About National Aerospace Laboratories: 1.1 Brief History of The Organization

INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES USING SOFTWARES
CHAPTER 1
ABOUT NATIONAL AEROSPACE LABORATORIES

1.1
Brief history of the organization

National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) was established on 1 June 1959 with offices
in Delhi and moved to Bangalore on 1 March 1960. The early years (1960-67) were spent in
setting up wind tunnels across the Bellandur Lake; notably the 1.2m trisonic blowdown wind
tunnel which continues its splendid run to this day.
Then followed a decade of remarkable consolidation, facility build-up and the creation of
R&D divisions encompassing practicality every facet of aeronautics; theoretical and
experimental aerodynamics, structures, materials, propulsion, electronics and systems.
By the mid-1970s, NAL had become one of the major organization on the Indian
aeronautical scene. It was recognized as one of CSIRs best-managed national laboratories
undertaking over a hundred high science technology R&D projects in aerospace. The factors
driving NALs R&D effort were the pursuit of excellence, national self-reliance in strategic
sector, proof of technology (largely through the pilot plant demonstration concept) and the
creation of outstanding testing and servicing facilities. Sadly, after the heady success of the
1960s, the 1970s also saw a slump in Indian aircraft development activity.
By the early 1980s, largely due to personal initiative of NALs leaders and well-wishers,
the tide was beginning to turn. Indias light combat aircraft (LCA) project was formally
approved by the Government in 1983, and the coming of this project led to a quantum leap in
NALs R&D activity. Indias space programme too attained a significant level of maturity
during this decade. This, coupled with the demands and success of the missile development
programme of Indias DRDO, meant that NAL had its hands full. This was the decade when
NAL graduated into a major national organization in aerospace.
The 1990s have been a very busy decade for NAL with its continued involvement in
national aerospace programmes and NALs own initiative in the area of civil aviation. In tune
with the times, NALs priorities and role are changing. But the resolve to be one of the
worlds best R&D centers in aerospace, shared by each of NALs five Directors so far : Dr. P
Nilakantan, Dr. S R Valluri, Prof R Narasimha, Dr. K N Raju, D.r T S Prahalad, Dr. B.R. Pai,
D.r A R Upadhya and now Shyam Chetty is still firm and undiminished. As always, NAL
remains an exciting and happening organizing to work in.
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National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bangalore is a constituent institution under the

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India. NAL is high technology oriented
institution concentrating on advanced topics in the aerospace and related disciplines.
Originally stated as National Aeronautical Laboratory, it was renamed as National Aerospace
Laboratories to reflect its major involvement in the Indian space programme, its
multidisciplinary activities and global positioning. It is Indias only civilian aerospace
laboratory with a high level of competence and the expertise of its scientists is globally
acknowledged. Figure 1.1 shows the logo of NAL.
Fig. 1.1 CSIR NAL Logo

NALs primary objective, as articulated in its new Vision statement, is the development
of aerospace technologies with strong science content and with a view to their practical
applications to the design and construction of flight vehicles. NALs aerospace technology
base is used for general industrial applications.
Additionally, NAL has some sophisticated test facilities which are the best in the
country and comparable to those abroad. 1.2m Trisonic Tunnel Complex, Full Scale Fatigue
Facility, Acoustic Test Facility, Engineer-in-Loop Facility, Composite Structure Facilities,
Advanced Turbo machinery and Combustion Laboratories, Failure Analysis Laboratory and
Electromagnetic Laboratory are among these. All these are manned by specialized teams who
operate the facilities, conduct experiments, analyse the data and provide value added inputs to
programmes.
NAL is in its 54th Year of existence and over these years has made significant
contributions to a large number of aerospace programmes like (civil and military) aircraft
programmes, space programme, engine development programmes, defence and strategic
programmes of the country and has also contributed vital industrial and societal outputs. NAL
has many collaborative projects with reputed international agencies. NAL also develops
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special expertise in certain fields and has made value added contributions to the areas like
aircraft fleet maintenance, life extension, flight safety etc. NAL has also developed
significant technologies related to the field and is an acknowledged center of excellence in
many fields including composite structures, high speed wind tunnel testing. NAL has
successfully executed some innovative research projects in advanced topics of relevance like
smart materials, parallel processing, advanced flow diagnostics, airport instrumentation etc.
Its social contributions include harnessing solar and wind energy, streamlining vehicles for
the fuel economy and weather prediction systems. All these contributions have enabled NAL
to consistently generate a substantial part of its budget through projects and be top the
generator of external cash flow among CSIR laboratories.
NALs core competence spans practically the whole aerospace spectrum. Over the
years, NAL has made very significant contributions to all Indian aerospace programmers;
often even setting the national agenda for such programmes. During the last decade, NAL has
spearheaded the effort to design and develop HANSA and SARAS aircraft for the civil sector.
NAL designed HANSA trainer aircraft is flying in different clubs in India and is all set to
reach overseas market. The light transport aircraft, SARAS, is undergoing flight testing and is
designed to meet a critical need in the civil aviation segment. A 5-seater general aviation
aircraft is under design and feasibility studies on a 50-70-90 seater regional transport aircraft
are in an advanced stage.
NALs real strength lies in its vast reservoir of expertise and facilities created over the
years. With this imposing infrastructure, NAL has been very successful in obtaining a large
number of R&D contracts for testing and subsystem development for various national
programmes as well as industries all over India and abroad. In the past decade, NAL
undertook approximately 400 projects worth about 60 million US $. Over the last few years,
NAL has earned more than 60% of its budget through external resources, a unique
achievement for CSIR laboratories.
NAL is well equipped with modern and sophisticated facilities that include national
facilities like the Neelakantan Wind Tunnel Centre and the computerized full-scale fatigue
test facility. The various facilities and multi-disciplinary expertise, developed primarily for
the aerospace sector, are also utilized in other sectors involving high technology. NAL is
recognized as a center for failure analysis and extends its support in investigating failures and
accidents both for aerospace and other general facilities.
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NAL has staff strength of about 3000 with about 700 full-fledged R&D professionals
(over 200 Ph.Ds). it is thus in a unique position to offer R&D support, expertise and services
to both aerospace and non-aerospace sectors of industry. Some major recent contracts
include: development of carbon fibre composite wings for Indias light combat aircraft (LCA)
programme, design, development and fabrication of a fully-automated autoclave for
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), development of co-cured fin and rudder for LCA and
a shake facility for HALs Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH).
NAL has come a long way from its modest beginnings in 1959-60, when it was
housed for some time in the stables of a Maharajas place in Bangalore. This development has
been possible because of the vision and commitment of its former Directors.
In summary, NAL is a multi-disciplinary, vibrant, high technology organization with an
excellent track record and ambitious programmes on hand.
1.2
NAL Today
As an organization, NAL is 54 years young. Indias only civil aviation aerospace
R&D organization, its competence and facilities are the best in the country and are
comparable internationally.
Through a planned approach over these years, NAL has strengthened its knowledge
base and has made vital technology contributions to the national aerospace programmes
and its own Civil Aviation programme. With its current plans and its growing
international presence, NAL is set to take off into an exciting future.
1.2.A Programmes
1. Design, development and fabrication of multirole light transport aircraft
2. Development of Indias first all-composite trained aircraft
3. Hardware and software initiatives in parallel processing technologies
4. Design and fabrication of advanced composite structures
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5. Failure analysis and accident investigations
1.2.B Facilities
1. Inauguration of the Large Scale Rotating Rig (LSSR) for compressor and
Turbine Aerodynamics Research
2. Trisonic wind tunnel testing of aircraft, launch vehicles and other
spacecraft
3. Acoustic testing of satellite and satellite launchers
4. Full scale fatigue testing of airframes
5. Transonic cascade testing for engine and aerofoil design
6. Dynamic test systems for modal testing and qualification testing
7. Dynamic wind tunnel testing
8. Advanced composites design, fabrication and testing
9. System Identification Laboratory for flight data analysis
1.2.C Technologies
1. NALSUN solar selective coatings
2. Flight Mechanics and Control Division Multi Sensor Data Fusion,
Modelling and Identification
3. Technology to be NALs core engine for the future
4. NAL makes a special effort to identify, develop and market spin-off
technologies
5. NAL makes a concerted effort to obtain international technology
development contracts
1.3
Future Activities
NAL has planned out its future activities based on its present strengths and the
requirements of the proposed future national aerospace programmes. Plans for the immediate
future are included as part of Indias Five Year Plan proposals and some plans extend beyond
this period also. The plans aim at enhancing the current technology strengths, creating new
strengths to meet the expected requirements and research projects to provide a strong
scientific basis to the technology activities along with these, NAL will continue to make
value added contributions to national programmes.
In the civil aviation area, NAL will compute the certification of SARAS, fly the
General Aviation aircraft and transfer HANSAs technology to a production agency. Regional
transport Aircraft will be the civil aviation thrust area.
Future technology development plans include mini gas turbines, air traffic
management, damage tolerant design, fluid/ surface interactions, efficient propulsion
technologies and clean energy systems. Plans in the area of materials include high strength
fibres and prepegs, nano-composites, high temperature ceramics, out-of-autoclave
technologies and environment friendly new processes. Forward looking technology studies
will also include Scramjets, Structural Health Monitoring, Smart Structures, MEMS and
Micro air vehicles. Apart from setting up Advanced Centers got Flight Mechanics and Micro
Air Vehicles, up gradation of existing facilities and building new ones are also envisaged.
The above are only a few sample areas from NALs ambitious list of proposals. With
the existing constraints, the plans are indeed challenging. But then challenges make working
exciting and NAL community is looking forward to these tasks and rising to the occasion.
1.4
Divisions of NAL
There are thirty-four divisions in National Aerospace Laboratories some of them are:
Advanced composites division

