Two Ports

EE 348
University of Southern California
J. Choma, Jr.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
EE 448: Lecture Supplement #1

Two Port Network Theory And Analysis
3.2.4.1.
Fall, 2001
Choma & Chen
THETWOPORTANALYSISCONCEPT
Mostlinearelectricalandelectronicsystemscanbeviewedas twoportnetworks. A
networkportisapairofelectricalterminals.Atwoportnetworkisacircuitthathasaninputport
towhichasignalvoltageorcurrentisappliedandanoutputportatwhichtheresponsetotheinput
signalisextracted.Inprinciple,theoutputportresponsecanbemathematicallyrelatedtotheinput
portsignalbyapplyingKirchhoff'sVoltageLaw(KVL)andKirchhoff'sCurrentLaw(KCL)tothe
internal meshes and nodes of the twoport network. Unfortunately, at least three engineering
problemslimittheutilityofthisstraightforwardanalyticalprocedure.
Oneproblemstemsfromthecomplexityofpracticalcircuits.Ausefullinearcircuitis
likelytocontaintensorevenhundredsofmeshesandnodes.Theanalyticaldeterminationofthe
responseofsuchacircuitthereforerequiresasimultaneoussolutiontothemultiordersystemof
equilibriumequationsthatderivefromtheapplicationofKVLandKCL. Whenthenumberof
requisite equations exceeds two or three, the resultant solution is cumbersome. Complicated
solutionsarecounterproductive,fortheydilutetheanalyticalanddesigninsightswhoseassimilation
is,infact,thefundamentalgoalofcircuitanalysis.
AsecondshortcomingimplicittoanalysespredicatedontheapplicationofKVLand
KCListhenecessitythatthevoltampererelationshipsofallinternalnetworkbranchesbewell
defined.Thisconstraintisnontrivialwhenactiveelementsappearinoneormorebranchesofthe
considerednetwork. Itisalsonontrivialwhenanaccountmustbemadeofpresumablysecond
order circuit effects, such as stray capacitance, parasitic lead inductance, and undesirable
electromagnetic coupling from proximate circuits. To be sure, mathematical models of active
elementsandmostsecondorderphenomenacanbeconstructed. Butintheinterestofanalytical
tractability,thesemodelsareinvariablysimplifiedsubcircuitsthatcanproduceunacceptableerrors
inthederivednetworkresponse.Whenthesemodelsarenotsimplified,theyareoftencastinterms
ofphysicalparametersthatareeithernebulouslydefinedordefyreliablemeasurement.Inthiscase,
KVLandKCLanalysesareanexerciseinfutility.Inparticular,theresponseexpressionsproduced
by KVL and KCL may be academically satisfying. But response determination errors accrue
becauseofnumericaluncertaintiesinthepoorlydefinedparametersassociatedwithcertainbranch
elementsintrinsictothenetworkundergoingstudy.
Lecture Supplement #2
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Yetanothercommonlyencounteredproblemissuperfluoustechnicalinformation.The
applicationofKVLandKCLtoalinearnetworkproduces,inadditiontotheoutputvoltageorcur
rent,allnodeandbranchvoltagesandallmeshandloopcurrentsfortheentireconfiguration.In
manyapplications,suchasthosethatevolvethedesignofelectronicsystemsintermsofavailable
standardcircuitcells,theutilityoftheseinternalcircuitvoltagesandcurrentsisquestionable.For
example, in the design ofan active RC filter that exploits commercially available operational
amplifiers (opamps), the only engineering concern is the electrical characteristics registered
betweentheinputandoutput(I/O)portsofthefilter.Thesecharacteristicscanbededucedwithout
anexplicitawarenessofthevoltagesandcurrentsinternaltotheutilizedopamps. Theycan,in
fact, be unambiguously determined as a function of parameters gleaned from measurements
conducted at only the input and the output ports of each opamp. These socalled twoport
parameters,areadmittedlynonphysicalentitiesinthattheycannotgenerallybecastintermsofthe
phenomenologicalprocessesthatunderlietheelectricalpropertiesobservedattheI/Oportsofthe
networktheycharacterize.Nonetheless,thesetwoportparametersareusefulsincetheydoderive
fromreproducibleI/Oportmeasurements,andtheydoallowforanunambiguousdeterminationof
networkresponse.
Thissectiondefinesthecommonlyusedtwoportparametersofgeneralizedlinearnet
worksanddiscussesthetheorythatunderliestwoportparameterequivalentcircuits,ormodels.It
developstwoportcircuitanalysismethodsapplicabletoevaluatingthedrivingpointinput,thedriv
ingpointoutput,thetransfer,andthestabilitycharacteristicsofbothsimpletwoportsandtwoport
systemsformedofinterconnectionsofsimpletwoports.Basicmeasurementstrategiesforthevari
oustwoportparametersoflinearnetworksarealsoaddressed.
3.2.4.2.
GENERALIZEDTWOPORTNETWORK
Fig.(3.1)abstractsageneralizedlineartwoportnetwork.Theinputportistheterminal
pair,12,whiletheoutputport,whichisterminatedinanarbitraryloadimpedance,ZL,isthetermi
nalpair, 34
. Nosourcesofenergyexistwithinthetwoport. Sincethesubjecttwoportmay
containenergystorageelements,thispresumptionimplieszerostateconditions;thatis,allinitial
voltagesassociatedwithinternalcapacitancesandallinitialcurrentsofinternalinductancesare
zero.Energyisthereforeappliedtothetwoportnetworkatonlyitsinputport.InFig.(3.1a),this
energyisrepresentedasaThveninequivalentcircuitconsistingofthesignalsourcevoltage, VS,
anditsinternalsourceimpedance, ZS. Alternatively,theappliedenergycanbemodeledasthe
NortoncircuitdepictedinFig.(3.1b),wheretheNortonequivalentcurrent,IS,is
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Asaresultofinputexcitation,avoltage,Vi,isestablishedacrosstheinputport,acurrent,Ii,flows
intotheinputport,acurrent,Io,flowsintotheoutputport,andavoltage,Vo,isdevelopedacross
theoutputport. NotethattheoutputportvoltageandcurrentareconstrainedbytheOhm'sLaw
relationship,
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(32)
TheI/Otransferpropertiesoftwoportnetworksaretraditionallydefinedintermsof
oneormoreofseveralpossibleforwardtransfercharacteristicsandtwodrivingpointimpedance
specifications.Amongthemorecommonlyusedforwardtransferspecificationsisthevoltagegain,
sayAv,whichistheratiooftheoutputvoltagedevelopedacrosstheterminatingloadimpedanceto
theThveninequivalentinputvoltage;thatis,
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(33)
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FIGURE(3.1).
J. Choma, Jr.
(a) A Linear Two-Port Network Whose Source Circuit Is Modeled

By A Thvenin Equivalent Circuit. (b) The Linear Two-Port
Network Of (a), But With The Source Circuit Represented By Its
Norton Equivalent Circuit.
An ideal voltage amplifier produces a voltage gain that is independent of source and load
impedances.Itthereforefunctionsasanidealvoltagecontrolledvoltagesource(VCVS).Although
idealvoltageamplifierscanneverberealized,electronicfeedbackcircuitscanbedesignedsothat
theirterminalelectricalpropertiesemulatethoseofidealizedvoltageamplifiers. Thesecircuits
deliveravoltagegainthat,subjecttocertainparametricrestrictions,isapproximatelyindependent
ofsourceandloadimpedances.
Asecondforwardtransfercharacteristicisthecurrentgain,Ai,whichistheratioofthe
outputcurrentflowingthroughtheterminatingloadimpedancetotheNortonequivalentsourcecur
rent.Inparticular,
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(34)
By (31) through (33), the current gain of a linear twoport network can be related to its
correspondingvoltagegainby
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Anidealcurrentamplifierbehavesasanidealcurrentcontrolledcurrentsource(CCCS)inthatit
providesacurrentgainthatisindependentofsourceandloadimpedances. Likeidealvoltage
amplifiers, idealized current amplification can only be approximated. For example, the low
frequencyforwardtransfercharacteristics ofabipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)canbemadeto
emulatethoseofaCCCS.
The forward transadmittance (or forward transconductance, if only low signal
frequenciesareofinterest),say Yf,quantifiestheabilityofatwoportnetworktoconvertinput
voltagestooutputcurrents.Itisdefinedas
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(36)
which,recalling(32)and(35),isexpressibleas
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The metaloxidesemiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), as well as the metal
semiconductorfieldeffecttransistor(MESFET),canbeoperatedtoapproximatetransconductor
transfer characteristics. Finally, the forward transimpedance (or forward transresistance, if
attentionfocusesononlylowsignalfrequencies),sayZf,quantifiestheabilityofatwoportnetwork
toconvertinputcurrentstooutputvoltages.From(31),(33),and(35),
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Theprecedingdefinitionsandrelationshipsindicatethatforknownsourceandloadimpedances,
anyoneofthefourbasicforwardtransferfunctionscanbedeterminedintermsofeitherthecurrent
gainorthevoltagegain.
Thedrivingpointinputimpedance,sayZin,istheeffectiveThveninimpedanceseenat
theinputportbythesignalsourcecircuit,whentheoutputportisterminatedintheloadimpedance
usedunderactualoperatingconditions.ThesystemlevelmodelforcalculatingandmeasuringZin
isofferedinFig.(3.2a),where
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The equations used to formulate a forward transfer function can be exploited to
determinethedrivingpointinputimpedance.Forexample,Fig.(3.1)confirmsthat
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(310a)
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and
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(310b)
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FIGURE(3.2).
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(a)System Level Model Used To Compute The Driving-Point

