer
relationships

Love
relationships

Parenting/
Mentoring

The child must deal with

demands to learn new skills
or risk a sense of
inferiority, failure, and
incompetence.

The teenager must achieve

identity in occupation,
gender roles, politics, and
religion.

The young adult must

develop intimate
relationships of suffer
feeling of isolation.

Each adult must find some

way to satisfy and support
the next generation.

Reflecting on The culmination is a sense

and acceptance of acceptance of oneself
of one's life
and a sense of fullfillment.

Creative
inhibition

Inertia

Delinquent
behavior

Gender-related
identity
disorders

Borderline
psychotic
episodes

Schizoid
personality
disorder

Distantiation

Midlife crisis

Premature
invalidism

Extreme
alienation

Stages
1.

Infancy (Birth -18 months)

Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Developing trust is the first task of the ego, and it is never complete. The child will not let its
mother out of sight without anxiety and rage because she has become an inner certainty as well as

an outer predictability. The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of the
maternal relationship.
Main question asked: Is my environment trustworthy or not?
Central Task: Receiving care
Positive Outcome: Trust in people and the environment
Ego Quality: Hope
Definition: Enduring belief that one can attain ones deep and essential wishes
Developmental Task: Social attachment; Maturation of sensory, perceptual, and motor functions;
Primitive causality.
Significant Relations: Maternal parent
Erikson proposed that the concept of trust versus mistrust is present throughout an individuals entire
life. Therefore if the concept is not addressed, taught and handled properly during infancy (when it is
first introduced), the individual may be negatively affected and never fully immerse themselves in
the world. For example, a person may hide themselves from the outside world and be unable to form
healthy and long-lasting relationships with others, or even themselves. If an individual does not learn
to trust themselves, others and the world around them then they may lose the virtue of hope, which is
directly linked to this concept. If a person loses their belief in hope they will struggle with
overcoming hard times and failures in their lives, and may never fully recover from them. This
would prevent them from learning and maturing into a fully-developed person if the concept of trust
versus mistrust was improperly learned, understood and used in all aspects of their lives.
2.

Toddler (1 1/2 - 3 Years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt
If denied independence, the child will turn against his/her urges to manipulate and discriminate.
Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness. Doubt has to do with having a front and back
-- a "behind" subject to its own rules. Left over doubt may become paranoia. The sense of
autonomy fostered in the child and modified as life progresses serves the preservation in
economic and political life of a sense of justice.
Main question asked: Do I need help from others or not.?
When a child reaches the age of one to the age of three, Erikson explains, the child is developing
a sense of autonomy . During this age, the toddler discovers he/she is no longer attached to the
primary caregiver but is a separate individual (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2004). Autonomy is the
independence a toddler strives for from caregivers. Toddlers autonomous behavior is a way of
forming their own identity away from their caregivers (Bigner, 2006). This stage is a time where a
toddler has the will to become independent. Shame and doubt is likely to occur when the
toddler is not given any choices or boundaries because the toddler is determined to become

independent. The strong will of a toddler may cause conflict between child and caregiver. Many
parents are unaware of how to properly handle difficult situations in which they find themselves.
Parents who are assertive and too demanding may find themselves in a power struggle with their
toddler (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2006). In addition, parents may be too demanding for only
good behavior from their toddler. Gonzalez-Mena and Eyer (2004) explain that demanding
good behavior will only cause frustration for the toddler; instead, "it is far better for the child to
see you as a support and an aid rather as an obstacle to his or her own developing capabilities and
independence." Autonomy can be gained for the toddler when given reasonable choices and
proper guidance from the caregiver. Parents can give healthy and wise choices to assist their child
to succeed at this stage.
3.