Aerospace electronics and system division
Acoustic test facility
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Centre for civil aircraft design and development

Computational and theoretical fluid dynamics division
Experimental aerodynamics division
Flight mechanics and control division
Flosolver division
Fibre reinforced plastics divisions
Materials science division
National trisonic aerodynamic facilities
Propulsion division
Structural technologies division
Surface engineering division
Wind energy division
1.5
Structural Technologies Division

Structural Technologies Division (STTD) is one of the largest divisions of NAL, with
primary research & technology lead for aerospace structures in India. The division has
expertise in aerospace structural design, analysis, testing, qualification, certification, and
research and technology development in aerospace structures.
The division has the following subgroups:
1. Computational Mechanics and Simulation Group (CMSG)
2. Dynamics and Adaptive Structures Group (DASG)
3. Fatigue and Structural Integrity Group (FSIG)
4. Impact and Structural Crashworthiness Group (ISCG)
5. Structural Health Monitoring Group (SHMG)
6. Project Management Group (PMG)
1.5.1 Functions of structures division
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CAE, design automation and optimization
CMS group has expertise in carrying out the stress, buckling, thermo-elastic,
nonlinear analysis and optimization of both metallic and composite aircraft structures
using FEA.
System safety, reliability & risk assessment
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) based reliability assessment has been carried out for
aircraft systems such as structural, mechanical, electrical, control and general systems.
Computational dynamics, FSI (Fluid Structure Interface) & aero-elastic analysis
This group performs dynamic, static aero elastic flutter, discrete/random gust
response, and whirl flutter and aero-thermo-elastic analyses of aircraft launch vehicles
in the subsonic, transonic and supersonic regimes.
Computational fatigue, fracture and damage analysis
Computational fatigue and fracture analysis of metallic and composite structures are
being carried out using software-tools to predict the crack initiation and propagation
life under fatigue loads for damage tolerance evaluation.
Dynamics and adaptive structures
STTD has testing solutions in the following areas:
Aeroelastic model testing of aerospace vehicles
Ground vibration testing of fixed wing aircraft/rotary wing helicopter
In-flight vibration measurements
Flight flutter testing
Vibroacoustic testing with active/passive solutions
1.5.2 R & D Activities
Analytical and experimental studies of LCA, ALH, GSLV, civil aircraft
Instrumentation for shake testing/ CAVITAS
Basic/ pioneering research in finite element modeling
Structural analysis of SARAS components
Nonlinear analysis of aircraft wing-type box beams
Validation and testing of FINESSE softwares replacement and fine tuning of

elements
Development of hardware for composite industry
Full scale fatigue testing and total technical life extension of military/ civil
aircraft
Study on adhesively bonded joints
CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF FEA
2.1
Introduction to FEA Finite Element Analysis