Input Impedance Of The Linear Two-Port Network In Fig. (3.1).
(b)System Level Model Used To Compute The Driving-Point
Output Impedance Of The Linear Two-Port Network In Fig.
(3.1).
Itfollowsthat
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(311a)
or
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(311b)
The drivingpointoutputimpedance,say Zout,istheThveninimpedanceseenatthe
outputportbytheterminatingloadimpedance,whentheThveninsignalsourcevoltage,VS,isset
tozero.ThesystemlevelmodelforcalculatingandmeasuringZoutappearsinFig.(3.2b),where
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Asinthecaseofthedrivingpointinputimpedance,Zoutcanbeevaluateddirectlyintermsofthe
equations used to deduce a forward transfer function. To this end, recall that the Thvenin
impedanceseenlookingintoaterminalpairofalinearcircuitistheratiooftheThveninvoltage,
say Vto,developedacrosstheterminalpairofinteresttotheNortoncurrent,say Ino,thatflows
throughtheshortcircuitedterminalpair,inassociatedreferencepolaritywiththeoriginaloutput
voltage,Vo.ForthenetworkinFig.(3.1),
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(313)
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(314)
Thus,thedrivingpointoutputimpedance,Zout,isexpressibleas
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(315)
3.2.4.3.
THETWOPORTPARAMETERS
Inordertorelatethefourtransferandtwodrivingpoint specificationsintroducedin
theprecedingsectiontothemeasurablepropertiesofalineartwoportnetwork,itisnecessaryto
interrelatethefourtwoportnetworkvariables,Vi,Ii,Vo,andIo.Considerthesituationinwhichthe
internal topology of the linear twoport network in Fig. (3.1) is unknown, inaccessible for
measurement and characterization, or too cumbersome for traditional KVL and KCL analyses.
Then,onlytwoindependentequationsofequilibriumcanbewritten:ameshoranodalequationfor
theinputloopcomprised ofthesourcetermination andtheinputport,andameshoranodal
equationfortheoutputmeshconsistingoftheloadimpedanceandtheoutputport. Aunique
solution for the four twoport variables therefore requires that two of these variables be made
independent.Thetwononindependentvariablesarenecessarilydependentquantities.Inprinciple,
anytwoofthefourtwoportelectricalvariablescanbeselectedasindependent.Butdependingon
theelectricalnatureoftheconsiderednetwork,someindependenttwoportvariablepairsmaymore
readilylendthemselvestomeasurement,modeling,andcircuitanalysisthanothers.Indeed,some
independentvariablepairsmaybeinappropriateforspecifictypesoflinearnetworks,inthesense
thattheyembodytwoportparametersthataredifficultorimpossibletomeasure. Thespecific
selection determines the type of parameters used to model and characterize a linear twoport
network.
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HYBRIDhPARAMETERS
Whenahybridhparameterequivalentcircuitisselectedtomodelalineartwoportnet
work,thetwoportnetworkvariablesselectedasindependentaretheinputcurrent,Ii,andtheoutput
voltage,Vo.Thismeansthattheinputvoltage,Vi,andtheoutputcurrent,Io,arethedependentvari
ablesofthemodel.Becausethetwoportnetworkathandisalinearcircuit,eachdependenttwo
portvariableisalinearsuperpositionoftheeffectsofeachindependentvariable.Thus,thedual
voltampererelationships,
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(316)
canbehypothesized.Dimensionalconsistencymandatesthath11beanimpedanceandh22bean
admittance, while h12 and h21 are both dimensionless. Moreover, the four hij are constants,
independentofallfourtwoportelectricalvariables.
Theequationsin(316)producethemodelofFig.(3.3a),whichisthe hparameter
equivalentcircuitofalineartwoportnetwork.ThemodelsofFigs.(3.3b)and(3.3c)arethecorre
spondingequivalentcircuitsfortheterminatedsystemsinFigs.(3.1a)and(3.1b),respectively.Itis
interestingtonoteinFig.(3.3a)thatthe hparameterinputportmodelisaThveninequivalent
circuit,whilethe hparameteroutputportmodelisaNortonrepresentation. Thisstateofaffairs
mirrorsfundamentalcircuittheory,whichstipulatesthatanypairofterminals(i.e.anyport)ofa
linear circuit can be supplanted by either a Thvenin or a Norton equivalent circuit. Just as
ThveninandNortonmodelsforsimpleoneportnetworksarecastintermsoftheindependent
electricalvariablesthatexcitethatport,theThveninequivalentinputportvoltageandtheNorton
equivalentoutputportcurrentinFig.(3.3a)areproportionaltotheelectricalportquantitiesselected
asindependentvariablesinthehparameterrepresentationofthetwoportnetwork.
Measurementproceduresforhparametersderivedirectlyfrom(316).Forexample,if
Voisclampedtozero,whichcorrespondstotheshortcircuitedoutputportdrawninFig.(3.4a),
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(317a)
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(317b)
Itfollowsthath11istheshortcircuitinputimpedance(meaningtheoutputportisshortcircuited)of
thesubjecttwoportnetwork.Itis,infact,aparticularvalueofZin,thepreviouslyintroduceddriv
ingpointinputimpedance,forthespecialcaseofzeroloadimpedance. Ontheotherhand, h21
representstheforwardshortcircuitcurrentgain.Itisanoptimisticmeasureoftheabilityofthe
considered twoport network to provide forward current gain, since a short circuited load
encouragesmaximalcurrentconductionthroughtheoutputport.Recalling(310),Ii=IS whenZS
=`andaccordingly,h21istheZS=`andZL=0valueofthesystemcurrentgain,Ai.
ForIi=0,whichimpliesanopencircuitedinputport,asdiagrammedinFig.(3.4b),
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FIGURE(3.3).
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(a)The h-Parameter Equivalent Circuit Of The Two-Port

Network In Fig. (3.1). (b)The h-Parameter Model Of The
Terminated Circuit In Fig. (3.1a). (c)The h-Parameter Model Of
The Terminated Circuit In Fig. (3.1b).
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(318a)
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(318b)
Theparameter,h12,istermedthereversevoltagetransmissionfactorofatwoportnetwork.Itis
naturaltothinkofatwoportnetwork,andparticularlyanactivetwoportnetwork,asacircuitthat
isdesignedforverylargeh21sothatmaximalinputsignalistransmittedtoitsoutputport.Buta
portionoftheoutputsignalcanalsobetransmittedback,orfedback,totheinputport. This
feedbackcanbeanundesirablephenomenon,asisobservedwhenbipolarandMOStransistorsare
operatedathighsignalfrequencies. Itcanalsobeaspecificdesignobjective,aswhenfeedback
pathsareappendedaroundactivedevicesforthepurposeofoptimizingoverallnetworkresponse.
Regardlessofthesourceofnetworkfeedback,h12isitsmeasure.Infact,h12representsmaximal
voltagefeedback,sincethenoloadconditionattheinputportinFig.(3.4b)supportsmaximalinput
portvoltage,Vi.
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FIGURE(3.4).
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(a)Measurement Of The Short Circuit h-Parameters. (b)

Measurement Of The Open Circuit h-Parameters.
Finally,theparameter,h22,istheopencircuit(meaningthattheinputportisopencir
cuited)outputadmittance.Forh22=0,theoutputportinFig.(3.3)emulatesanidealcurrentcon
trolledcurrentsource. If ZS= `, h22 isexactlytheinverseofthepreviouslyintroduceddriving
pointoutputimpedance,Zout.
Aparametermeasurementcomplicationariseswhenthetwoportnetworkundergoing
investigationisanactivecircuit. Thiscomplicationstemsfromthefactthatthetransistorsand
other active devices embedded within suchanetworkare inherently nonlinear. Thesedevices
behaveasapproximatelylinearcircuitelementsonlywhenstaticvoltagesandcurrents,separateand
apartfromtheinputsignalsource,areappliedtobiastheminthelinearregimeoftheirstaticvolt
amperecharacteristiccurves. Unfortunately,ashortcircuitedoutputportandanopencircuited
inputportarelikelytoupsetrequisitebiasing. AssumingthatthetestsourcesdelineatedinFig.
(3.4)aresinusoidshavingzeroaveragevalue,thebiasingdilemmacanbecircumventedbyshunting
the original load impedance with a sufficiently large capacitance, as suggested in Fig. (3.5a).
Similarly, asufficiently large inductanceinseries withthesource impedance attheinputport
approximates an open circuit for signal test conditions, without disturbing the biasing current
flowingintotheinputportunderactualsignalinputconditions.Thelatterconnectionisillustrated
inFig.(3.5b).
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FIGURE(3.5).
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(a)Measurement Of The Short Circuit h-Parameters For A