Child (4-6 Years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the sake
of being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around him or her,
learning basic skills and principles of physics; things fall to the ground, not up; round things roll,
how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage the child wants to begin and complete
his or her own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a new emotion and is confusing to the child; he or
she may feel guilty over things which are not logically guilt producing, and he or she will feel
guilt when his or her initiative does not produce the desired results.
Main question asked: How moral am I?
The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years
of age, apart from other age groups when Erik Erikson discussed his third psychosocial stage.
Young children in this category, ranging between three to six years of age, face the challenge of
initiative versus guilt (Boer, 1997). As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during this
stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage,
the child learns to take initiative and prepare him or herself towards roles of leadership and goal
achievement. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such
as crossing a street on his or her own or riding a bike without a helmet; both examples involving
self-limits. The child defines his or her own boundaries when taking initiative in crossing a street
or riding a bike with no helmet, such as deciding to cross a street without looking both ways or
choosing to ride a bike at his or her own pace with no helmet. Within instances requiring
initiative, such as those previously mentioned, the child may also develop negative behaviors.
These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to
achieve his or her goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless,
and overly assertive to parents; aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling,
are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. With aggressive behaviors as a result of
frustration, the child may progress towards developing a sense of guilt for not establishing
initiative in the decisions he or she makes and/or not being able to follow through with a set goal.
When guilt develops, the child becomes more assertive, aggressive, inhibited, and overly
dependent. These characteristics can be seen as far from the norm since the child engages in

behaviors that do not show a challenge and/or are comfortable for the child; thus, the child does
not take on new situations unless assisted by an adult. In concordance with guilt, parents often
misjudge the situation and punish or restrict the child too much. However, Bee and Boyd further
state that children in this stage require some sense of guilt in order to guide their self-control and
a healthy conscience.
The relationship between parent and child must include a positive balance between helping the
child develop guilt, of which will encourage self-control, and establishing independence for the
goals the child chooses. Independence is significant to goal development and child development
in that the child will learn to form a foundation for decision-making and in taking the steps
required to set goals. As suggested by McDevitt and Ormrod (2002), children establish a positive
ability to have self-initiative to set goals through the encouragement and support of their parents
and/or teachers. Both parents and/or teachers are crucial aspects in helping a child develop selfinitiative to set goals for two reasons: adults can model the self-control that is relevant to setting
goals and assist the child with reasoning through making decisions. These components are
necessary in that adults help the child establish the foundation of forming a self-initiative to set
goals so that the child can progress forward on his or her own in future goal building. If a child
decides to construct a large puzzle, the responsibility of reinforcing the childs capabilities lays
upon the supervising adult since the child must take anothers perspective regarding his or her
own capabilities; self-perspective may be different in the eyes of others and can produce more
honesty than the self can see, especially with children. The adult should not impede instruction,
but rather reassure the child through reinforcement that creates intrinsic motivation, such as
through positive discussion about the childs capabilities and sense of worth. McDevitt and
Ormrod claim that by observing his or her own accomplishments and/or through the development
of self-efficacy, the child internalizes a sense of satisfaction that is necessary for maintaining
initiative. However, the child will develop guilt regarding personal needs and desires when he or
she, or a supervising adult discourages him or her from completing a goal independently. As a
result, the child questions what he or she is actually capable of and may reshape future actions
taking initiative and challenging goals, which in turn may not reflect the childs natural abilities
but a more limited repetition.
In order to promote a safe balance between initiative and guilt, parents must provide the child
with achievable responsibility. Cramer, Flynn, and LaFave (1997) describe two different
outcomes, both positive and negative, that may occur if a child is not given responsibilities, such
as cleaning a room or walking a dog; all of which can create independence and dependability. For
a healthy balance of initiative and guilt, the child should be able to accept feelings of guilt while
understanding that certain activities and situations he or she chooses may or may not be permitted
by others. Children should also be encouraged to use their imaginations when taking initiatives
that are related to adult roles, ultimately not feeling guilty for thinking outside of the box and
being different from the norm as a result. The child should not feel guilty in using imagination
during play since it provides him or her with learning how to be creative and to reflecting upon
personal capabilities. For example, the child may be imagining he is a police officer and will form
his play around this role; this concept could later develop into a future profession, of which the
child is willing to take initiative in facing the challenging steps in becoming an actual police