FEA is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions to boundary value
problems for differential equations. It uses variational methods (the calculus of variations) to
minimize an error function and produce a stable solution. Analogous to the idea that
connecting many tiny straight lines can approximate a larger circle, FEM encompasses all the
methods for connecting many simple element equations over many small sub domains,
named finite elements, to approximate a more complex equation over a larger domain.
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and

analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product
refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the
client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product
or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case
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of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the
new condition.
There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and
3-D modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on
a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however,
produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest
computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert
numerous algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly.
Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic
deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are
capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh.
This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how
the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density
throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area.
Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than
those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of
previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh
acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the
adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material properties to the object,
creating many elements.
A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for
minimization or maximization:
Mass, volume, temperature
Strain energy, stress strain

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Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
Synthetic (User defined)
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system.
Point, pressure ,thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads
Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
Enforced displacements
Heat flux and convection
Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads
Each FEA program may come with an element library or one is constructed over time.
Some sample elements are:
Rod elements
Beam elements
Plate/Shell/Composite elements
Shear panel
Solid elements
Spring elements
Mass elements
Rigid elements
Viscous damping elements
Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials
within the structure such as:
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Isotropic
Orthotropic
Anisotropic
Stress analysis services allow companies to save money, by ensuring a design meets its
requirements prior to expensive prototyping. Our engineers have a wealth of experience in
analyzing strength, stiffness, weight, fatigue, damage tolerance, instability and other dynamic
behavior of structures.
FEA packages are able to conduct in-depth finite element analysis and also capture
physical live data and feed this back into the software simulation. The proposed design can
then be tested virtually with live conditions before prototyping has begun. This approach
helps to identify suitable boundary conditions, ensuring the simulation correlates to real
world events. Design changes and improvements can be made earlier in the development
stage when cost of change is lower. A further benefit is that an increased amount of
innovation can be engineered into a product.
The software module will quickly and accurately predict how long products will last
under any combination of time-dependent or frequency-dependent loading conditions.
Benefits include reduced prototype testing, fewer product recalls, lower warranty costs, and
the confidence that your product designs will pass required test schedules.
The structural analysis module draws on a full range of leading software tools. This
analysis tools enables to solve the demanding analysis requirements and ensure products
match the performance criteria. By meeting these requirements early in the development
phase when cost of change is low not only reduces development costs but also ensures the
product passes test criteria at the end of the development phase. This enables one to get the
products to market on time, on budget and that they exceed the competitors in performance,
cost and capability.
2.2
Steps in FEA
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Finite element analysis consists of three stages; Preprocessing, processing and
postprocessing. A complete finite element analysis is a logical interaction of these three
stages.
Preprocessing:
As the name indicates, preprocessing is something we do before processing analysis.
Preprocessing includes creating the geometry, geometry clean-up, meshing of the component,
checking the mesh quality index parameters, assigning the material properties, applying the
boundary and loading conditions. This entire process is also known as deck preparation.
The preparation of data requires considerable effort if all data are to be handled
manually. If the model is small, the user can often just write a text file and feed it into the
processor, but as the complexity of the model grows and the number of elements increase,
writing the data manually can be very time consuming and error-prone. Its therefore
necessary with a computer preprocessor which help with mesh plotting and boundary
conditions plotting.
Processing:
The processing stage involves stiffness generation, stiffness modification and solution
of equations, resulting in the evaluation of nodal variables. This is a typical black box
operation. That means, the user will not be able see whats going on inside the solver. The
solver will solve the problem through the input data given and makes the calculations through
inbuilt programmes. We need to feed data from the preprocessor and we will get output data.
Postprocessing:
The postprocessing stage deals with the representation, viewing and interpretation of
the results. Typically, the deformed configuration, mode shapes, temperature and stress
distribution are computed and displayed at this stage. By interpreting the results, a component
is checked for over/under design and the design is optimized by following the procedure from
the scratch.
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CHAPTER 3
HYPERMESH
3.1
Introduction
Altair Hypermesh is high-performance finite element pre-processing
software to prepare even the largest models, starting from import of CAD geometry to
exporting an analysis run for various disciplines.
Hypermesh enables engineers to receive high quality meshes with maximum accuracy
in the shortest time possible. A complete set of geometry editing tools helps to efficiently
prepare CAD models for the meshing process. Meshing algorithms for shell and solid
elements provide full level of control or can be used in automatic mode. Altairs batch
meshing technology meshes hundreds of files precisely in the background to match userdefined standards. Hypermesh offers the biggest variety of solid meshing capabilities in the
market.
Hypermesh is the user-preferred environment for:
Solid geometry modeling
Shell meshing
Model morphing
Detailed model setup
Surface geometry modeling
Solid mesh generation
Automatic mid-surface generation
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Batch meshing
3.2
Modules completed in Hypermesh
3.2.1 Creating and editing the geometry

In Hypermesh we can create and edit one, two and three dimensional geometry, such
as, nodes, points, lines, surfaces, planes, solids, edges etc by using different commands.
Geometry dialog box consists of the following cards:
1D dialog box consists of the following cards:
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Analysis dialog box consists of the following cards:
Tool dialog box consists of the following cards:
Post dialog box consists of the following cards:
3.2.2 2D Meshing using automesh

By using 2D automesh option, we can mesh a surface or plane. Automesh option will,
by default consider some random number of elements, type of elements. Here we will be
provided with mesh edit parameters as follows:
Type of mesh elements Quad,tria etc

Here the user can define the type of elements desired for the mesh. Commonly
used 2D mesh elements are quad and tria elements. Quad elements are more preferred
than the tria elements because, tria elements being stiffer will show lesser deformation
and also tria elements cant take the bending loads.
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In some of the complex and intricate parts the usage of tria elements is
unavoidable. But the tria elements used should be less than 5% in the total mesh
elements.
Number of mesh elements Mesh size/mesh density

As the number of elements used in the mesh increases, the accuracy of the
result increases but at the same time, solution time, disc space and cost will also
increase. Hence a coarse mesh should be used in the regular and uniform areas and
fine mesh should be used in the regions of stress concentration.
Typical stress concentration regions include holes, notches, fillets, chamfers,
sudden change in cross section, grooves etc where a fine mesh can be used.
Mesh biasing
This refers to the concentration of the nodes and elements in the preferred
areas. Nodes are usually increased in the regions of sudden change in the cross
section, concentrated load or moment, material change etc.
Order of mesh elements First order, second order etc