Linear Active Two-Port Network. (b)Measurement Of The Open
Circuit h-Parameters For A Linear Active Two-Port Network.
AlthoughthetestfixturinginFig.(3.5)isconceptuallycorrect,itisimpracticalwhen
appliedtomostlinearactivecircuits.Thisimpracticalitystemsfromthefactthatalmostallactive
networksarepotentiallyunstableinthesensethatthereexistsarangeofpassiveloadorsource
terminationsthatcansupportsustainednetworkoscillations. Unfortunately,shortcircuited,and
especiallyopencircuited,loadandsourceimpedancesliewithinthisrangeofpotentiallyunstable
behavior. Forthisreason,the hparameters,aswellastheothertwoportparametersdiscussed
below, are rarely measured directly for active twoport networks. Instead, they are measured
indirectlybycalculatingthemasafunctionofthemeasuredscattering(S)parameters[1],[2].Like
the hparameters,the SparametersalsomeasuretheI/Oimmittance,forwardgain,andfeedback
propertiesofatwoportnetwork.Butunlikethehparameters,theSparametersarededucedunder
theconditionoffinite,nonzero,andequalsourceandloadimpedancesthatareselectedtoensure
thatthenetworkundergoingtestoperatesasastablelinearstructure.Invariably,thisequalsource
and load test termination, which is called the measurement reference impedance, is a 50
resistance.
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HYBRIDgPARAMETERS
Theindependentanddependentvariablesusedtodefinethehybridgparameters,gij,of
alineartwoportnetworkaretheconverseofthoseusedinconjunctionwithhparameters.Specifi
cally,theindependentvariablesforgparametermodelingaretheinputvoltage,Vi,andtheoutput
current,Io,therebyrenderingtheinputcurrent,Ii,andtheoutputvoltage,Vo,dependentelectrical
quantities.Fromsuperpositiontheory,itfollowsthat
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FIGURE(3.6).
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(a)The g-Parameter Equivalent Circuit Of The Two-Port

Network In Fig. (3.1). (b)The g-Parameter Model Of The
Terminated Circuit In Fig. (3.1a).
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(319)
whichgivesrisetothe gparameter equivalentcircuit depictedinFig.(3.6a). This equivalent
circuitrepresentstheinputportofatwoportnetworkasaNortontopology,whiletheoutputportis
modeledbyaThveninequivalentcircuit.ThegparameterequivalentcircuitforthesystemofFig.
(3.1b)isillustratedinFig.(3.6b).AsimilarstructurecanbedrawnforthesystemshowninFig.
(3.1a).GiventheNortontopologyfortheinputportmodelofagparameterequivalentcircuit,the
systemmodelinFig.(3.6b),whichsupplantsthesignalsourcebyitsNortonequivalentcircuit,is
more computationally expedient than a system model which represents the signal source as a
Thveninequivalentcircuit.
Asisthecasewith hparameters,themeasurementstrategyfor gparametersderives
directlyfromthedefiningvoltamperemodelingequations.Tothisend,(319)suggeststhat
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(320a)
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(320b)
Thus,g11istheopencircuitinputadmittance(meaningtheoutputportisopencircuited)ofatwo
portnetwork.Itisthevalueofthedrivingpointinputadmittancewhentheloadimpedanceisan
open circuit. The parameter, g21, represents the forward open circuit voltage gain. It is an
optimisticmeasureoftheabilityatwoportnetworktoprovideforwardvoltagegain,sinceanopen
circuitedloadconducesmaximaloutputportvoltage.Equation(319)alsoconfirmsthat
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(321a)
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(321b)
Likeh12,g12,whichisthereversecurrenttransmissionfactorofatwoportnetwork,isameasure
offeedbackinternaltoatwoportnetwork. Ontheotherhand, g22 isthe shortcircuit output
impedance(inputportisshortcircuited).Fig.(3.7)outlinesthebasicmeasurementstrategyinferred
by(320)and(321).Thecommentsofferedearlierinregardtothehparametercharacterizationof
linearactivetwoportnetworksapplyaswelltogparametermeasurements.
Atthisjuncture,twoalternativesforthemodelingandanalysisoflineartwoportnet
workshavebeenformulated.Ifhparametersareselectedasthemodelingvehicleforagiventwo
portnetwork,theequivalentcircuitshowninFig.(3.3a)results.Ontheotherhand,gparameters
giverisetothetwoportequivalentcircuitofferedinFig.(3.6a).Ifthetwoportnetworkmodeled
byhparametersisidenticaltothetwoportnetworkrepresentedbygparameters,bothequivalent
circuitsdeliverthesamesystemI/O,forwardtransfer,andreversetransfercharacteristics. This
homogeneityrequirementimpliesarelationshipbetweenthehandthegparameters;thatis,thehij
andthegijarenotmutuallyindependent.
Inordertoestablishtherelationshipbetween hij and gij,itisconvenienttobeginby
rewriting(316)asthematrixequation,
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(322)
wherethematrixofhparametersis
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(323)
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FIGURE(3.7).
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(a)Measurement Of The Open Circuit g-Parameters. (b)

Measurement Of The Short Circuit g-Parameters.
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(324)
isthevectorofhparameterindependentelectricalvariables,and
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(325)
isthevectorof hparameterdependentvariables. Assumingthatthe hparametermatrixisnot
singular,whichmeansthatthedeterminant,
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ofthematrixofhparametersisnonzero,(322)implies
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(327)
ThelastresultisasystemoflinearalgebraicequationsthatcastIiandVoasdependent
variablesandViandIoasindependentvariables;thatis,(327)isidenticalto(319).Itfollowsthat
ifthematrixofgparametersis
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(328)
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(329)
Specifically,
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(330)
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(331)
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(332)
and
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(333)
Notethatif h =0,the gparametersofatwoportnetworkcannotbecalculatedor
measured. In other words, the gparameters of a networkdo not exist whenthe matrix of h
parametersissingular.Conversely,thehparametersofanetworkcannotbecalculatedormeasured
whenthematrixof gparametersissingular. Thisstatementfollowsfrom(329),whichcanbe
rewrittenas
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(334)
providedthatthedeterminant,
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(335)
ofthematrixofgparametersin(328)isnotzero.
SHORTCIRCUITADMITTANCE(y)PARAMETERS
Whenshortcircuitadmittanceparameters,oryparameters,areusedtocharacterizea
lineartwoportnetwork,theelectricalvariablesselectedasindependentquantitiesaretheinputport
voltage,Vi,andtheoutputportvoltage,Vo.Theresultantvoltampererelationshipscanbecastas
thematrixequation,
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(336)
where all of the yparameters, yij, are inunits of admittance. The corresponding yparameter
equivalentcircuitofatwoportnetworkistheNortoninputportandNortonoutputportstructure
drawninFig.(3.8).
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FIGURE(3.8).The y-Parameter Equivalent Circuit Of A Linear Two-Port

Network.
Withtheoutputportshortcircuited(Vo=0),(336)yields
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(337a)
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(337b)
Equation(337)suggeststhaty11istheshortcircuitinputadmittance(meaningtheoutputportis
shortcircuited)ofatwoportnetwork. Itisthevalueoftheinverseofthedrivingpoint input
impedance whentheloadimpedance is zero. The parameter, y21,isthe forwardshortcircuit
transadmittance.Likeh21andg21,y21isameasureoftheforwardsignaltransmissioncapabilityof
alineartwoportnetwork. Whereas h21 measuresthiscapabilitythroughashortcircuitcurrent
gain, and g21 reflects forward gain characteristics through an open circuit voltage gain, y21
measures forward gain in terms of a short circuit transadmittance from input to output port.
Equation(336)additionallyshowsthat
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(338a)
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(338b)
Thus,y22istheshortcircuitoutputadmittance(meaningtheinputportisshortcircuited).Finally,
y12,isthereverseshortcircuittransadmittance.Likeh12andg12,y12isameasureofthefeedback
intrinsictoalineartwoportnetwork.
Becauseatwoportnetworkstudypredicatedonyparametersmustproduceanalytical
resultsthatmirrorastudybasedoneitherhparameterorgparametermodeling,theyparametersof
atwoportnetworkcanberelatedtoeitherthenetworkhorgparameters.Forexample,from(3
37)and(316),
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(339)
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(340)
Theresultin(339)is reasonableinview ofthefactthat h11 symbolizes ashortcircuit input
impedance,whiley11isaninputadmittancethatisalsoevaluatedforashortcircuitedoutputport.
Sinceboth h21 and y21 compriseameasureofforwardsignaltransmission, y21 is,asexpected,
directlyproportionaltoh21.
ForVi=0,(316)forcestheconstraint,h11Ii=h12Vo.Accordingly,
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(341)
and
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whence
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Asexpected, y12 isproportionalto h12. Note,however,that y22 isnot,ingeneral,equalto h22,

despitethefactthatbothy22andh22areoutputportadmittances.Theengineeringexplanationof
themathematicalobservation, y22 h22,isthat y22 isashortcircuitoutputadmittance,whereas

h22 representsanoutputadmittancewiththeinputportopencircuited. Similarly,the yij canbe
expressedintermsofthe gij byapplyingtheparametricdefinitionsof(337)and(338)tothe
defininggparameterequationsof(319).
Aninterestingspecialcaseisthatofareciprocaltwoportnetwork.Alinearnetworkis
saidtobereciprocalifitsfeedbackandfeedforwardyparametersareidentical;thatis,y12 y21.
Inviewofthedefiningyparameterrelationships,twoportreciprocitymeansthatavoltage,sayV,
appliedacrosstheinputportofalineartwoportnetworkproducesashortcircuitedoutputcurrent
thatisidenticaltotheshortcircuitedinputportcurrentthatwouldresultifVweretoberemoved
fromtheinputportandimpressedinsteadacrosstheoutputport.From(340)and(341),the h
parameter implication of network reciprocity is h12 = h21. Recalling (331) and (332), the
correspondinggparameterimplicationisg12=g21.
OPENCIRCUITIMPEDANCE(z)PARAMETERS
The use of opencircuit impedance parameters, or zparameters, is premised on
selecting the input port current, Ii, and the output port current, Io, as independent electrical
variables.Theupshotofthisselectionisthevoltamperematrixexpression,
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(343)
wherethezijarecalledtheopencircuitimpedanceparameters,orzparameters,ofatwoportnet
work.Equation(343)producesthezparameterequivalentcircuitofFig.(3.9),whichisseenas
exploitingThvenin'stheorematboththeinputandtheoutputnetworkports.Acomparisonof(3
43) with (336) confirms that the matrix of zparameters is the inverse of the matrix of y
parameters,provided,ofcoursethattheyparametermatrixisnotsingular.Inparticular,
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(344)
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(345)
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FIGURE(3.9).
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The z-Parameter Equivalent Circuit Of A Linear Two-Port

