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I.
Classification of Muscles
Muscles develop form the elongation of mesenchyme cells to form
myoblasts.
Myoblasts divide and elongate to form actin and myosin.
Cessation and differentiation of myoblasts are regulated by
myoblast regulatory genes.
Actin and myosin together with other proteins organize into
myofilaments.
Myoblasts matures as myocytes, which are termed as muscle
fibers.
A. According to Microscopic Appearance
1. Skeletal Muscles
Appears to have cross bands or striations
Associated with bones and cartilages
About < 5cm long
Under voluntary control
Contraction is initiated by nerve impulse
(neurogenic).
Multinucleate
Develops from the myoblasts that cease to multiply
and adhere one to another forming a longitudinal
line that finally fuse.
Composed of myofibril that forms sarcomere
Sarcomere basic unit for contraction
Thin filament: actin, troponin, and tropomyosin
Thick filament: myosin
Cell individually innervated by one branch of single nerve
cell at the motor end plate
Transverse tubules spread the electrical excitation along
the sarcolemma.
2. Cardiac Muscles
Occurs only in the heart
Characterized by banding patterns
Involuntary
Contraction is myogenic, initiated by the sinoatrial
node or SAN.
Shorter compared to skeletal muscles
Mononucleate and branched
Develops from a single myoblast
Cells joined by intercalated disks
Electrical impulses spread thru cells and intercalated disks
3. Smooth Muscles
Lack striations
Actin and myosin myofilaments are present in the
cytoplasm but do form line as in striated muscles.
Length varies from 15m in the walls of arteries to 500 m
in the wall of uterus
Associated with visceral organs digestive tract,
blood vessels, lungs
Involuntary
Contractions slow and sustained
Unitary smooth muscles found in the walls of the
digestive tract, uterus, and urinary tracts;
contractions are spontaneous
Mononucleate
Short and fusiform in shape
B. According to Location
1. Somatic Muscles
Orient the body (soma)
Striated attached to ligaments, tendons, and bones of the
axial and appendicular skeleton
Innervated by spinal nerves
Derivatives of myotomes of mesodermal somites
2. Visceral Muscles
Smooth muscles of hollow organs, vessels, tubes, and
ducts
Intrinsic musculature of the eyeball, and erector muscles of
feathers and hairs
Innervated by autonomic nervous system
Derived from splanchnic mesoderm
C. According to Color
1. Red Muscles
Highly vascularized
Rich in myoglobin, a dark macromolecule that stores
Oxygen
Resistant to fatigue
2. White Muscles
Less vascularized
Less myoglobin
Contract rapidly
E. Muscle Homologies
During the course of evolution, muscles have fused with one
another, others have numerous split into distinct new
muscles, some have become reduced I prominence, and
others have changed their position.
Criteria for muscle homology
o Similarity in attachment
Sites of attachment of the same muscles
may vary e.g. gastrocnemius (inserted onto
the calcaneus of the heel of mammals and
onto the tendon of Achilles that spreads
across the bottom of the foot in frogs)
o Similarity in function
o Nervous innervations
III. Embryonic Origin of Muscles
Muscles arise from three embryonic sources: mesenchyme,
hypomere, and paraxial mesoderm.
Mesenchyme smooth muscles within blood vessels and
some viscera
Hypomere cardiac muscle of the tubular heart
Splanchnic hypomere smooth muscle layer of
alimentary canal and its derivatives
Paraxial mesoderm most skeletal muscles
Somites (trunk) dermatome, sclerotome,
myotome
Trunk somites muscles of the head, extrinsic
ocular muscles
Somitomeres (head) head and pharyngeal
muscles
A. Appendicular Musculature
Fishes:
1. Ventral tips of adjacent myotomes grow downward into the emerging
bud.
2. Myotomes directly differentiate into fin musculature.
Tetrapods:
1. Epimere of mesoderm becomes segmented giving rise to somites
that in turn give rise to dermatome, sclerotome, and myotome.
2. Ventral tips of myotomes grow downward to become limb muscles.
3. Mesenchyme cells shed from the ventral tips of embryonic
myotomes.
4. The mesenchyme cells migrate into the limb bud to differentiate into
appendicular muscles.
5. Adjacent lateral mesoderm gives rise to bone or cartilage of the limb
along with tendons, ligaments, and vasculature.
Limb Development:
Two regions are recognizable:
Mesodermal core
An ectoderm thickening, the Apical Ectodermal Ridge (AER)
These two interacts to promote limb development.