Increasing the order of mesh elements used in the mesh increases the accuracy
of the result but at the same time, solution time, disc space and cost will also increase.
Typically used order of the elements are first order, second order etc.
3.2.3 Quality check parameters

Once the mesh is created for a component, checking the quality of mesh is a very
important parameter. Poor quality mesh may deviate the solution from the correct solution.
There are different parameters to check the quality of mesh, namely;
Warpage Out of plane twist of the element
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Aspect ratio Ratio of largest dimension to smallest dimension of the element
Skew Minimum angle between two lines joining opposite mid-sides of the element
Jacobian A measure of the deviation of a given element from an ideally shaped

element
Maximum angle Maximum internal angle of the element
Minimum angle Minimum internal angle of the element
Minimum length of the element Length of the minimum side of the element
3.2.4 Assigning material properties
Material properties such as Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio ( ), density (
should be assigned to the prepared finite element model. If the material properties are not
properly assigned, then there will be an error in the output. The values of the material
properties will have to be given by the user.
If different materials are used in the same component, then different material cards
should be used for each of the material and assigned to the correct elements properly. Here
we can also mention whether the material is isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic and the
corresponding card should be selected.
3.2.5 Applying constraints and loading conditions
Applying the constraints and loading conditions is a very important step in FEA. If
the constraints or the loading conditions are not applied properly, the resulting solution will
be error prone and will give drastic changes. Constraints, namely SPC (Single point
constraint), MPC (Multi point constraint) etc., will allow us to specify the required number of
degrees of freedom for a given problem. A spatial body can have six degrees of freedom.
Depending upon the problem, in these six degrees of freedom, some will be fixed and some
will be left free.
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There are different types of load types available in Hypermesh namely;
Point, pressure ,thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads
Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
Enforced displacements
Heat flux and convection
Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads
3.2.6 Post processing

Deformed shapes of the components under specified loads, frequencies,
displacements, strains, stresses, thermal stresses etc. can be viewed in the postprocessing
module of Hypermesh. By comparing these results with the yield stress values or the factor of
safety mentioned in the problem, one can optimize the design if the component is over or
under designed.
Optimization is a very important step in engineering analysis as it helps in reducing
the material, machine operations, man hours, tooling etc. thereby reducing the cost of the
component and solution time. We can modify the model and rerun the above steps in order to
optimize a given problem. In postprocessing we can get the mode shapes for different loads,
frequencies and we can also animate the deformation shape.
CHAPTER 4
NASTRAN
4.1
Introduction
NASTRAN (NASA STRuctural ANalysis) is a finite element analysis program that
was originally developed for NASA in the late 1960s under United States government
funding for the aerospace industry. The MacNeal-Schwendler Corporation (MSC) was one of
the principal and original developers of the public domain NASTRAN code. NASTRAN
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source code is integrated in a number of different software packages which are distributed by
a range of companies.
NASTRAN is written primarily in FORTRAN and contains over one million lines of
code. NASTRAN is compatible with a large variety of computers and operating systems
ranging from small workstations to the largest supercomputers. NASTRAN was designed
from the beginning to consist of several modules. A module is a collection of FORTRAN
subroutines designed to perform a specific task processing model geometry, assembling
matrices, applying constraints, solving matrix problems, calculating output quantities,
conversing with the database, printing the solution and so on. The modules are controlled by
an internal language called the Direct Matrix Abstraction Program (DMAP).
NASTRAN is the most recommended software for solving a variety of engineering
analyses problems, namely, static, buckling, nonlinear, dynamic, thermal, normal modes,
transient response and frequency response analysis. It is a solver and a black box, that is, we
cant see the calculations that it carries out internally by using different codes. We have to
give the input file with correct data and we will get the output file with required results.
4.2
Hypermesh NASTRAN interface

When we open Hypermesh working environment, we will get a pop-up box
asking for the user profile. This means, we need to specify the solver name which we will
be using/preferring in our analysis. This user profile may be NASTRAN, ABAQUS,
RADIOSS, ANSYS, LSDYNA etc. Once we select a particular solver name, the commands
in the Hypermesh software get changed with respect to the specified solver. So here, we will
have to decide the solver at the beginning itself. The cards of one solver will be different
from the cards of the other solver.
If we select NASTRAN as solver, the commands in Hypermesh will be those
supporting that particular software. A typical Hypermesh-NASTRAN interface can be shown
by the following block diagram;
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Fig. 4.1 Hypermesh-NASTRAN interface

FEA in Hypermesh-NASTAN interface consists of the following steps:
Modeling of CAD (Computer Aided Design) geometry in Hypermesh, if the geometry

is simple or modeling the geometry in some CAD package namely CATIA, UG, Pro
Engineer etc and converting the CAD data into STEP/IGES file.
Import the IGES/STEP file and perform geometry cleanup. During modeling of
CAD geometry, there may be points, lines or surfaces left out in the geometry which
are unnecessary. Such unwanted geometry has to be deleted. There may be,
sometimes, CAD data loss during importing the files into Hypermesh. Hence
geometry cleanup is a very important check.
Once the geometry cleanup is done, next step will be to mesh the given component.
Meshing used may be 1D (Line mesh), 2D or 3D depending on the type of component
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being meshed. Mesh quality check has to be carried out in order to correct the failing
elements.
Applying the required material properties, loading conditions and boundary

conditions is a very important step. Any improper card selection will give a different
result altogether.
Next step is to specify the solution type, namely, linear static, linear buckling,
nonlinear, transient etc and also the outputs required by the user, namely,
displacements, stresses, strains, frequencies etc. by using appropriate control cards.
Once our finite element model is ready, we have to export it into bdf (Bulk data file)
format because, NASTRAN will solve only bdf format files and save in a proper
folder.
Now, we have open NASTRAN and give the path of bdf file where it is being saved
and click on run/solve. NASTRAN will do the calculations through its inbuilt codes
and generates F06 file.
We have to check for fatal errors in the F06 file and correct them. The fatal message
in F06 file indicates that the solution is not done due to some wrong inputs. Then we
have to correct the errors and check by running the analysis till we get punch file
where the results will be printed.
Once the punch file is created, we have to import it into Hypermesh and solve to
generate the results file. The results file is needed in order to view the
results/deformations in Hypermesh.
Then load the results file in Hypermesh and view and interpret the results. If the
results are not realistic, check the boundary conditions, loading conditions etc. If the
accuracy is less, we can increase the number of elements and rerun the analysis.
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Once the appropriate results are obtained, we need to check whether the component is
over designed or under designed and optimize the solution by selecting suitable factor of
safety.
The above mentioned steps are very important when we are doing preprocessing and
postprocessing in Hypermesh and processing/solution in NASTRAN.
CHAPTER 5
FE ANALYSES CARRIED OUT