Network.
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(346)
and
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(347)
wherethedeterminantofyparameters,
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(348)
ispresumedtobenonzero.Whentheoutputportisopencircuited,theresultantinputimpedanceis
z11andthecorrespondingforwardtransimpedanceis z21.Theparameter, z12,istheopencircuit
reverse transimpedance (a measure of internal feedback), and z22 symbolizes the opencircuit
outputimpedance(meaninganopencircuitedinputport).
Thematrixofyparametersis,ofcourse,theinverseofthematrixofzparameterswhen
thezparametermatrixisnonsingular.Whenthezparametermatrixissingular,theyparameters
ofalineartwoportnetworkcanneitherbemeasurednorcomputed.Observefrom(346)and(3
47)thatnetworkreciprocity,whichimpliesy12=y21,forcesz12=z21.
TRANSMISSION(c)PARAMETERS
Thetransmissionparameters,whichareoftenreferredtoasthechainparametersorc
parameters,ofalineartwoportnetworkareimplicitlydefinedbythevoltamperedescription,
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(349)
Notethattheoutputvoltage,Vo,andthenegativeoftheoutputcurrent,Io,aretheselectedindepen
dentvariables,therebyconstrainingtheinputvoltage, Vi,andtheinputcurrent, Ii,asdependent
electrical variables. In contrast to the four other twoport parameter representations, the c
parametervoltampererelationshipsarerarelyusedtoconstructanequivalentcircuit.Instead,the
mathematicaldescriptionof(349)isdirectlyexploitedinbothanalysisanddesignprojects.This
descriptionisparticularlyusefulinthedesignofpassivefilters [3].Italsoprovesexpedientinthe
analysisofpassivecircuitssuchasthoseestablishedbyparasiticimpedancesassociatedwiththe
metallizationofamonolithiccircuit.
As usual, the strategy that underlies the measurement and calculation of the c
parametersderivesfromthedefiningvoltampererelationships.Tothisend,lettheoutputportof
thesysteminFig.(3.1a)beopencircuitedsothattheoutputcurrentisnulled.Simultaneously,let
theinputportbedrivenbyavoltage,Vi,whichestablishesaninputportcurrentofIi,asabstracted
inFig.(3.10a).By(349),thistestfixturingproduces
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FIGURE(3.10).
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(a)Test Fixturing For The Measurement Of The Open Circuit cParameters. (b)Test Fixturing For The Measurement Of The
Short Circuit c-Parameters.
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Theforegoingresultconfirmsthatc11istheinverseoftheopencircuitforwardvoltagegainofa
twoportnetwork.Recalling(320)and(343),c11isseenasbeingequaltotheinverseoftheg
parameter,g21;thatis,
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(351)
Moreover,c21istheinverseoftheopencircuitforwardtransimpedance.From(343),
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(352)
Withtheinputportofthesubjecttwoportexcitedbyacurrentsource,asdepictedin
Fig.(3.10b),lettheoutputportbeshortcircuited,insteadofopencircuited.By(349)
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(353a)
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(353b)
Sincethequantity,(Io),issimplyanantiphaseversionoftheoutputcurrent,Io,delineatedinFig.
(3.1a),c12istheinverseoftheantiphaseforwardshortcircuittransadmittanceofatwoportnet
work.From(340)and(343),thisparameterrelatestotheyandzparametersinaccordancewith
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(354)
where
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(355)
isthedeterminantofthezparametermatrix.Finally,c22istheinverseantiphaseforwardshort
circuitcurrentgain.Equations(339),(340),and(343)provide
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(356)
Observethat c22 and c11 aredimensionless, c12 hasunitsofimpedance,and c21 hasadmittance
units.
Twointerestingfeaturesofthe cparameter modelarerevealedbyinvestigatingthe
determinant,sayc,ofthecparametermatrix.Using(351),(352),(354)and(356),
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(357)
Networkreciprocity,whichimpliesz12=z21,andalsoy12=y21,isthereforeseentobeinoneto
onecorrespondencewithacparametermatrixwhosedeterminantisone.Ontheotherhand,ifz12,
(and y12) is zero, which corresponds to a so called unilateral twoport network, c = 0.
Equivalently, the cparameter matrix is singular when the twoport network undergoing
investigationhasnointernalfeedback.
Unilateralizationisoftenadesirablepropertyofactivenetworks,sinceitimpliesthat
inputsignalsareprocessedinonlytheforwarddirection(frominputporttooutputport);thatis,no
responsesignalisfedbacktotheinputportfromtheoutputport.Asisdiscussedlater,thelackof
internalfeedbackrendersunilateralnetworksunconditionallystableinthattheycannotsupportsus
tained oscillations for any and all passive source and load terminations. Unfortunately,
unilateralizationisanidealizedoperatingcondition.Althoughactivenetworkscanbedesignedto
achieve vanishingly small, z12 at low signal frequencies, z12 (and hence, y12) increases with
progressivelylargersignalfrequencies.
Another attribute of cparameter modeling is the ease by which it affords general
expressionsforthedrivingpoint inputandoutputimpedancesandtheforwardvoltagegainofa
lineartwoportnetwork.Forexample,from(32),(39),and(349),
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(358)
WiththehelpofFig.(3.2b),(349)alsoprovides
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(359)
Since
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theforwardvoltagegain,sayAf,fromtheinputterminalstotheoutputterminalsofalineartwoport
networkis
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(360)
NotethatforinfinitelylargeZL,correspondingtoanopencircuitedoutputport,thisgainreducesto
1/c11,whichcorroborateswith(350).
An especially laudable aspect of cparameters is its amenability to the analysis of
cascadedtwoportnetworks.Toillustrate,considerthetwostagecascadeofFig.(3.11),inwhich
thecparametermatrixofNetwork#1isC1andthatofNetwork#2isC2.Then
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FIGURE(3.11).
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A Two-Stage Cascade Of Linear Two-Port
Networks.
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(361a)
wheretheinterstagevoltageisdenotedasVx.Sincetheindicatedinterstagecurrentsaresuchthat
Ii2=Io1,theprecedingresultyields
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(361b)
Equation(361)suggeststhattheeffectivecparametermatrixofthetwostagecascadeisthesimple
matrixproduct,
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(362)
Because matrix multiplication is not commutative, care must be exercised that the requisite
multiplicationin(362)isexecutedintheproperorder.Thisnoteofcautionhighlightstheeffects
ofinteractiveloadingbetweentwolinearnetworks.Inparticular,theterminalelectricalproperties
ofNetwork#1incascadewithNetwork#2arenotnecessarilythesame,andusuallyarenotthe
same,asthoseassociatedwithNetwork#2placedincascadewithNetwork#1. Equation(362)
extendsreadilytothecaseofannstagecascade.Inparticular,theeffectivecparametermatrixfor
acascadeofnlineartwoportnetworksistheproductofthecparametermatricespertinenttothe
individualnstagesthatcomprisethecascade.
Theutilityof(362)canbedemonstratedbyconsideringtheteenetworkofFig.(3.12a).
Eachofthethreeimpedances,Z1,Z2,andZ3,canbeviewedaselementarytwoportnetworks.As
suggestedbyFig.(3.12b),thecascadeofthesenetworksgivesrisetothetopologyofFig.(3.12a).
Network#1istheseriesconnectionofZ1betweenitsinputandoutputports.Anapplicationof(3
50)and(353)tothisstructuregivesafirstnetworkcparametermatrixof
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Network#3istopologicallyidenticaltoNetwork#1andtherefore,
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Network #2 is the impedance, Z2, connected in shunt with both its input and output ports.
Equations(350)and(353)provide
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whereY2istheadmittanceoftheimpedance,Z2.Itfollowsthattheeffectivecparametermatrixfor
thecircuitofFig.(3.12a)is
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FIGURE(3.12).
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(a)A Two-Port Tee Network Formed Of Three Linear Impedance