officer. Therefore, parents need to provide students with chores and small jobs because it will
strengthen skills that reflect responsibility and future adult roles, such as tending to a younger
sibling or helping wash dishes. In contrast, children who are not allowed to complete tasks
independently may learn that the activities and situations are beyond their ability and they are
incapable of setting their own goals. The Child Development Institute LLC (1998) suggests that a
child with no responsibility, whether given by an adult or produced by the child, grows fearful in
most situations involving change, excessively depends on adults, and is restricted from
imagination and active play; these characteristics are a result of the child being immobilized by
guilt (i.e. low feelings of self-efficacy, confidence, and frustration in abilities when a personal
goal has not been accomplished).
In view of the fact that preschool children require skills necessary to become independent and
responsible, parents and/or teachers should learn how to assist in the childs social development;
this may include teaching the child how to be courageous, empathetic, self-disciplined, and loyal.
Fittro (2003) suggests several ideas on how to create these types of values during a childs moral
development. First, parents should respect the child in all aspects of his or her personality if they
seek respect in return. For example, parents need to consider the childs opinions and perspectives
before setting discipline and behavioral standards. Parents should stay firm on their expectations,
yet remind themselves that the child is a human being and deserves to be treated with fairness in
order to develop a positive self-concept. Parents also have the advantage of teaching good
morality through discussion and example. By illustrating and discussing how to tolerate guilt,
such as feelings of low self-efficacy, self-esteem, or self-confidence after taking initiative in
accomplishing a goal, the child will learn that this type of behavior is acceptable. If the child is
not given the opportunity to discuss how to accept these feelings that accompany guilt or if the
child is simply dealing with guilt reactions, then several questions may arise, such as Can I do
this?, How moral am I?, and posing the why question to understand how the world works. In
asking numerous Why questions, the child learns about life by making up his or her own
explanations for why things are the way they are, experimenting with adult roles through fantasy
play, and seeking explanations for his or her surroundings from adults. Consistent with these
ideas, the Mohonasen Central School District Board of Education (2005) suggests letting children
take on small tasks that gradually increase in difficulty as they grow older. This may include
helping prepare small meals, setting a table, or letting them choose their own clothing for the day;
all of which builds confidence and assists in developing simple math skills (e.g. counting and
sorting). Finally, allow children with downtime as their responsibilities expand. Parents and/or
teachers should remember that children in this stage of Eriksons psychosocial development need
and deserve a time to be free.
4.

School Age (7-12 Years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority
To bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the whims and
wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such
"industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious familial
rivalry of the oedipal time.

Main question asked: Am I good at what I do?

According to Allen and Marotz (2003), "children at this age are becoming more aware of
themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right."
They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some
perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group: Children understand the
concepts of space and time, in more logical, practical ways,beginning to grasp Piaget's concepts of
conservation, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time.At this
stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling
time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able
to manage most of their personal need and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen and Marotz,
2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back
talk and being rebellious. Children in this stage have to learn the feeling of success. If the child is
allowed too little success, he or she will develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Too much
industry leads to narrow virtuosity (children who are not allowed to be children). A balance
between industry and inferiority leads to competency. According to Robert Brooks (2001) parents
can nurture self esteem and resilience in different ways: a. Understand and accept children's
learning problems (highlight strengths) b. Teach children how to solve problems and make
decisions c. Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute d. Learn from, rather than
feeling defeated by mistakes e. Make the child feel special (create special times alone with them
each week)
5.

Adolescence (12-19 Years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the
accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by
the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career.
The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant.

6.