5.1
Linear static analysis

Linear static analysis represents the most basic type of analysis. The term linear
means that the computed responsedisplacement or stress, for example, is linearly
related to the applied force. The term static means that the forces do not vary with time
or the time variation is insignificant and can therefore be safely ignored.
An example of a static force is a building's dead load, which is comprised of the
building's weight plus the weight of offices, equipment, and furniture. Such loads are
often defined using a maximum expected load with some factor of safety applied for
conservatism.
The static analysis equation is:
[K]{u} = {f}
where [K] is the system stiffness matrix (generated automatically by MSC/NASTRAN
for Windows, based on the geometry and properties), f is the vector of applied forces
(which we specify), and u is the vector of displacements that MSC/NASTRAN
computes. Once the displacements are computed, MSC/NASTRAN uses these to compute
element forces, stresses, reaction forces, and strains.
Linear static analysis is done
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To find the deformations, stresses and strains induced in the components
To optimize the design if the component is over/under designed
The applied forces may be used independently or combined with each other. The
loads can also be applied in multiple loading sub cases, in which each sub case represents
a particular loading or boundary condition. Multiple loading sub cases provide a means of
solution efficiency, whereby the solution time for subsequent sub cases is a small fraction
of the solution time for the first, for a particular boundary condition.
In the following example I have shown how to carry out a linear static analysis using
Hypermesh and NASTRAN softwares.
Problem: Considered a cantilever beam made of mild steel, of length 100mm, circular
cross section with diameter of 25mm having an end load acting on it whose magnitude is
10kN and performed linear static analysis.
Solution procedure:
1. Created a cantilever beam using two nodes and one line.
2. Performed line mesh on the line created by considering the following
a. Number of mesh elements = 10
b. Element configuration : bar2
c. Element type : CBEAM
3. Selected beam cross section using 1D Hyperbeam option
a. Beam cross section : Solid circular
b. Diameter = 25mm
24

4. Assigned material properties
Material used
Mild steel
Type
Isotropic
Card
Youngs
Poissons
modulus
ratio
MAT1
0.3
210X10
7850X10
N/mm
5. Assigned geometric properties for the elements
a. Type: 1D
b. Card : PBEAM
6. Applied constraints on the cantilever beam
a. Type : SPC (Single point control)
b. Degrees of freedom : All fixed
7. Applied loading condition on the cantilever beam
a. Type : Force
b. Magnitude = 10kN (in downward y-direction)
8. Assigned load step and solution type
a. Load step : Linear static
b. Solution type : SOL101
9. Exported the bdf file and solved in NASTRAN
10. Imported the punch file in Hypermesh and solved to generate results file
25
Density
kg/mm

11. Loaded the results file in Hypermesh and viewed the results using deformed option
in postprocessing.
FE modeling and results of the above procedure are shown in the next page.
Fig. 5.1.1 FE modeling of the linear static problem:
Fig. 5.1.2 Results of the linear static analysis:
26
5.2
Linear buckling analysis

In linear static analysis, a structure is assumed to be in a state of stable equilibrium.
As the applied load is removed, the structure is assumed to return to its original,
undeformed position. Under certain combinations of loadings, however, the structure
continues to deform without an increase in the magnitude of loading. In this case the
structure has become unstable; it has buckled. For elastic or linear buckling analysis, it is
assumed that there is no yielding of the structure and that the direction of applied forces
does not change.
Elastic buckling incorporates the effect of the differential stiffness, which includes
higher-order strain displacement relationships that are functions of the geometry, element
type, and applied loads. From a physical standpoint, the differential stiffness represents a
linear approximation of softening (reducing) the stiffness matrix for a compressive axial
load and stiffening (increasing) the stiffness matrix for a tensile axial load.
27
In buckling analysis we solve for the eigenvalues that are scale factors that multiply
the applied load in order to produce the critical buckling load. In general, only the lowest
buckling load is of interest, since the structure will fail before reaching any of the higherorder buckling loads. Therefore, usually only the lowest eigenvalue needs to be
computed. The buckling eigenvalue problem reduces to:
where K is the system stiffness matrix, K is the differential stiffness matrix generated
automatically by MSC/NASTRAN, based on the geometry, properties and applied load)
and
are the eigenvalues to be computed. Once the eigenvalues are found, the critical
buckling load is solved for:
where, Pcr are the critical buckling loads and Pa are the applied loads. Again, usually
only the lowest critical buckling load is of interest. Because no single eigenvalue
extraction method is perfect for all models, there are three methods in MSC/NASTRAN:
1. Lanczos method
2. Inverse power method
3. Sturm modified inverse power method
The Lanczos method is the best overall method because it provides the most accuracy
for the least cost, but the other methods have applicability for particular cases.
Linear buckling analysis is done
28
To find the crippling or buckling load
To find the buckling load factors and mode shapes
In the following example I have shown how to carry out a linear buckling analysis
using Hypermesh and NASTRAN softwares.
Problem: Considered a circular rod of radius 20mm, 500mm length, fixed at one end and
applied inplane load of 100kN and performed linear buckling analysis.
Solution procedure:
1. Created a vertical beam using two nodes and one line.
b. Diameter = 20mm
Material used
29
Type
Card
Youngs
Poissons
modulus
ratio
Density

Mild steel
Isotropic
MAT1
0.3
210X10
7850X10
N/mm
kg/mm
5. Applied constraints on the elements present on one side of the beam

6. Applied loading condition for the beam
a. Type : Force
b. Magnitude = 100kN (in downward y-direction) in the inplane direction on the
elements of the beam opposite to SPC constrained elements
7. Applied eigen value extraction method
a. Eigen value extraction method : Lanczos method
b. Card : EIGRL
c. Eigen value range of interest : V1 = 0.1
V2 = 5.0
d. Number of roots desired = ND = 5
a. Load step : Linear buckling
30

in postprocessing.
Theoretical calculation of buckling/crippling load:
Cr
We have, buckling/crippling load = P
2
L2
EI
Cr
Where, P
= Crippling load,
L = Effective length of the beam = 2*500mm = 1000mm,