Elements. (b)The Network Of (a) Viewed As A Cascade Of
Three Two-Port Networks.
Theindicatedmatrixmultiplicationsproducetheeffectivevaluesofthecij,.Forgivensourceand
loadterminations,(358),(359)and(360)canthenbeexploitedtodeterminethedrivingpoint
inputimpedance,thedrivingpointoutputimpedance,andtheI/Oportvoltagegain,respectively,
oftheteeconfiguration.
3.2.4.4.
CIRCUITANALYSISWITHTWOPORTPARAMETERS
Thetwoportparametersetsintroducedintheprecedingsubsectionsallowforanunam
biguous voltampere definition of a linear twoport network exclusively in terms of electrical
characteristicsthatareobservableandmeasurableattheI/Oportsofthenetwork.Therespective
equivalentcircuitscorrespondingtotheseparametersetsexploitsuperpositiontheoryandcomprise
amodestextensionoftheclassiconeportversionofThvenin'sandNorton'stheorems. These
equivalent circuits comprise a convenient means of analyzing the drivingpoint and transfer
properties of terminated electrical and electronic systems whose intrinsic circuit topologies are
eitherunknownortoocomplicatedforconventionalanalysispredicatedonKVLandKCL.
ANALYSISVIAhPARAMETERS
Inordertoillustratetheforegoingcontentions,returntotheterminatedtwoportsystem
ofFig.(3.1a).ItshparameterequivalentcircuitisdepictedinFig.(3.3b).TheapplicationofKCL
totheoutputportofthismodelresultsinthetransimpedancefunction,
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(363)
whereYListheadmittanceoftheloadimpedance,ZL.AKVLequationaroundtheinputportloop
gives
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(364)
Theinsertionof(363)into(364)yields
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(365)
Thelastresultand(363)combinetogiveasystemvoltagetransferfunction,orvoltagegain,Av,of
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Thedrivingpointinputimpedance,Zin,derivesdirectlyfromanapplicationof(311)to
(365).Inparticular,
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Sincetheoutputportinan hparametermodelisaNortonequivalent circuit,thedrivingpoint

outputadmittance,sayYout,isamoreconvenientmeasureofoutputportcharacteristicsthanisthe
drivingpointoutputimpedance, Zout. Thelatterfigureofmeritcanbefoundbyinvertingthe
expressionin(315),whichrequiresaprioriknowledgeoftheforwardtransadmittance,Yf.From
(37)and(366),
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Thenby(315),
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Notethesimilarityinformbetween(367)and(369).Indeed,oneexpressionmirrorstheotherif
thesubscripts,"1"and"2,"areinterchangedandthesymbolfortheloadadmittanceisinterchanged
withthatofthesourceimpedance.
Theanalysisleadingtotheexpressionsforthebasicindicesofnetworkperformanceis
straightforward. Butthefundamentalpurposeofanalysisisnotthedisclosureofmathematically
elegantresults.Rather,itistheinsightfulunderstandingthatiscommensurateeitherwithnetwork
optimizationorwiththedevelopmentofengineeringstrategiesthatproducereliableandmanufac
turable designs. A prerequisite for gaining such understanding is an accurate and insightful
interpretationofformulatedresults.
Totheforegoingend,returnto(366)andconsiderthespecialunilateralcaseofzero
internalfeedback;thatis,thecaseofh12=0.Iffeedbackfromtheoutputporttotheinputportofa
linearnetworkisviewedasasignalpaththatestablishesanelectricallooparoundtheI/Oportsof
thezerofeedbacksubcircuit,itislogicaltorefertothezerofeedbackvalueofthegainastheopen
loopgainofthesystem.From(366),theopenloopvoltagegain,sayAvo,is
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(370)
Thevoltagegainin(366)canthereforebewrittenas
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(371)
Thisoverallsystemvoltagegainistermedtheclosedloopgain,sinceitincorporatestheeffectsof
feedbackontheopenloopcellwhosegainisgivenby(370).Thequantity,h12Avo,inthedenomi
natorontherighthandsideof(371)istheloopgain,Th.Itiseffectivelythegainofthesignalpath
formedbyacascadeinterconnectionoftheopenloopsignalpathfromtheinputporttotheoutput
portandthefeedbackpathfromtheoutputportbacktotheinputport.Accordingly,with
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(372)
(371)becomes
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(373)
Theconceptsofopenloopgain,closedloopgain,andloopgainareclarifiedbythe
blockdiagramofFig.(3.13).ThisabstractionofthetwoportsysteminFig.(3.1a)underscoresthe
fact that Avo is the forward gain without feedback (or simply, the open loop gain). Note in
particularthatforh12=0,thefeedbacksignal,Vf,isnulled,therebyforcingVo=AvoVe=AvoVS.
Notefurtherthatthegainoftheloopformedbytheforwardgainandfeedbackgainblocksis
h12Avo,sincewith VS =0,Vf =h12Vo =h12AvoVe. Theclosedloopgainpredictedby(371)is
likewiseconfirmedinviewoftheobservation,
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(374)
whichproduces(371)directly.
Equations(371)and(373)loomespeciallysignificantinregardtothedesignofactive
twoportnetworks.Ifoverarangeofrelevantsignalfrequencies,themagnitude,|Th|,oftheloop
gainismuchsmallerthanone,theclosedloopgain,Av,collapsestoitsopenloopvalue,Avo.From
(370),Avoisseentobefunctionallydependentonthreehparameters,thesourceimpedance,and
theloadadmittance.ThedependenceoftheeffectivegainonZSandYLmeansthattheobservable
gain of the active twoport is vulnerable to changes in source and load terminations and
uncertainties in their respective values. A particularly strong dependence on source and load
terminating immittances limits the utility of the active network in general purpose voltage
amplificationapplications.
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FIGURE(3.13).
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Block Diagram Representation Of The Terminated Linear TwoPort Network In Fig. (3.1a).
SimilarstatementscanbemadeinregardtothenotedfunctionaldependenceofAvoon
thethree hparameters, h11, h21,and h22,exceptthatthisgainsensitivityproblemisevenmore
insidious.Thehparameters(andanyothertypeoftwoportnetworkparameters)ofactivecellsare
determinedbythedevicebiasingcurrentsandvoltagesimplementedtoachievereasonablenetwork
linearity.Thisbiasingisafunctionofthedegreetowhichtheexternallyappliedbiassources,or
powersupplies,areregulated.Theyarealsodependentontheoperatingtemperatureoftheutilized
devices.Unlessspecialdesigncareisexercisedtostabilizetheactivedevicebiasinglevelsagainst
powersupplyuncertaintiesandchangesinoperatingtemperature,theoverallsystemgainislikely
todisplayundesirablevariations.Butevenifbiasinglevelsareappropriatelystabilized,problems
can nonetheless arise from the fact that the hparameters are additionally dependent on
phenomenological processes indigenous to the voltampere characteristics of the active devices
embeddedwithinthetwoportnetwork.Manyoftheseprocessesarerelatedtophysicalparameters
thataredifficultorevenimpossibletomeasureaccurately. Otherphysicalparameters maybe
relativelyeasytomeasure,buttheirparticularvaluesaresubjecttoroutinelynonzeromanufacturing
tolerances.Someofthesephysicallybasedparametersareeveninfluencedbyelectricalcoupling
amongdevicesandcircuitelementslaidoutincloseproximitytooneanother.Inshort,significant
tolerancescanplaguethemeasuredtwoportparametersofalinearactivenetwork,therebygiving
risetothepossibilityofrelativelyunpredictableandillcontrolledsystemvoltagegains.
Manyoftheforegoinggainsensitivityproblemscanbecircumventedbyadesignthat
implementsaverylargemagnitudeofloopgainoverthesignalfrequencyrangeofinterest.For|
Th|>>1,(371)and(373)showthattheclosedloopgain,Av,isapproximatelyequalto1/h12.Not
onlyisthisresultantsystemgainindependentofsourceandloadimmittances,itisdependenton