Young Adulthood (19-34 years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Body and ego must be masters of organ modes and of the other nuclear conflicts in order to face
the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon. The avoidance of these experiences
leads to openness and self-absorption.
According to Erik Erikson the young adult stage, Intimacy vs. Isolation, is emphasized around the
ages of 19 to 34. At the start of the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage, identity vs. role confusion is
coming to an end and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson 1950). Young adults are
still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. When we arrive at stage six we
should be prepared for intimacy, a close personal relationship, and isolation, the fact of being alone
and separated from others. A balance between intimacy and isolation makes love possible as we

must know how to be alone in order to learn to truly love. Having a balanced stage 6 will help
tremendously later in the coming stages when unwelcome or unexpected isolation surfaces, for
example, the death of a spouse or a loved one (Erikson, Erikson, Kivnick 1986). In stage six, one is
ready for commitments, is able to handle real relationships to a certain extent (Erikson 1950), after
all, establishing a real relationship takes practice and many of us do not marry our first love. Our
ego should also be prepared for rejection, the challenge of break-ups, and isolation, being alone.
Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to the above. We are afraid of rejection; being
turned down, our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us
rejection is painful, our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that Intimacy has a
counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and
people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the
extent of ones intimate relations (1950)
7.

Adulthood (35-60 Years)

Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work
and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and
of itself achieve generativity. The great conflict at this stage is for an individual come up with
something that society would remember them for. For some individuals, it goes to funding or
finding NGOs(or different organizations), schools, families and maintain them. This is then
generativity for them.

8.

Late Adulthood (from 60 years)

Psychosocial crisis: Integrity vs Despair
One strength of Erikson's theory is that it acknowledges that development continues throughout the
life cycle. According to Erikson, even older people are not finished developing. Older people who
are coming to terms with their own mortality have a deep need to look over their whole lives. in a
life review a person who can look back over their life history, on the good times with gladness and
satisfaction, on hard times with self-respect, and on mistakes and regrets with forgiveness, and can
find a new sense of integrity and a readiness for whatever life or death may bring. A person caught
up in old sadness, unable to forgive themselves or others for perceived wrongs, and dissatisfied
with the life they've led, will easily drift into depression and despair.
The fundamental question is "what kind of life have I lived?

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Stages of Moral Development
Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults
are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as
fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid
punishment.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued
that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinzs needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity,
being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing
ones duty and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other
people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society
should agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Kohlbergs final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even
if they conflict with laws and rules.

Learning Process and Theories of Instruction

Learning
To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or
behavior. Children learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study
habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems.

Understanding the Learning Process

A priority in educational psychology is understanding the learning process, that is; the procedures
and strategies that students use to acquire new information.
Learning as a process task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or
formalized learning
learning appearing as a process there is a concern with what happens when the learning takes
place. In this way, learning could be thought of as a process by which behaviour changes as a result
of experience. One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which people are
conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning and what
significance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years
and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of informal
learning.
One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers .
Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language. Rogers sets out two
contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized
learning.
Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. It is
concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles
Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running a home. Some have
referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers however, suggests that it might
be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In other words, whilst the learner may
not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific task in hand.
Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process of
facilitating learning. It is educative learning rather than the accumulation of experience. To this
extent there is a consciousness of learning people are aware that the task they are engaged in
entails learning. Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning more
conscious in order to enhance it (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.
When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear in
the same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think of
the mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.
At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occur
continuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning unconscious learning
through acquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity Then there are
various activities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential
activities arising from immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the
task Then come more purposeful activities occasions where we set out to learn something in a
more systematic way, using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately
disregarding engagement with teachers and formal institutions of learning Further along the
continuum lie the self-directed learning projects on which there is so much literature More
formalized and generalized (and consequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the
distance and open education programmes, where some elements of acquisition learning are often
built into the designed learning programme. Towards the further extreme lie more formalized
learning programmes of highly decontextualized learning, using material common to all the learners

without paying any regard to their individual preferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no
clear boundaries between each of these categories.