E = Youngs Modulus = 210000 MPa,
4
I = Moment of inertia = 7853.9816 mm ,
Cr
2
1000 2
* 210000 *
64 25 4
= 16.278kN (1)
Calculation of buckling/crippling load (From the software):
Cr
We have, buckling/crippling load = P
Applied
Cr
Where, P
= Crippling load,
= Minimum buckling factor = 0.1626786
Applied
31
= Applied load = 100kN
Cr
Therefore, P
= 0.1626786 X 100 = 16.26786kN
(2)
Error between analytical and numerical results for crippling load calculation:
Analytical _ result Numerical _ result

Analytical _ result
% Error =
* 100 =
16.278 16.2678
16.278
*100 = 0.06%
FE modeling and results of the problem for 1 st buckling mode using the above procedure
are shown below.
Fig. 5.2.1 FE modeling of the linear buckling problem:
Fig. 5.2.2 Results of the linear buckling analysis:
32
Fig. 5.2.3 Results of eigen values from the software
33

5.3
Normal modes analysis

Normal modes analysis computes the natural frequencies and mode shapes of
a structure. The natural frequencies are the frequencies at which a structure will tend to
vibrate if subjected to a disturbance. For example, the strings of a piano are each tuned to
vibrate at a specific frequency. The deformed shape at a specific natural frequency is
called the mode shape. Normal modes analysis is also called real eigenvalue analysis.
Normal modes analysis forms the foundation for a thorough understanding of the
dynamic characteristics of the structure.
In normal modes analysis there is no applied load and the structure has no damping
properties. The equation of motion is of the form:
where K and M are the stiffness and mass matrices representing the elastic and inertial
properties of the structure respectively. These system matrices are generated
automatically by MSC/NASTRAN, based on the geometry and properties of the FE
model. Assuming a harmonic solution, the above reduces to an eigenvalue problem:
where {f} is the eigenvector (or mode shape) corresponding to the eigenvalue l (the
natural or characteristic frequency). For each eigenvalue, which is proportional to a
natural frequency, there is a corresponding eigenvector, or mode shape.
The eigenvalues are related to the natural frequencies as follows:
Each mode shape is similar to a static displaced shape in that there are displacements
and rotations for each node. However, there is one important difference between the mode
34

shape and the static displacements: the scaling. In static analysis the displacements are the
true physical displacements due to the applied loads. Since there is no applied load in
normal mode analysis, the mode shape components can all be scaled by an arbitrary
factor.
Because no single eigenvalue extraction method is perfect for all models, in

MSC/NASTRAN there are seven eigenvalue extraction methods. These are:
Lanczos method
Givens method
Householder method
Modified Givens method etc
The Lanczos method is the best overall method due to its robustness, but the other
methods (particularly the modified Givens method and the Sturm modified inverse power
method) have applicability for particular cases.
Normal modes analysis is done
To assess the dynamic interaction between a component and its supporting

structure, that is, to find the fundamental frequency (Lowest natural
frequency) and required number of frequency modes. If the natural frequency
of the supporting structure is close to an operating frequency of the component
then resonance conditions and noise will occur and there can be significant
dynamic amplification of the loads which may cause failure of the structure
35
To assess the effects of design changes on the dynamic characteristics
To use the modes in a subsequent forced response analysis
To use the natural frequencies as a guide to selecting the proper time or

frequency step for transient and frequency response analyses, respectively
To assess the degree of correlation between modal test data and analytical
results
In the following example I have shown how to carry out a normal modes analysis
using Hypermesh and NASTRAN softwares.
Problem: Consider a cantilever beam of the following specifications
Radius = R = 5mm
Length, L = 1000mm
Cross sectional area, = A = 7.8537e-5m2
Area moments of inertia, Izz = Iyy = 4.909e-10m4
Beam torsional constant = 9.8175e-10m4
Material density, rho = 2700kg/m3
Material elasticity, E = 72 GPa
Fig.5.3.1 Cantilever beam

Solution:
Theoretical calculation:
36

Using Roark's formula, the modes of vibration of a cantilever beam is as follows:
where:
Kn is a constant where n refers to the mode of vibration
w = load per unit length including beam weight (Newtons/metre) = A*rho*g =

7.8537e-5 * 2700 * 9.81 = 2.0802 N/m.
Mass of the beam, M = 1.0 * 7.8537e-5 * 2700 = 0.212kg
Thus, fn = 2.06037Kn
Using Roark's formula, the values of Kn are used to find the first five modes. These are
shown in table below:
For the first mode, fn = 2.06037Kn = 2.06037 * 3.52 = 7.25Hz. Similarly for the rest of the
modes, frequencies are given in the following table.
Solution procedure in software:

c. Element type : CBAR
37

b. Diameter = 10mm
Material used
Aluminium
Type
Isotropic
Card
Youngs
Poissons
modulus
ratio
MAT1
72X10
Density
0.33
2700X10
2
N/mm
a. Type: 1D
b. Card : PBAR
6. Applied constraints on the cantilever beam
b. Card : EIGRL
V2 = 5.0
38
kg/mm

a. Load step : Normal modes
in postprocessing.
Fig. 5.3.2 FE modeling of the normal modes problem
Fig. 5.3.3 Results of eigen values from the software
39
Comparison of results:
The theoretical model and FE model results are compared side by side in the table
below. This shows that there is very little difference in the numbers being reported by both
examples in this case (less than 0.1% difference). In this case the principle source of
difference is likely to be round-off error in the hand calculation.
40
5.4
Rigid modes analysis/Free-free run