onlyasinglehparameter.Tobesure,h12ispotentiallysubjecttothevagariesthataffecttheother
threehparameters.Butitispossibletodesignanactivenetworkforwhichtheamountoffeedback,
andhence,theeffectivevalueofh12,isprincipallydeterminedbyratiosoflikepassiveelements.
For such a design, the system gain is accurately predictable, tightly controllable, and virtually
independentofreasonableloadingimmittancesatboththeinputandtheoutputports.
Theloopgainconceptisalsoexpedientfromtheperspectiveofstudyingtherelevance
oftheinputandoutputimpedancestothedynamicalstabilityofatwoportnetwork.From(367),
(369),and(372),
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(375)
and
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(376)
Equation(375)definesthenetseriesimpedanceintheloopdefinedbytheinputportandthe
ThveninsourcecircuitinFig.(3.1a).Ontheotherhand,(376)givesthenetadmittancefoundin
theparallelbranchesoftheoutputportandtheloadimpedance.Now,This,ingeneral,acomplex
functionofthesignalfrequency, ;thatis, Th Th(j). Ifafrequency,say o,existssuchthat
Th(jo) = 1, Zin(jo) = ZS(jo) and Yout(jo) = YL(jo). The mathematical implication of
Zin(jo)=ZS(jo)isthatthecurrent,Ii,flowingintotheinputportofthesubjecttwoportnetwork
isinfinitelylarge.Similarly,themathematicalimplicationofYout(jo)=YL(jo)isaninfinitely
largeoutputportvoltage,Vo,forallvaluesofIi.Infinitelylargecurrentsandvoltagesinapresum
ablylinearcircuitareassuredlyindicativeofresponseinstability.Intruth,however,infinitelylarge
currentsandvoltagesareneverattained.Instead,atthefrequencywheresuchresponsesarepre
dicted,sinusoidaloscillationsareproducedthroughouttheentiretwoportsystem [4].Becausethe
amplitude of these oscillations are independent of the externally applied signal, the resultant
networkresponsesarenotcontrolled,andthenetworkisthereforesaidtobeunstable.Clearly,the
designofalinearcircuitmustembodystrategiesthatensurethatnofrequency, ,existstorender
Th(j)=1.
Itshouldbenotedthataunilateralnetworkisincapableofsinusoidaloscillationsince
unilateralizationimplies h12=0andhence,Th=0.WithTh=0,Zinreducestoh11,whileYout
becomesh22.Ontheassumptionthattherealpartsofh11andofh22arepositivefunctionsoffre
quency,ZinandYoutarenecessarilypositiverealfunctions.SinceZSandYLarepassivetermina
tionsandarethereforepositiverealfunctions [5],itfollowsthatnofrequencycanbefoundtorender
Zin=ZSandYout=YLinaunilateralizedtwoportnetwork.
ANALYSISVIAOTHERTWOPORTPARAMETERS
ThehparameteranalysisofthetwoportsysteminFig.(3.1)focusesontheproblemof
formalizingexpressionsforthevoltagegain,thedrivingpointinputimpedance,andthedriving
pointoutputadmittance.Whenhparameterscomprisethemodelingvehicle,tworeasonsunderlie
the selection of voltage gain as an analytically expedient measure of the forward transfer
characteristicsofalineartwoportnetwork. Thefirstreasonisthattheindependentoutput,or
response,variableinanhparameterequivalentcircuitistheoutputportvoltage,Vo.Thesecond
reasonisthattheinputportmodelinan hparameterequivalentcircuitisaThvenintopology,
therebyencouragingtherepresentationoftheinputsignalasavoltagesource.Thus,althoughany
of the four basic gain measures of a linear twoport network can be evaluated in terms of h
parameters,themostappropriatemeasureofforwardsignalprocessingpropertiesisthevoltage
gain. BecausetheinputportisaThvenintopology,theinputimpedanceismoreconveniently
evaluatedthanisthecorrespondinginputadmittance.Finally,theNortonnatureoftheoutputport
modelinan hparameterequivalentcircuitsuggeststheproprietyoftheoutputadmittanceasa
convenientmeasureofdrivingpointoutputcharacteristics.
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Iftheforegoingguidelinesareadoptedasabasisfortheanalysisofatwoportnetwork
interms ofits hybrid g, y,or zparameters, gain andimmittance expressions that mirror the
mathematicalformsof(367),(369)and(370)through(373)areobtained.Asafirstillustration
ofthiscontention,considerthegparameterequivalentcircuitofFig.(3.6).Theindependentoutput
variable in a gparameter model is the output port current, Io. Moreover, the input port is
representedbyaNortonequivalentcircuit,andtheoutputportisaThvenincircuit. Hence,the
appropriatetransferfunctionmeasureisthecurrentgain,Ai=Io/IS,whiletheinputandoutputport
drivingpointimmittancesarerespectivelyadmittanceYinandimpedanceZout.
gain,Ai,of
AconventionalanalysisofthestructureinFig.(3.6)deliversa closedloopcurrent
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(377)
wheretheopenloopcurrentgain,Aio,is
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(378)
andthegparameterloopgain,Tg,is
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(379)
Inaddition,thedrivingpointinputadmittancederivesfrom
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andthedrivingpointoutputimpedanceisdefinedimplicitlyby
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IftheyparameterequivalentcircuitofFig.(3.8)isusedtomodelthetwoportsystem
inFig.(3.1),theindependentresponsevariableistheoutputportvoltage,Vo.Boththeinputand
the outputports are represented byNortonequivalent circuits. Itfollows that the closedloop
forwardtransimpedance,Zf,isexpressibleas
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(382)
wheretheopenlooptransimpedance,Zfo,isgivenby
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(383)
andtheloopgain,Ty,is
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(384)
Thedrivingpointinputandoutputadmittancesderiverespectivelyfrom
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(385)
and
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(386)
Whenzparametersareusedtoevaluatethetransferanddrivingpointcharacteristicsof
alineartwoportnetwork,theindependentresponsevariableistheoutputcurrent, Io. Boththe
inputandtheoutputportsarerepresentedbyThveninequivalentcircuits,asdepictedinFig.(3.9).
Itfollowsthattheclosedloopforwardtransadmittance,Yf,is
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(387)
In(387),theopenlooptransadmittance,Yfo,isgivenby
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(388)
andtheloopgain,Tz,is
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(389)
Thedrivingpointinputandoutputimpedancesfollowimmediatelyfromtheexpressions,
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342
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(390)
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EXAMPLE(3.2.41)
Theutilityoftwoportanalyticalmethodscanbestbedemonstratedbyasimple,yet
reasonablypractical,circuitexample.Considerthebipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)
amplifierofFig.(3.14a),where,withreferencetothegeneralizedsystemofFig.
(3.1),the"lineartwoportnetwork"isthetopologyformedbythetransistorandthe
circuitresistance,REE.Notethatthegroundterminaliscommontoboththeinput
andtheoutputportssothatterminals#2and#4are,infact,thesameelectricalnode.
TheindicatedBJTrequiresbiasingsourcestoestablishreasonablecircuitlinearity.
Forsimplicity,thesesourcesarenotshown,buttheireffectistoallowtheBJTtobe
modeled by the linear equivalent circuit offered in Fig. (3.14b). When this
equivalent circuit is exploited as a replacement for the BJT in Fig. (3.14a), the
resultantequivalentcircuitfortheentiresubjectsystemisthetopologyshowninFig.
(3.14c).
Letthesourceandloadterminations,RSandRL,bepurelyresistiveandequalrespec
tivelyto300and1,000.Additionally,assumethatthemodelinFig.(3.14b)has
ri=1.1k,ro=50k,and=100.ForREE=150,determinetheforward
voltage gain, the drivingpoint input resistance, the drivingpoint output
resistance,andtheforwardtransconductance.
FIGURE(3.14).
(a)The Simple BJT Amplifier Addressed In EXAMPLE (3.2.4-1).