Theories of Instruction
a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. Instructional
theories focus on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings,
particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is
typically influenced by three general influences in educational thought: the behaviorist, the
cognitive, and the constructivist schools of thought. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the
1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy
of Education Objectives one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the
first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning
for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.
Instructional theory is different than learning theory. A learning theory describes how learning take
place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn. [1] Learning theories
often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence:
behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition),
and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).
Instructional theory is a field of inquiry that is typically involved with researching and
understanding how people learn, in order to make the process of instruction more beneficial for
students. It often focuses on younger students and is applied to a number of different educational
models and teaching pedagogies. There are two general schools of thought and inquiry with regard
to instructional models and structures: cognitive models and behavioral models. Instructional theory
is usually targeted toward understanding how information can be taught in a way that is effective.
Though student comprehension is important, theories are usually centered more on how information
can be taught rather than how it is learned.
While easily confused with teaching pedagogies, instructional theory is not a particular method of
teaching or school of thought with regard to how lessons can be taught. It is typically more involved
with understanding the process of teaching and how instructions issued by one person can be more
fully learned and understood by those who hear it. Teaching pedagogies often spring from and
develop based upon various types of instructional theory, but they are not inherently synonymous.
One of the best ways to understand instructional theory is to understand the two most common
approaches to this discipline.
Cognitive models of instruction typically regard the process of teaching and learning as
principally occurring within the mind of the student. This makes any sort of scientific observation
or critique of such theories difficult to execute, which can be considered a weakness for this type of
instructional theory. While some work can be done to establish observable cognitive development,
these studies are often more difficult to execute than others.
Behavioral models, on the other hand, are typically easy to observe and verify through basic
scientific inquiry. An instructional theory that utilizes behavioral patterns usually regards the
process of teaching and learning as an adjustment to behavior that can be observed. What occurs

within the mind of the student is unknown, and therefore can potentially be ignored in favor of what
can be witnessed and documented.
A number of different pedagogies have sprung from each type of model, and both have their
strengths and weaknesses. One of the distinguishing aspects of a sound instructional theory,
however, is that it deals primarily with the role of a teacher. While the student is important, these
theories often seek to find the most effective ways for teachers to present information.
Developments in such theories have led to some wide-ranging changes in education, including the
idea of a teacher as a facilitator for the learning process.
Constructivist model A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an
active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes
decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental
models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond
the information given".
As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover
principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic
learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a
spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1)
predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to
present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for
structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the
manipulation of information.
In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to
encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.
Application
Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of
cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research .The ideas outlined in Bruner
(1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his
theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner,
1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner,
Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.
Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and
Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. For an overview of other Constructivist
frameworks,
Example
"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through
construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and

columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column
design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child
learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that
a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns.
Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."
Principles
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).

Intelligence, thinking skills, problem-solving, creativity

Intelligence
One of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what
exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single,
general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and
talents.
The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100
years.
Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general
intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a
number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably
similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests,
while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that
intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of
viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different
"primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:

Verbal comprehension

Reasoning

Perceptual speed

Numerical ability

Word fluency

Associative memory

Spatial visualization

Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of
human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes
eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different
cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

Visual-spatial Intelligence

Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

Logical-mathematical Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelligence

Musical Intelligence

Intra personal Intelligence

Naturalistic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive
adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life." While
he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead
suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three
different factors:

Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new
situations using past experiences and current skills.

Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing

environment.

What Factors Determine Intelligence?

In addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelligence, psychologists have spent a great
amount of time and energy debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The debate
focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is more important - nature or nurture?
Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in
determining intelligence.
It now becomes matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each factor has.
First, it is important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how
inherited genes are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the
individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced
by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease.
Evidence of genetic influences:

Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of fraternal twins
(Promin & Spinath, 2004).

Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar than those of
adopted children raised together in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).

Evidence of environmental influences:

Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared in the
same environment (McGue & others, 1993).

School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001).

Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher on IQ
tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed (Reinberg, 2008).

Thinking skills
Thinking skills are the mental processes that we apply when we seek to make sense of experience.
Thinking skills enable us to integrate each new experience into the schema that we are constructing
of "how things are". It is apparent that better thinking will help us to learn more from our
experience and to make better use of our intelligence.