A structure or a portion of a structure can displace without developing internal
loads or stresses if it is not sufficiently tied to ground (constrained). These stress-free

displacements are categorized as rigid-body modes or mechanism modes. Free body motion
41

in a structure occurs when a structure may move freely without applied forces. Although the
stiffness matrix will have one or more singularities, the combined dynamic system, with mass
and damping, may not be singular. Examples are flying objects such as aircraft or rockets,
and structures with kinematic mechanisms such as a gyroscope or a pendulum.
Rigid-body modes occur in unconstrained structures, such as satellites and aircraft in
flight. For a general, unconstrained 3-D structure without mechanisms, there are six rigidbody modes often described as T1, T2, T3, R1, R2, and R3, or combinations thereof. Rigidbody modes can also be approximated for certain kinds of dynamic or modal tests in which
the test specimen is supported by very flexible supports, such as inflatable bags. In this case
the test specimen itself does not distort for the lowest mode(s) but instead displaces as a rigid
body with all of the deformation occurring in the flexible support. Rigid-body modes can
improperly occur if a structure that should be constrained is not fully constrained.
Rigid modes analysis/Free-free run is same as normal modes analysis explained
earlier except that, here constraints are not applied to the structure. Hence in this, natural
frequencies are calculated without applying the constraints. Any single object allowed to
vibrate freely should show first 6 modes as rigid i.e., natural frequencies = 0 and 7 th onwards,
deformable modes with positive values of natural frequency.
Rigid modes analysis is done
To find the rigid modes of vibration
To check the assembly of components by running a free-free analysis i.e, if the

assembly is proper then when we run a free-free analysis, there will be only 6
rigid modes. If any of the components is not properly assembled, then there
will be more than 6 rigid modes depending upon the number of unassembled
parts.
In the following example I have shown how to carry out a rigid modes analysis using
Hypermesh and NASTRAN softwares.
42

Problem: Considered a cantilever beam made of mild steel, of length 100mm, circular cross
section with diameter of 25mm and performed rigid modes analysis.
Solution procedure:
b. Diameter = 25mm
Material used
Mild steel
Type
Isotropic
Card
Youngs
Poissons
modulus
ratio
MAT1
a. Type: 1D
b. Card : PBEAM
43
0.3
210X10
7850X10
N/mm
Density
kg/mm

b. Card : EIGRL
V2 = 5.0

a. Load step : Normal modes
in postprocessing.
FE modeling and results of the problem for 8 th normal mode using the above procedure
are shown below.
Fig. 5.4.1 FE modeling and results of the rigid modes problem:
44
5.5
Modal transient response analysis

Transient response analysis is the most general method for computing forced
dynamic response.
The purpose of a transient response analysis is to compute the
behavior of a structure subjected to time-varying excitation. The transient

excitation is explicitly defined in the time domain. Wherein, frequency response
analysis the excitation is explicitly defined in the frequency domain. All of the forces
applied to the structure are known at each instant in time.
The important results obtained
from a transient analysis are typically
displacements, velocities, and accelerations of grid points, and forces and stresses in
45

elements. Depending upon the structure and the nature o f the loading, two different
numerical methods can be used for a transient response analysis: direct and modal.
The direct method performs a numerical integration on the complete coupled
equations of motion. The modal method utilizes the mode shapes of the structure to
reduce and uncouple the equations of motion (when modal or no damping is used);
the solution is then obtained through the summation of the individual modal
responses.
Modal transient response is an approach to computing the transient response of
a structure. This method uses the mode shapes of the structure to reduce the size,
uncouple the equations of motion (when modal or no damping is used), and make
the numerical integration m o r e efficient. Since the mode shapes are typically
computed as part of the characterization of the structure, modal transient response is
a natural extension of a normal modes analysis.
Modal transient analysis was done in MSC NASTRAN
for the
following
problem Figure 5 . 5 . 1 , A harmonic excitation was applied at the 6th and 11th node
respectively, the loading sequence is given in figure 4.9 Both damped and undamped
analysis has been carried out, for damped analysis a modal damping of 5 percentage
is used for all modes. The acceleration, displacements ha ve been picked up at
node 6, f i g u r e s below shows the response curve for both damped and undamped
analysis.
Figure 5.5.1 Model of the beam for Modal transient analysis
46
Figure 5.5.2 Load sequence for the Modal

transient analysis
Figure 5.5.3 5.5.6, represents the displacement and acceleration plot for
both damped and undamped mode of the cantilever beam under modal
transient analysis.
Figure 5.5.3 Displacement at node 6

without damping
Figure 5.5.4 Displacement at node 6, with

damping
47
CHAPTER 6
STUDY OF COLLAPSIBLE ENERGY ABSORBERS

Energy absorbers:
During the second half of the last century a great number of impact engineering
problems were investigated, especially in the field of the dynamic response of structures in
the plastic range. This contributed towards a better understanding of the modes of failure and
the energy dissipation patterns during impact in such structures. Such information is
important in order to be able to build safer structures and also in evaluating existing ones for
specific uses, therefore reducing losses in human and material resources. Application of this
field of engineering is now available for use in a wide variety of situations, which include
such aspects as crashworthiness of vehicles (cars, lifts, aircraft, ships ...), crash barrier design,
and safety of nuclear reactors, collision damage to road bridges and offshore structures and
oil tankers.
Definition:
48
An energy absorber is a system that converts, totally or partially, kinetic energy into
another form of energy. Energy converted is either reversible, like pressure energy in
compressible fluids and elastic strain energy in solids, or irreversible, like pressure energy in
compressible fluids and plastic strain energy in solids, or irreversible, like plastic deformation
energy. Energy dissipated in plastic deformation of metallic energy absorbers is the absorbing
system reviewed in this paper.
When designing a collapsible energy absorber, one aims at absorbing the majority of
the kinetic energy of impact within the device itself in an irreversible manner, thus ensuring
that human injuries and equipment damages are minimal. The conversion of the kinetic
energy into plastic deformation depends, among other factors, on the magnitude and method
of application of loads, transmission rates, deformation or displacement patterns and material
properties.
The components of deformable energy absorbers include such items as steel drums,
circular tubes, tubular rings, square tubes, corrugated tubes, multicorner columns, frusta,
struts, honeycomb cells, sandwich plates and some other special shapes such as stepped
circular thin-walled tubes and top-hat thin-walled sections.
These elements were used when filled with liquids, foam, wood shavings and sand.
These elements can be arranged in a variety of geometries. Some of the most well-known
arrangements include, axial crushing of tubes, lateral crushing of tubes, tube inversion, tube
nosing and tube splitting. Many researchers investigated the crushability and absorption rate
of some classical materials. These include wood and concrete.
Each energy absorber system has its own characteristics and special features which
one needs to be familiar with in order to be able to understand how metallic structures
respond to impulsive loads. Because of the extreme complexities of collapse mechanisms,
some of these performance characteristics were determined only through experimental
procedures. Consequently, the resulting empirical relations are confined to limited
applications.
The study of deformation in energy absorbers accounts for geometrical changes and
interaction between various modes of deformation such as the concertina (axisymmetric)
mode of collapse and the diamond (non-axisymmetric) mode of collapse, for axially loaded
tubes, as well as strain hardening and strain rate effects.
Study of the journal An approximate analysis of the collapse of thin cylindrical shells
under axial loading, by J.M Alexander:
J.M Alexander is considered to be the first to study the collapse of thin cylindrical
shells under axial loading in 1960. In his paper, a simple mode of collapse of the tube is
assumed, and the work required to achieve this mode is determined. The mean collapse load
is determined by equating this work to the mean collapse load multiplied by the distance
through which the load operates.
49
Fig.6.1 Assumed collapse mode of the tube