The Biasing Required To Operate The BJT In Its Linear Regime
Is Not Shown. (b)A Simplified Low Frequency Equivalent
Circuit For The BJT. (c)The Equivalent Circuit For The Two-Port
System In (a).
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SOLUTION:(3.2.41)
(1).
Thefirststeptowardarrivingatthesolutionisthedeterminationofasetof
twoportparametersforthelinearnetworkathand. Anytypeofparameters
canbeused.Inthisexample,hparametersareselected.Tothisend,consider
theevaluationoftheparameters,h11andh21,whichrequiresashortcircuited
output port. The equivalent circuit for evaluating these two parameters is
depictedinFig.(3.15a). KVLappliedaroundtheloopcontainingtheshort
circuitedoutputportdelivers
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FIGURE(3.15).
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(a)Short Circuit Output Test Fixturing For The Computation Of

The h-Parameters, h11 and h21. (b)Open Circuit Input Test
Fixturing For The Computation Of The h-Parameters, h12 and
h22.
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whence,
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Thisvalueofh21suggeststhatforeachonemicroampereofinputportcurrent,
99.7microamperes aredeliveredtotheshortcircuitedoutputport. AKVL
equationaroundtheinputportloopprovides
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Usingtheprecedingdisclosuretoeliminatethevariable, Io,theshortcircuit
inputresistance,h11,isfoundtobe
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Inordertocalculatethehparameters,h12andh22,theoutputportofthenet
work is excited under the condition of an open circuited input port. The
pertinentequivalentcircuitisofferedinFig.(3.15b).Withtheinputcurrent,Ii,
equaltozero,theCCCS,Ii,isnulled.Itisthereforeasimplemattertoshow
that
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and
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Thecomputedvalueofh12impliesthefeedbackofalmost3millivoltsofsignal
totheopencircuitedinputportforeachvoltofsignalestablishedacrossthe
outputport
(2).
Thevoltagegainofthenetworknowfollowsstraightforwardlyfrom(370)and
(371).Inparticular,withYL=1/RL=1mmhoandZS=RS=300,(370)
givesanopenloopvoltagegainofAvo=5.92,whence,by(371),theclosed
loopvoltagegainis
Av=6.03.
Sincetheloopgain,h12Avo,is 17.71mV/V,(375)givesadrivingpointinput
resistanceof
Rin=15.91k.
andadrivingpointoutputresistanceof
Rout=534.0k.
Therelativelylargeinputresistancesuggeststhattheinputportoftheamplifier
is amenable to being driven by a voltage source (as long as the Thvenin
resistanceofthissourceissignificantlysmallerthan15.91k).Butthehuge
outputresistanceindicatesthattheamplifierisbestsuitedforacurrentmode
outputport(providedthattheloadresistanceismuchsmallerthan534k).
(3).
From(37)or(368),theforwardtransconductanceoftheamplifierinFig.
(3.14a)is
Gf=6.03mmho.
Thistransconductancecanalsobecomputeddirectlybywayof(387)through
(389). Such a computation requires that the amplifier be characterized in
termsoftheopencircuitimpedance(z)parameters,whichcanbefoundfrom
the available hparameters. Alternatively, these zparameters can be
determinedbyapplyingtheirdefiningrelationships,(343),totheequivalent
circuitinFig.(3.14c).
3.2.4.5.
GLOBALFEEDBACK
Aspointedoutearlier,theclosedloopgainofalineartwoportnetworkisindependent
ofsourceandloadterminationsanddependentononlythetwoportfeedbackparameter(h12,g12,
z12, or y12), provided that the magnitude of the loop gain of the closed loop system is large.
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However,formostpracticalactivenetworks,themagnitudeoftheinternalfeedbackparameteris
toosmalltodelivertherequisitelargemagnitudeofloopgain.Evenwhenthefeedbackparameter
isacceptablylarge,itsprecisevalueisoftensosensitivetobiasinglevelsorpoorlycontrolled
devicemanufacturingtolerancesthattheresultantclosedloopgainisrelativelyunpredictable.
Tocircumventtheforegoingdifficulties,theinternalfeedbackparameterofanactive
twoportnetworkiscommonlyaugmentedbyincorporatingafeedbacknetworkextrinsictothe
active cell. This appended feedback loop is routinely (but not universally) formed of passive
elementsforatleasttworeasons.First,thevaluesofpassiveelements,andparticularlythevalues
ofratiosofpassiveelements,aresignificantlymorepredictablethanaretheparametersofactive
devices. Thus, if the incorporated external feedback network is the dominant vehicle for
determiningtheeffectivefeedbackparameteroftheclosedloopsystem,theresultantclosedloop
gain becomes a predictable and reliable barometer of system performance. A second reason
justifyingtheuseofpassivefeedbackloopsstemsfromthefactthatpassivestructuresarereciprocal
circuits that are incapable of providing gain. They are thus stable structures that do not
substantivelyaltertheforwardgaincapabilitiesoftheactivecell.Inparticular,themagnitudeofits
forwardtransmissionparameter,whichisequaltothatofitsreversetransmissionparameter,is
likelytobesignificantlysmallerthanthemagnitudeofthecorrespondingforwardtransmission
parameteroftheactivecell.
Whentheappendedfeedbackloopisconnectedfromtheoutputportofanactivecellto
itsinputport,thefeedbackistermed globalfeedback. Therearefourcommonlyusedformsof
globalfeedback: seriesshuntfeedback,shuntseriesfeedback,shuntshuntfeedback,and series
seriesfeedback..Assumingthatthetwoportparametersofboththeactivetwoportnetworkandthe
appendedfeedbacktwoportareunalteredbytheirinterconnection,theanalysisoftheresultant
global feedback structure can be formulated conveniently in terms of a mere superposition of
appropriate two port parameters. The preconnection parameter equality to postconnection
parametersforboththeactiveandfeedbacksubcircuitsisknownasBrunescondition.Analytical
andlaboratoryproceduresthattestifBrunesconditionissatisfiedareavailableintheliterature [6].
These procedures confirm the satisfaction of Brunes condition whenever the active and the
feedbacktwoportarethreeterminalnetworks.Inelectronicfeedbackconfigurations,whichmay
notbeformedofinterconnectedthreeterminalnetworks,Brunesconditionrarelycomprisesan
engineering issueiffeedbackwithintheactive twoportnetworkisnegligible andfeedforward
throughthefeedbacksubcircuitislikewisenegligible.
SERIESSHUNTFEEDBACK
Inaseriesshuntfeedbackconfiguration,theinputportofthetwoportnetworkusedto
implementglobalfeedbackisconnectedinserieswiththeinputportofapresumablyactivetwo
portcell.AsisdepictedinFig.(3.16),theoutputportofthefeedbacksubcircuitshuntstheoutput
portoftheactivenetwork.Theanalysisofthecompletefeedbacksystemcanproceedsubsequent
toaselectionofanytypeoftwoportparametermodelforbothofthecellsdiagrammedinthe
subjectfigure.Indeed,thetwoportparametersselectedfortheactivenetworkneednotbeofthe
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sametypeasthoseinvokedonthefeedbackcircuit.Butaprudentselectionoftwoportparameters
cansimplifyrequisitecircuitanalysis.Tothisend,thefactthatthetworespectiveinputportsarein
serieswithoneanothersuggeststhattheseportsberepresentedbyaThveninconfiguration.On
theotherhand,theshuntshuntnatureofthetwooutputportssuggeststhataNortonmodelforeach
outputportisexpedient.Inshort,compellingreasonsexisttochoosehparametersasthemodeling
vehicleforboththeactivenetworkandthefeedbacksubcircuit.
Lettheterminalvoltamperecharacteristicequationsoftheactivetwoportnetworkbe
identifiedasthehparameterexpression,
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(392)
whereViaisthevoltagedevelopedacrosstheinputportoftheactivenetwork,andIiaisthecurrent
flowingintotheinputportofthisnetwork.Similarly,VoaandIoaaretheoutputportvoltageand
current, respectively, of the active unit, while hija is an hparameter of the active cell. The
companionvoltampererelationshipforthefeedbackstructureis
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(393)
AninspectionofFig.(3.16)revealsthatthesystemoutputvoltage,Vo,theoutputvoltage,Voa,of
theactivetwoportnetwork,andtheoutputvoltage,Vof,ofthefeedbackcellareidentical;thatis,
Vo Voa Vof.AdditionallyandassumingthatBrunesconditionissatisfied,theseriesconnection
oftheinputportsoftheactiveandfeedbacknetworksforcetheinputcurrent,Iia,totheactivetwo
port,the
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FIGURE(3.16).
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A Linear Circuit Composed Of A Feedback Network That Is

Connected In Series-Shunt With An Active Two-port Cell. The
h-Parameter Matrix Of The Effective Two-Port Network Formed
By The Indicated Interconnection Is The Sum Of The
Respective h-Parameter Matrices Of The Active And Feedback
Networks.
inputcurrent,Iif,tothefeedbacktwoport,andthesysteminputcurrent,Ii,tobeidentical;namely,
Ii Iia Iif.Thus,(392)and(393)canberewrittenas
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(394)
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(395)
ButafurtherinvestigationofthetopologyinFig.(3.16)verifiesthattheinputvoltage,
Vi,oftheeffectivetwoportnetworkformedbytheseriesshuntfeedbackconnectionisthesumof
theinputvoltage,Via,ofactivenetworkandthevoltage,Vif,acrosstheinputportofthefeedback
cell. Moreover,thenetoutputcurrent, Io,conductedbytheloadterminationisthesumofthe
outputcurrents,IoaandIof,conductedbytheoutputportsoftheactivenetworkandfeedbackcell,
respectively.Inmatrixform,theseobservationsareequivalenttostipulating
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Thesubstitutionof(394)and(395)into(396)produces
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(397)
whichdefinestheterminalvoltamperecharacteristicsoftheeffectivetwoportnetworkformedby
theseriesshuntinterconnectionabstractedinFig.(3.16).Obviously,theinterconnectedsystemhas
aneffectivehparameter,hij,thatissimplythesumofthecorrespondinghparametersoftheactive
andfeedbackcells;thatis,
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(398)
Subsequent to evaluating hija and hijf, the voltage gain, Av, the drivingpoint input
impedance,Zin,andthedrivingpointoutputimpedance,Zout(oradmittance,Yout),derivefromthe
substitutionof(398)into(370),(371),(375),and(376).Twosimplificationsaregenerallypos
sibleduringthecourseofsuchsubstitution. First,theinvariablypassivenatureofthefeedback
twoportnetworkprecludesitsabilitytoprovideagreaterthanunityforwardshortcircuitcurrent
gain.Sincetheexpresspurposeoftheactivecellislargeforwardgain,themagnitudeofh21ais
generallymuchlargerthanthatofh21f.Second,thesolepurposeofthefeedbacksubcircuitisto
augmenttheostensiblyanemicfeedbackfactoroftheactivecell. Thus,themagnitudeof h12f is
likelytobesignificantlylargerthanthatofh12a.Armedwiththeseapproximations,theopenloop
voltagegainin(370)canbeapproximatedas
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(399)
andthevoltagegainin(371)reducesto
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(3100)
Notethatforalargeloopgainmagnitude,|h12fAvo|>>1,thevoltagegaincollapsestoAv=1/h12f,
whichisindependentofsourceandloadterminationsandthehparametersoftheactivetwoport
network.
EXAMPLE(3.2.42)
Insimplefeedbackamplifiers,suchastheseriesshuntstagewhosebasicschematic
diagramisshowninFig.(3.17a),anexplicitevaluationofthetwoportparametersof
theactivecellisoftenunnecessary.Instead,onlytheconceptunderlying(398)is
exploitedintheproblemsolutionmethodology.
In the subject amplifier, the active twoport network is composed of the two
transistors and the resistor, R. As usual, requisite biasing subcircuits are not
delineated and as such, the indicated schematic diagram is known as an AC
schematicdiagram.Thefeedbacktwoportnetworkisthevoltagedividerformedby
thetworesistances,R1andR2.
Letthesourceandloadterminations,RSandRL,bepurelyresistiveandequalrespec
tivelyto 300 and 1,000 . Additionally,usethe BJT equivalentcircuitofFig.
(3.14b)andassumethatforbothtransistors,ri=1.1kand=100.Forsimplicity,
themodelresistance,ro,istakentobeinfinitelylarge.GiventhatR=5.6k,R1=
500,andR2=4.5k,whatistheforwardvoltagegain,thedrivingpointinput
resistance,andthedrivingpointoutputresistance?
SOLUTION:(3.2.42)
(1).
Tobegin,the hparametersofthefeedbacksubcircuitmustbedeterminedin
termsofthecircuitresistances,R1andR2.ThissubcircuitisdelineatedinFig.
(3.17b).Followingthedefinitionsofthehparameters,
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Additionally
Insofarasterminalvoltamperecharacteristicsareconcerned,thehparameter
model shown in Fig. (3.17c) is equivalent to the feedback subcircuit
diagrammedinFig.(3.17b).NotethatthedirectionoftheCCCS,h21fIif,has
beenreversedfromthatofitsconventionalpolarityowingtothenegativevalue
computedforthehparameter,h21f.
(2).
ThecompleteequivalentcircuitfortheamplifierofFig.(3.17a)cannowbe
drawn. Tothisend,theBJTmodelsubmittedinFig.(3.14b)supplantsboth
transistorsinthesubjectamplifier.Thismodelissimplifiedinthatthebranch
containing the resistance, ro, can be ignored in view of the fact that ro is
infinitelylarge.TheR1R2dividerthatcomprisesthefeedbackcellisreplaced
by its hparameter model. The resultant equivalent circuit is the structure
appearinginFig.(3.18a),where f,whichrepresentsa feedbackfactor forthe
feedbacksubcircuit,is
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FIGURE(3.17).
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(a)AC Schematic Diagram Of A Practical Series-Shunt

Feedback Amplifier Realized In Bipolar Technology. (b)The
Feedback Subcircuit For The Amplifier In (a). (c)The hParameter Equivalent Circuit Of The Feedback Subcircuit In
(b).
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FIGURE(3.18).
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(a)Equivalent Circuit Of The Feedback Amplifier In Fig.

(3.17a). (b)Simplified Version Of The Equivalent Circuit In (a).
The indicated equivalent circuit can be simplified to render it more

mathematically tractable. For example, note that the interstage current, I,
relatestotheinputamplifiercurrent,Iia,by
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Since Iiaisidenticaltothesysteminputportcurrent, Ii,theCCCS,I,atthe

outputportofthesystembecomes
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The negative sign in this result means that the direction of the current
generator, I, in Fig. (3.18a) can be reversed when it is expressed as the
indicatedproportionalityofthesysteminputcurrent,Ii.Notefurtherthatthe
inputcurrent,Iif,tothefeedbacknetworkis
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whichsuggeststhattheoutputportgeneratorthatmodelsfeedforwardthrough
thefeedbacksubcircuitcanbereexpressedas
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Thiscalculationalsoconfirmsthatthesysteminputvoltage,Vi,is
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These calculations collapse the model of Fig.(3.18a) to the more compact

topologyofferedinFig.(3.18b).
(3).
AninspectionofthemodelinFig.(3.18b)showsthat
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Itshouldbenotedthatintheresultfortheshortcircuitsystemcurrentgain,
h21,thefeedbacksubcircuitfeedforwardtermisnegligibleincomparisontoits
counterpartamplifierterm;thatis;
orequivalently
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where
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Continuingthehparametercalculations,
NotethattotheextentthattheutilizedBJTmodel,whichinherentlyneglects
internal feedback within the transistor, is valid, the system value of the
feedbackfactorisdeterminedexclusivelybythefeedbacksubcircuitvalueof
h12f.
(4).
FromFig.(3.18b),theopenloopvoltagegain, Avo,is,ignoringfeedforward
transmissionthroughthefeedbacksubcircuit,
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Using(372),thesystemloopgainis
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whenceaclosedloopgain,by(371),of
Av=9.37V/V.
Notethatthisclosedloopgainiswithinabout6%ofthevalueof1/f.
From(375)and(376),thedrivingpointinputresistanceoftheseriesshunt
feedbackamplifieris
Rin=743.1k,
whilethedrivingpointoutputresistanceis
Rout=55.43.
Thelasttwocalculationssuggesttheproprietyofthesubjectcircuitforvoltage
amplificationapplications.
SHUNTSERIESFEEDBACK
Fig.(3.19)abstractsthesystemleveldiagramofashuntseriesfeedbackamplifier.As
isdepictedinthisdiagram,theinputportsoftheactivecellandthefeedbacksubcircuitarein
parallelwithoneanother,whiletherespectiveoutputportsareconnectedinseries.Theshuntseries
interconnectionsuggeststheuseoftwoportparameterequivalentcircuitswhoseinputportsare
modeledbyaNortontopologyandwhoseoutputportsareaThveninrepresentation. Thus, g
parametersareexpedient.WithBrunesconditionsatisfied,thegparametersoftheentirefeedback
systemaresumsoftherespectivegparametersoftheactiveandfeedbacksubcircuits;thatis,the
terminalvoltamperecharacteristicsoftheshuntseriesfeedbackamplifieraregivenby
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(3101)
Foranamplifierdesignedwellinthesensesthat |g12f|>>|g12a|,|g21a|>>|g21f|, and |Tg| (the
magnitudeoftheloopgain)>>1,theclosedloopcurrentgainofashuntseriesfeedbackamplifier
isgivenapproximatelyby
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(3102)
Foralargemagnitudeofloopgain,themagnitudeofthedrivingpointinputimpedance, Zin,is
small,andthemagnitudeofthedrivingpointoutputimpedance,Zout,islarge.Theseimpedances
aregivenrespectivelyby
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(3103)
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(3104)
SHUNTSHUNTFEEDBACK
IntheshuntshuntfeedbackconfigurationofFig.(3.20),NortonequivalentI/Oport
models,andthusyparametermodeling,isappropriate.AssumingBrunesconditionissatisfied,it
isasimplemattertoverifythattheterminalvoltamperecharacteristicsoftheshuntshuntfeedback
amplifieraregivenby
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FIGURE(3.19).
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The Generalized Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier. The gParameter Matrix Of The Effective Two-Port Network Formed
By The Interconnection Of The Active And Feedback Two-Port
Networks Is The Sum Of The Respective g-Parameter Matrices
Of These Two Circuit Cells.
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(3105)
For|y12f|>>|y12a|,|y21a|>>|y21f|,and|Ty|(themagnitudeoftheloopgain)>>1,theclosedloop
forwardtransimpedanceofashuntshuntfeedbackamplifieris
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(3106)
whilethemagnitudeofthedrivingpointinputandoutputimpedances, ZinandZout,respectively,
areverysmallandgivenapproximatelyby
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(3107)
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(3108)
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FIGURE(3.20).
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The Generalized Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier. The yParameter Matrix Of The Effective Two-Port Network Formed
Networks Is The Sum Of The Respective y-Parameter Matrices
SERIESSERIESFEEDBACK
IntheseriesseriesarchitectureofFig.(3.21),ThveninequivalentI/Oportmodels,and
thuszparametermodeling,isappropriate.IfBrunesconditionissatisfied,theresultantterminal
voltamperecharacteristicsoftheshuntshuntfeedbackamplifiermirrorthematrixrelationship,
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(3109)
For|z12f|>>|z12a|,|z21a|>>|z21f|,and|Tz|>>1,theclosedloopforwardtransadmittanceofa
seriesseriesfeedbackamplifieris
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(3110)
Withalargeloopgainmagnitude,themagnitudeofthedrivingpointinputandoutputimpedances
arelarge.Theseimpedancesaregivenbytheapproximateexpressions,
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(3111)
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FIGURE(3.21).
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The Generalized Series-Series Feedback Amplifier. The zParameter Matrix Of The Effective Two-Port Network Formed
Networks Is The Sum Of The Respective z-Parameter Matrices
and
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(3112)
REFERENCES
[1]. SParameterTechniquesForFaster,MoreAccurateNetworkDesign,ApplicationNote#95
1,HewlettPackardCompany,Feb.1967.
[2]. SParameterDesign,ApplicationNote#154,HewlettPackardCompany,April1972.
[3]. W.C.Yengst,ProceduresofModernNetworkSynthesis.NewYork:TheMacmillanCom
pany,1964,pp.171179.
[4]. R.L.Geiger,P.E.Allen,andN.R.Strader,VLSIDesignTechniquesForAnalogAndDigital
Circuits.NewYork:McGrawHillPublishingCompany,1990,pp.747750.
[5]. G.C.TemesandJ.W.LaPatra, IntroductionToCircuitSynthesisAndDesign.NewYork:
McGrawHillBookCompany,1977,pp.8992.
[6]. A.J.CoteJr.andJ.B.Oakes, LinearVacuumTubeAndTransistorCircuits. NewYork:
McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.1961,pp.4046.
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EE 348

University of Southern California

EE 448: Lecture Supplement #1

Fall Semester, 1998

University of Southern California

Fall Semester, 1998

University of Southern California

Fall Semester, 1998

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Fall Semester, 1998

University of Southern California

Fall Semester, 1998

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(a) A Linear Two-Port Network Whose Source Circuit Is Modeled

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(a)System Level Model Used To Compute The Driving-Point

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