It has always been the central aim of education to improve the quality of thinking because better
thinking will not only enable us to become more successful at learning but will also equip us for
life, enabling us to realise our own potential and to contribute to the development of society.
Higher-order thinking is when we use the brain for more than storing and retrieving factual
knowledge. So, learning to reel off the kings and queens of England wouldn't involve higher-order
skills, but devising a mnemonic to help you remember them would.
Broadly speaking, thinking skills fall into two categories - those rooted in philosophy, such as
reasoning and logic, and those rooted in psychology, such as creative thinking and problem-solving.

Problem-solving
In cognitive psychology, the term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go
through to discover, analyze and solve problems. This involves all of the steps in the problem
process, including the discovery of the problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the
problem, researching the available options and taking actions to achieve your goals.
Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem
itself. If your understanding of the issue if faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or
flawed.
There are a number of different mental process at work during problem-solving. These include:

Perceptually recognizing a problem

Representing the problem in memory

Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem

Identify different aspects of the problem

Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

Algorithms: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct

solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm. While
an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem
solving. This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so timeconsuming. For example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number
combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time!

Heuristics: A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in
certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution.

However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify complex
problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

Trial-and-Error: A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of

different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option
if you have a very limited number of options available. If there are many different choices,
you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving
technique before attempting trial-and-error.

Insight: In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. According
to researchers, insight can occur because you realize that the problem is actually similar to
something that you have dealt with in the past, but in most cases the underlying mental
processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.

Problems and Obstacles in Problem-Solving

Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles that
can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have described
a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant information and
assumptions.

Functional Fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their
customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the
different options that might be available to find a solution.

Irrelevant or Misleading Information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is

important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data
that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to
focus on misleading or irrelevant information.

Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the
constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.

Mental Set: Another common problem-solving obstacle is known as a mental set, which is
the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than
looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful
problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more
difficult to find effective solutions.

Creativity
Definition
In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: "Over the course
of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves
the production of novel, useful products", or, in Robert Sternberg's words, the production of

"something original and worthwhile". Authors have diverged dramatically in their precise
definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a hundred
different analyses can be found in the literature.[3] As an illustration, one definition given by Dr. E.
Paul Torrance described it as "a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in
knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for
solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting
these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the results.
Aspects
Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others)
have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the four Ps"
process, product, person and place (according to Mel Rhodes). A focus on process is shown in
cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking.
Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing
the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A
focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see
below) and in creative ideas framed as successful memes. The psychometric approach to creativity
reveals that it also involves the ability to produce more. A focus on the nature of the creative person
considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise,
exploratory behavior and so on. A focus on place considers the circumstances in which creativity
flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative
lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.

Educational approach to individual differences

Definition: Individual differences are the variations from one person to another on variables such
as self-esteem, rate of cognitive development or degree of agreeableness. Historically,
psychological science has overlooked individual differences in favour of focusing on average
behavior.
All in all, the study of individual differences helps us to understand not only what makes humans
similar to one another, but also what makes them different. By considering the variations that can
occur from one person to another, we can best understand the full range of human behaviour. We
can also come to understand what constitutes normal variation-such as starting puberty at 9 years of
age instead of 10.5 years-and which developmental rates may be red flags for intervention, such as
in the case of learning disorders.
There are a variety of individual differences that must be of concern to classroom teachers. Some of
the most prominent are academic ability (or intelligence), achievement level, gender, learning style,
and ethnicity and culture.
In general, there are three different approaches for dealing with individual differences among
students. First, you can develop events of instruction that take them into account as part of the
instructional process. This is the approach used by Bernice McCarthy, developer of the 4MAT
system. The second approach is to provide some sort of grouping, either between classes or within