The mesodermal core determined whether the limb
produced is a forelimb or hindlimb.
The AER promotes outgrowth of the limb.
Hox genes control the expression of AER.
B. Axial Musculature
1. Myotomes differentiate from somites.
2. Myotomes grow and expand along sides of the body.
3. This growth and expansion give rise to muscles associated with the
vertebral column, ribs, and lateral body wall.
4. Horizontal myoseptum divides the myotomes into dorsal and ventral
region, the epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively.
C. Cranial Musculature
Hypobranchial muscles arise from the myotomes of trunk somites.
Ventral tips of myotomes grow downward and forward into
the throat along the ventral side of the branchial arches.
Hypobranchial myotomes are accompanied by nerves
emanating from the cervical region of vertebral column.
Hypobranchial muscles run between ventral elements of the
branchial arches and between the branchial arches and
pectoral girdle. Also, they contribute to the tongue.
Branchiomeric muscles arise from somitomeres in the head, and are
supplied by cranial nerves.
Extrinsic muscles of the eye arise from three different sources:
Tetrapods:
Axial musculature tends to be reduced.
Epaxial muscles
In salamanders, it is present as one muscle mass,
dorsalis trunci.
o The axial muscles of salamanders reflect
continued role in locomotion.
In reptiles, it splits into three layers transversospinalis,
longissimus, and iliocostalis.
In mammals, numerous split yield additional muscles:
intervertebrals, longissimus, spinales, iliocostales
o Intervertebrals deepest epaxial muscles that
retain their primitive metamerism and maintain
appropriate posture
Intertransversarii in b/w transverse
processes
Interspinales in b/w neural spines
Interarcuales in b/w neural arches
Interarticulares in b/w zygapophyses
o Lonigissimus and spinales occupy, respectively,
lateral and medial positions above the
transverse process, and are divided into
bundles:
Capitis bundles inserted into the skull
and assist in head movements
Cervicis bundles found in the neck
region
Dorsi bundles found in the trunk
o Spinales includes long and medial bundles that
connect neural spine or transverse processes
with several neural spines cephalad.
Transversospinales connect
transverse processes with the neural
spine of the second vertebra
Multifidus spinales spinales grouped
together with intervertebrals
In mammals, spinales are chiefly
involved in maintaining stability of the
column when extension or flexon is
imposed by other vertebral muscles.
B. Cranial Musculature
1. Branchiomeric musculature
Associated with the branchial arches
Function as pumping device to move water across the gills,
replacing the ciliary system of protochordates
As the anterior branchial arch evolved into the jaws, the
associated muscles became part of the jaw-closing and
opening of gnathostome fishes
Each branchial arch is endowed with branchial muscles,
enlarged or reduced as function of particular arch changes.
Constrictors extend laterally from each branchial arch within
the gill core and may continue to the body surface under the
skin.
They squeeze water thru the pharynx.
Adductor is the most medial part of the constrictors
o Adductor bends the arch.
Dorsal and ventral muscles are deep muscles attached to
the dorsal and ventral tips of the branchial arches.
They are involved in moving the elements of the
branchial arches
Mandibular arch
Mandibular constrictor and adductor lie at the body
surface.
o Levator palatoquadrate is a derivative of the
mandibular constrictor in sharks and runs from
chondrocranium to palatoquadrate.
Absent in chimaera and tetrapods, in which
palatoquadrate is fused with the braincase.
o Adductor mandibulae largest jaw muscles
It is located at the angle of the jaw.
It provides powerful closing force.
Hyoid arch
The hyoid arch begins as a separate gill arch in primitive
fishes but elements of the hyoid arch become secondarily
involved in the suspension of the mandibles in some
vertebrates (jawed fishes) and as a separate hyoid
apparatus (tetrapods).
Hyoidean constrictor muscles prominent in fishes
forming the main muscles of the water-breathing pump
but are lost in tetrapods.
o Levator hyomandibulae largest hyoidean
constrictor in sharks that reaches from the
chondocranium to hyomandibular cartilage
o Epihyoidean the second one, inserted on the
connective tissue behind the angle of the jaw
o
o
o
Branchial arches
Additional short dorsal and ventral branchial muscles lie on
tops and bottoms.
These muscles act together with adductors to control local
movements of the arches during gill ventilation.
Cucullaris runs from the dorsal body surface down to
the last branchial arch and to the scapula
o It is formed from the fusion of slips from several
successive branchial muscles.
o Cucullaris of tetrapods extends from axial
musculature to the scapula forming muscle
complexes, trapezius and mastoid groups.