There are two actual modes of collapse, one in which the tube forms symmetrical
convolutions so that it takes up the appearance of a bellows, the other in which both
transverse and longitudinal waves are formed. This latter mode is the general mode of
collapse for thin tubes, but is too complicated. A simplified version of the 'bellows' type of
collapse mode is adopted, it being assumed that the shell collapses in the form of a
'concertina' with straight-sided convolutions. One of these convolutions is illustrated
diagrammatically in Fig.6.l, the symbols used for the various dimensions being also shown on
that figure.
Analytical formulation:
The work done in deforming the metal into one such convolution can be split into two
parts, namely that required for bending at the circular 'joints' and that required for stretching
the metal between the joints. To simplify the analysis, elastic strains and work hardening of
the material are neglected, i.e. a 'plastic-rigid' material is assumed.
TOTAL
i.e. W
BENDING
=W
STRETCHING
+W
During an increment d of the angle , the increment of work done at the three joints
shown is given by,
BENDING
dW
=4M.d . (D+hsin )
(1)
where, M is the collapse moment per unit circumferential length of the joint
D is the shell diameter
h is half fold length
Yt 2
4
For a narrow beam, M=
50

where, Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension or compression
t is the thickness of shell
In this case the 'beam' is essentially very wide and may be regarded as being deformed
under substantially plane strain conditions during the incremental change d . Under these
circumstances, if the material obeys the von Mises criterion of yielding, the direct stress will
2
3
be raised to
Y.
2 Yt 2
3 4
Therefore, collapse moment=M=
. Thus,
2
3
BENDING
dW
Yt d (D+hsin )
2
(2)
The mean strain in extending the metal between the joints during the incremental change d
is,
D h sin( d) D h sin
D h sin
hd cos
D h sin
(3)
The stress in these fibres will be equal to Y, the yield stress of the metal, so that the increment
of work done in stretching them will be,
STRETCHING
dW
Yhd cos
D h sin
(D+hsin ).2ht = 2 Yh t
d cos
(4)
Total workdone in collapsing one convolution for increasing from 0 to 90 is given by,
2
TOTAL
=
90o
TOTAL
2
3
BENDING
(dW
Yt (
STRETCHING
+dW
D h sin
)+2 Yh t.
cos
t 2
t 2
3
3
TOTAL
W
=
( DY) +
(2hY) + ( ht)(2hy)
51
)d
(5)
Total work done in bending the joints and = Mean axial load X Displacement
stretching the material between joints
TOTAL
= P X 2h
(6)
From (5)& (6), we get,

t 2
t 2
3
3
P X 2h =
( DY) +
(2hY) + ( ht)(2hy)
t 2 D
P
3
Y
2h
=(
)(
+1) + ht
(7)
Minimizing equation (7), we get,
2 3
h=
Dt
Dt
0.953
(8)
He compared this value of h with that derived from the elastic analysis for the buckling of
thin cylindrical shells, namely,
(9)
where v = Poisson's ratio. Substituting v = 0.25 gives
(10)
Substituting
in equation (7),
(11)
An alternative mode of collapse is to assume that the convolutions are formed

internally instead of externally as shown in Fig.6.1. If the analysis is repeated for this case
there results the following variation of equation (11),
(12)
Bearing in mind the approximate nature of this analysis, and also that the true
deformation mode lies somewhere between these two cases, it seems reasonable to adopt the
mean value between equations (11) and (12), i.e.
52
(13)
Substituting k = 0.953 from equation (8) gives,
(14)
and substituting k = 1.213 from equation (10) gives,
(15)
Thus, the final solution becomes of the form,
(16)
where K = 6.08, Y = yield strength of the material (assumed perfectly plastic), t = thickness
of the cylindrical shell, D = mean diameter.
Calculation of the collapse load for a sample problem:
Consider a thin cylindrical tube made of mild steel, of mean diameter 35mm, thickness
1.5mm subjected to axial crushing load and fixed at the other end.
We have, Collapse load =
where, K = 6.08, Y = 210 GPa, t = 1.5mm, D = 35mm
35
1. 5
Therefore, P = 6.08 * 210 * 1.5
53
= 13.877 kN.
CONCLUSION
During the course of industrial training I was provided with an opportunity to visit
different divisions in NAL, in particular structures division and learn about the functions,
facilities and equip myself with the basics of FEA softwares namely Hypermesh and
NASTRAN. Meshing of the models, quality check of the mesh and theoretical as well as
numerical methods for solving different types of problems are successfully learnt with the
help of some basic examples. Editing of bulk data format files and resolving the errors was
also learnt.
The study of collapsible energy absorbers has been done with main focus on
collapsible tubes. A journal has been studied on the collapsible tubes and understood the
analytical formulation. The knowledge of above mentioned softwares, the analyses carried
out and also the study of collapsible energy absorbers will be helpful for the project work
which is to be carried out at the later stage.
54
REFERENCES
CSIR-NAL Magazine for the year 2010-2012
CSIR NAL Annual Report - 2012
http://www.altairhyperworks.com/hwhelp/Altair/hw12.0/help/hwsolvers/hwsolvers.ht
m?rd2020.htm
http://www.altairhyperworks.com/%28S
%285t51og1kf42dlz2uw1sqyt03%29%29/hwhelp/Altair/hw11.0/help/hwsolvers/hwso
lvers.htm?
http://simcompanion.mscsoftware.com/infocenter/index?
page=content&id=DOC10003&cat=MSC_NASTRAN_DOCUMENTATION_2012&
actp=LIST
MSC NASTRAN Quick Reference Guide
International journal on collapsible energy absorbers An approximate analysis of the

collapse of thin cylindrical shells under axial loading, by J.M Alexander
55

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INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES USING SOFTWARES