the classroom itself, in order to reduce or accomodate for the variability with respect to student
background, achievement, ability or some other characteristic. Leveling or tracking, classroom
grouping, cooperative learning, and individualized instruction are examples of this approach. Third,
you can modify the conditions within which instruction is taking place. This is the approach used in
mastery learning.
Modifying Events of Instruction
One strategy for dealing with individual differences is to develop or modify the events of
instruction so that they specifically address individual differences. This is exemplified by the 4MAT
system developed by Bernice McCarthy. The 4MAT system is a direct instruction approach to
teaching that utilizes research on brain lateralization dominance and learning style to identify
specific instructional events that will be attractive to a specific type of student. The 4MAT system
seems to have considerable face validity, although there is not a widespread research base to
support it.
Grouping
There are four major approaches to grouping: between-class ability grouping (often referred to as
leveling or tracking), within-class ability grouping, cooperative learning, and individualized
instruction.
Between-class Ability Grouping. With respect to between-class ability grouping, research does not
support this strategy in terms of learning for all students. Students assigned to the top level (perhaps
the top 10 to 15%) seem to benefit from this type of grouping, but middle- and lower-ability
students do not. And although this is still a popular practice in Ameican education, some school
systems are opting to eliminate it. You might ask the question "Why do we use an educational
practice that only benefits a small number of students but is detrimental for most?" The answer
probably lies more within the realm of politics and expediency and therefore most likely will need
to be dealt with on those terms.
The major problem with between-class ability grouping may lie more with the method of grouping
than with the concept itself. For the most part, ability groups are determined by a composite score
on a standardized test of basic skills or on the subtest scores for reading/language arts and
mathematics. However, student knowledge and aptitude may not be uniform across all areas of the
content being studied. Perhaps multiple regroupings based on specific prerequisite skills might
provide a different picture of the viability for between-class grouping.
Another problem that research has found with between-class grouping is that teacher expectations
and the quality of instruction are often lower for lower-track groups. Researchers have observed the
same teachers in both lower- and upper-level groups and have observed a measurable difference in
the performance in these classes. Teachers are generally not as well organized and they use different
strategies for questioning when they have entire classrooms composed of lower-ability students.
A final problem with between-class grouping is that students may begin to lower their own
expectations when they are placed in a lower-level class. This in turn impacts there achievement
which in turn impacts their self-concepts with respect to academic achievement (particularly in that
specific class) which consequently negatively impacts the teacher's expectations and so on. It is this
cyclical nature of the impact of ability-grouping that may be most detrimental.

Within-class Ability Grouping. On the whole, research tends to support within-class ability
grouping as beneficial to the learning of most students. It seems to be more flexible and,
consequently, less stigmatizing. However, this research is based on a small sample of classes
(mostly mathematics) and, therefore, needs considerable additional research. In addition, the
specific method seems to be important. The ability-grouped active teaching (AGAT) discussed by
Slavin (1994, pp. 319, 323) is an example of an effective method. In general, if within-class ability
grouping is going to be considered, the teacher may want to have only two groups since it will
make the grouping process easier to manage.
Cooperative Learning. Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy in which students are
placed in heterogeneous groups. In my opinion, cooperative learning is one of the best researched
educational innovations of the last two decades. When implemented properly, it can have dramatic
effects on student achievement.
Individualized Instruction. While individualized instruction is logically the best way to deal with
individual differences, in practice it is very difficult to accomplish. One innovation that may change
that is computer-assisted instruction (CAI). On the whole, CAI has not yet delivered on its promise
to revolutionize teaching and instruction. However, my expectations are that with the more
powerful computers now available at reasonable prices we will begin to see an impact on
achievement in the near future.
Mastery Learning. A third strategy for dealing with individual differences among students is to
change the system within which instruction is provided. This is the strategy used by mastery
learning. In mastery learning, the teaching environment is structured so that students develop
mastery of prerequisite skills before they begin a new lesson. In practice, mastery learning has not
demonstrated any superiority over traditional instruction when it is implemented on an individual
classroom basis. However, it has been shown to dramatically improve student achievement when it
is successfully implemented on a school- or district-wide basis.

Prepared by:
Jonalyn H. Bejare

FOUND
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Submitted By : Bejare, Jonalyn H.

Submitted To: Dr. Ayonayon