Branchial arches are important structural components in
the pumping and feeding apparatus in fishes.
Branchial arches became reduced in tetrapods
contributing to the larynx and other parts of the throat.
o Associated constrictor muscles contributed to
laryngeal muscles.
o Some levators took enlarged roles contributing
to trapezius and mastoid muscles to the
muscular sling supporting the shoulder girdle.
Small adductor and interarcual muscles interconnect
segment of the branchial arches.
2. Hypobranchial musculature
Arose embryonically from cervical somites, whose ventral
ends migrate to the floor of the pharynx
Supplied with spinal nerves
Runs below the lower ends of the branchial arches in an
anterioposterior course
In fishes, it originates from the coracoid region of the
shoulder girdle.
Coracoarcuals originates from the coracoid and
extends forward to the pectoral girdle
Coracomandibularis orginates from the coracoid and
inserts to the Meckels cartilage.
Coracohyoideus originates from the coracoid and
inserts to the basihyal.
Coracobranchials originate from the coracoid and
insert into the gill cartilages.
Integumentary Muscles
In fishes or amphibians, slips of the branchiomeric or axial somatic
muscles insert on the dermis at one or another, attaching the skin
underlying muscle at these locations.
C. Appendicular Musculature
Fishes:
Consists of two opposing muscles extending onto dorsal and ventral
surfaces
Dorsal muscles elevate the fin
Ventral muscles depress or adduct the fin
These two muscles produce distinct muscle slip that aid in fin
rotation.
Fin musculature of fishes is relatively thin compared to tetrapods.
Tetrapods:
Dorsal and ventral appendicular muscles tend to more prominent as
the limbs assumed the task of producing locomotor forces.
Both dorsal and ventral appendicular muscles tend to split and divide
into many distinct muscles.
Extrinsic appendicular muscles arise from the axial skeleton or fascia
of the trunk and insert on the girdle of the limb.
Levator scapulae, serratus ventralis, rhomboideus,
trapezius, sternomastoideus, and cleidomastoideus
Intrinsic appendicular muscles arise from the girdle or limb and insert
more distally in the limb.
Tetrapod Limb
Tetrapod limb receives contribution from the other regions.
The axial and the branchial muscles contributed to the
shoulder muscles.
Both shoulder and hip muscles transmitted locomotor forces
to the vertebral column differently.
The pectoral girdle of tetrapod is hung by muscular sling.
o The muscular sling is a set of muscles that run from
the thorax to the shoulder to suspend the anterior
part of the body thru muscular ties from the blades
of pectoral girdle.
Pectoral Girdle
Muscles of the pectoral girdles arose from the contributions of
four sources: branchiomeric, axial, dorsal, and ventral muscles.
1. Branchiomeric muscles trapezius and mastoid groups
Trapezius and mastoid groups arise from the cucullaris
of primitive fishes such as the chondrichtyes
Trapezius is a superficial muscle of the shoulder region.
o Eventually subdivided into cleidotrapezius
(cleidocervical), acromiotrapezius (cervical
trapezius), and spinotrapezius (thoracic
trapezius)
Receives motor nerves from
branchiomeric nerves
o The other two are the cleidomastoideus and
cleido-occipitalis
Acquired attachment to the clavicle
Do not function as appendicular muscle
Moves the head when they contract
In mammals
o Trapezius group includes the following:
clavotrapezius, acromiotrapezius, spinotrapezius
o Mastoid group includes the cleidomastoids and
the sternomastoid.
2. Axial muscles levator scapulae, rhomboideus complex,
serratus muscles
Deep to the latissimus of amniotes are three muscles
two levators of the scapula, rhomboideus group (found
only in crocodiles among living reptiles), and the serratus
ventralis (serratus anterior).
These muscles are found on the dorsal side (deep).
o Mammalian levators originate from the
transverse processs of the atlas or bassioccipital
bone (levator scapulae ventralis or
omotransversarius) and on the transverse
processs of the posterior cervical vertebrae.
Reference:
KARDONG, Kenneth. 2002. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function,
and Evolution. McGraw-Hill Book-Co Singapore (Reprinted in the
Philippines)
KENT, George and Robert Carr. 2004. Comparative Anatomy of the
Vertebrates. Philippines: McGraw-Hill Book Companies, Inc.
LIEM, Karel et al. 2001. Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An
Evolutionary Perspective. USA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning