Practice 000 285 1234

Publication Date 20Oct94

Page 1 of 6
FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

PURPOSE
This practice provides guidelines for the selection and application of NDE
(nondestructive examination) procedures for components fabricated by welding. This
practice does not directly apply to the materials of fabrication such as castings or
forgings, unless welding is used to repair materials to meet their specification
requirements.

SCOPE
This practice includes the following major sections:
DEFINITIONS
RESPONSIBILITY
CODE REQUIREMENTS
GENERAL
WELD FLAWS
NDE METHODS
NDE METHOD SELECTION
REFERENCES
ATTACHMENTS

APPLICATION
This practice is to be used by personnel selecting and applying NDE procedures to
equipment and components fabricated by welding and procured. Refer to the References
section for applicable codes and standards.

DEFINITIONS
NDE (Nondestructive
Examination)
NDE is a term used to designate those inspection methods that allow materials to be
examined without changing or destroying their usefulness. NDE is performed on
weldments to verify that the weld quality meets the specification, and to determine if weld
quality was degraded during service.
Discontinuity
Discontinuity is an interruption in the typical structure of a weldment. It may consist of a
lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics of the
base metal or weld metal. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.
Flaw
Flaw is nearly synonymous with a discontinuity but has a connotation of undesirability.
Defect
Defect is a discontinuity which by nature or effect renders a weldment unable to meet
specifications or acceptance standards. The term designates a rejectable condition.

MATERIALS AND WELDING ENGINEERING

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FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

Volumetric Flaws
Flaws that can be described by 3 dimensions or a volume are volumetric flaws. Examples
of volumetric welding flaws are porosity, slag, and tungsten inclusions.
Planar Flaws
Flaws that are thin in 1 dimension but larger in the other 2 dimensions are planar flaws.
Examples of planar welding flaws are cracks, lack of fusion, and incomplete joint
penetration.
Surface Flaws
Surface flaws intercept the surface.
Interior Flaws
Interior flaws do not intercept the surface.
Weldment
An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding is a weldment.

RESPONSIBILITY
The Materials And Welding / NDE Engineer on each project is responsible for the
selection of NDE requirements for that project.

CODE
REQUIREMENTS
Mandatory NDE requirements are specified in the applicable codes and standards for
equipment, components, and materials. Codes and standards specify minimum
requirements. In addition to the NDE specified, which may be none, other NDE may be
dictated by experience to produce a weldment suitable for the duty intended. An example
of NDE not required by a code suitable for the duty intended. An example of NDE not
required by a code are examinations of welds considered by the Project Engineer to be
critical for intended use.

GENERAL
Among the methods available for the examination of manufactured and fabricated
products, makers of welds and weldments rely mainly on RT (radiography), UT (ultrasonic
testing), MT (magnetic particle testing), PT (liquid penetrant testing) and VT (visual
inspection). Surface flaws may be detected with VT, MT, and PT. Interior flaws require
RT and UT.
In addition, each of the above NDE methods has its particular assets and drawbacks,
technical and otherwise, which must be considered. Assets to look for include the
following:
Economy of equipment (VT and PT)
Ease of interpretation (VT, MT, and PT)
Ability to provide permanent records (RT)
Portability (VT, UT, and PT)

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Publication Date 20Oct94
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FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

Balancing these are drawbacks, such as the following:

Potential danger to personnel (RT)
Need for skill in equipment operation and in interpretation (RT and UT)
Time required for testing (RT)
High cost of equipment (RT and UT)

WELD FLAWS
Weld flaws are flaws in welds that can affect weld performance include cracks, inadequate
joint penetration, incomplete fusion, porosity, inclusions (slag and tungsten), and
defective weld profiles which include undercut and overlap.
Cracks
Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress which can be narrow or wide. Appearing
on surfaces and inside welds, cracks are serious defects because they concentrate
stresses that can cause failures.
Inadequate Joint
Penetration
LOP (lack of penetration), refers to the failure of weld metal to fuse completely to the root
of the weld joint.
Incomplete Fusion
LOF (lack of fusion) occurs when weld metal fails to fuse with the base metal, leaving
gaps which may reach the surface. While LOF may not be as dangerous as cracks are,
edges of this discontinuity can nucleate fatigue cracks.
Porosity
Cavities formed by gases trapped in solidifying weld metal, may scatter uniformly
throughout weld metal, cluster in clumps, appear as elongated holes (called wormholes),
or line up in repeating patterns in roots or weld pass boundaries. Pores concentrated in
heavy quantities endanger stressed welds, but thinly strewn pores do not affect strength.
Inclusions
Slag (from flux) or tungsten (from electrodes) inclusions can appear within weld interiors,
along the sides of welds, between passes, and at roots. Having rounded contours,
inclusions are considered less dangerous than cracks, because they do not concentrate
stresses to the same extent.
Defective Weld
Profiles
Defective Weld Profiles describes stress raising disruptions in surface contours of welds.
Discontinuities such as undercut and overlap concentrate stresses, sometimes leading to
fatigue failures.

MATERIALS AND WELDING ENGINEERING

Practice 000 285 1234

Publication Date 20Oct94
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FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

NDE METHODS
The following is a brief description of applicable NDE methods, including uses,
advantages, and drawbacks:
RT (Radiography)
RT uses X-ray or gamma ray radiation to examine welds. Generated by X-ray tubes or
radioactive isotopes, this hard radiation penetrates the weld to expose radiographic film
on the other side, picturing discontinues as differences in film density. Volumetric
discontinuities, such as pores and slag appear more clearly than cracks and other narrow
defects.
Radiography provides inspectors with permanent records: radiographs store for years in
vaults to display images of interior flaws for ready measurement and interpretation at any
time. As for drawbacks, radiation endangers humans, so radiographers must be careful to
shield all personnel, including workers in adjacent areas from radiation. Equipment is
costly and requires skilled operators. Interpreters of radiographs also require skill,
because slight differences in image shapes and in film densities may indicate serious
defects. RT also takes time for radiographing thick sections, for film processing, and for
interpretation.
UT (Ultrasonic
Testing)
UT requires probes (piezoelectric transducers) that send pulsed ultrasonic waves into test
pieces and pick up reflected ultrasonic signals that instantaneously convert to electronic
signals that display on a CRT screen for interpretation. Though costly and complex, the
electronic equipment is safe to operate, in this respect giving UT the edge over RT, its
rival for finding and measuring interior defects. UT also beats out RT for rapidly
detecting and sizing thin, flat discontinuities, such as cracks. Another virtue is portability
- battery-powered UT instruments are light enough to be carried almost anywhere from
underwater to the tops of sky-scrapers.
Inspectors require much skill, through, to manipulate UT probes and interpret CRT
signals, in order to identify discontinuities and measure their shapes and sizes. Another
drawback is the difficulty of providing permanent records. Computer-controlled
instrumentation has been adapted to digitally record signal traces on floppy discs and on
tape cassettes, but few labs use these procedures as yet.
MT (Magnetic Particle
Testing)
MT uses magnetism to find surface and subsurface discontinuities in iron and
ferromagnetic steel parts, cast and wrought. Induced by electric currents into the part,
magnetic currents attract iron-oxide powder dusted or flowed, via a liquid medium, to
outline discontinuities on surfaces.
Easily operated and relatively inexpensive, MT equipment can be found in most shops.
Inspectors require little training to interpret indications, because the powders clearly
outline sizes and shapes of discontinuities on part surfaces. Large structures require
heavy magnetizing amperages. Prods and yokes attach to long cables to do MT in
out-of-the-way areas. As for drawbacks, MT is limited to the detection of surface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic metals and alloys.

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FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

PT (Liquid Penetrant
Testing)
PT complements MT, displaying sizes and shapes of surface discontinuities on
nonmagnetic materials (austenitic stainless, nonferrous metals and alloys, and ceramics)
as well as magnetic materials. Surfaces must be pore-free, because the penetrant seeps
into all discontinuities. Developing powder pulls penetrant out of defects, producing
indications that reproduce the defect, much as MT indications do.
Advantages of PT include portability - inexpensive PT kits for field testing are readily
available - and ease of interpretation. PT also finds use for leak testing spray the
penetrant on one side, the developer on the other, then wait for the penetrant to bleed
through, revealing the leak by discoloring the developer.
A disadvantage of the method is that large surface areas must be broken down into
smaller segments and can take a long time.
VT (Visual Inspection)
VT, the most widely used NDE for inspection welds and weldments calls for the least
investment in equipment; hand-held gages and lenses usually suffice. Training takes little
time if the inspector needs only learn how to recognize surface discontinuities, and
measure them to make sure they fall within code-sanctioned limits.
The competent VT inspector, however, usually does much more, taking responsibility for
overseeing quality control of construction jobs from start to finish. The inspector makes
sure that incoming material meets plan and spec requirements, monitors construction
operations and procedures, and inspects completed weldments, assemblies, and
structures.

NDE METHOD
SELECTION
In most cases, the applicable code or standard will provide the NDE requirements for a
weld or weldment. For those instances when mandatory NDE allows options, when
additional NDE is desired to assure the acceptance of a mandatory examination or for the
NDE of critical components, when the code or standard does not require mandatory NDE,
the appropriate NDE method must be selected.
Attachments 01 and 02 summarize the considerations generally used in selecting the NDE
method for weld examination.

REFERENCES
API (American Petroleum Institute)
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
ASME / ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)

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Publication Date 20Oct94
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FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

AWS (American Welding Society)

AWWA (American Water Works Association)
Welding Engineering
Practice 000.285.9820: Nondestructive Examination - Technique Reference Data

ATTACHMENTS
Attachment 01:(20Oct94)
Defect Detection By NDE
Attachment 02:(20Oct94)
NDE For Welds And Weldments

MATERIALS AND WELDING ENGINEERING

Practice 000 285 1234

Publication Date 20Oct94
Attachment 01 - Sheet 1 of 1
FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

Defect Detection By NDE

Examination Methods*
DISCONTINUITY

RT

UT

PT

MT

O
A
O
A
A
U
A

A
A
A
O
A
O
O

A
U
U
A2
U
A
O

A
U
U
O3
O3
A
O

A2
U
U
A2
U
O
A

JOINTS

RT

UT

PT

MT

VT

Butt
Corner
Tee
Lap

A
O
O
U

A
A
A
O

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

2.
3.
*

VT

Cracks
Inadequate joint penetration
Incomplete fusion
Porosity
Inclusion (slag and tungsten)
Overlap
Undercut

1.

A = Applicable
O = Marginal
U = Generally not applicable
Surface
Surface and slightly subsurface
To determine which inspection method to use on a particular weldment, also consider
material type and geometry, welding process, criticality level, and unacceptable
discontinuity types.

MATERIAL AND WELDING ENGINEERING

Practice 000 285 1234

Publication Date 20Oct94
Attachment 02 - Sheet 1 of 2
FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

NDE For Welds And Weldments

VT (Visual Inspection)
Equipment Needs

Uses

Advantages

Magnifiers, color enhancer, Surface defects, weld

rulers, micrometers, optical appearance and dimension,
comparators, and light
stock size, and thickness.
source.

Economical, expedient,
requires relatively little
training and relatively little
equipment.

Limitations
Useful for external or
surface conditions only.
Inspector needs good
eyesight.

RT (Radiography)
Equipment Needs

Uses

Advantages

Limitations

Gamma Ray

Gamma Ray

Gamma Ray

Gamma Ray

Gamma ray source

(radioactive isotope) and
camera projectors, film
holders, film, lead screens,
film processing equipment,
film viewer, exposure
facility, radiation
monitoring equipment.

Gives a permanent record enables review by parties at

a later date. Gamma
sources may be positioned
inside accessible objects.
Such as pipe and pressure
vessels. Energy-efficient,
requires no electrical
energy for production of
gamma rays.

Most weld discontinuities,

including cracks, porosity,
lack of fusion, incomplete
penetration, slag, as well as
corrosion and fit-up
defects, wall thickness, and
dimensional evaluations.
Best for volumetric defects.

Radiation, a safety hazard,

requires protective facilities
where radiation will be
used. Requires monitoring
of exposure levels and
dosages to personnel.
Sources decay and must be
periodically replaced.
Gamma sources have
constant energy of output
(wavelength), cannot be
adjusted. Gamma source
and related licensing
requirements are costly.
RT requires skilled
operating and interpretive
personnel.

X-Ray

X-Ray

X-Ray

X-Ray

X-ray source (machine),

electrical power source,
otherwise same equipment
as used with gamma ray
sources.

Same as above.

Adjustable energy level,

generally produces higher
quality radiographs than
gamma sources. Permanent
record.

High initial cost of X-ray

equipment. Not easily
portable; radiation hazard
as with gamma sources;
skilled operational and
interpretative personnel
required.

MATERIALS AND WELDING ENGINEERING

Practice 000 285 1234

Publication Date 20Oct94
Attachment 02 - Sheet 2 of 2
FLUOR DANIEL
APPLICATION AND SELECTION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION PROCEDURES

UT (Ultrasonics Testing)
Equipment Needs

Uses

Advantages

Limitations

Pulse-echo instruments
capable of exciting a
piezoelectric material to
send ultrasonic energy
within a test piece; cathode
ray tube scope capable of
displaying magnitudes of
received sound energy.
Calibration standards,
liquid couplants.

Most weld discontinuities,

including cracks, slag, lack
of fusion, lack of bond, and
thickness.

Most sensitive to
planar-type defects. Test
results known immediately.
Portable. Most ultrasonic
flaw detectors do not
require an electrical power
outlet. High penetration
capability.

Surface must be smooth for

coupling of transducer.
Small, thin welds may be
difficult to inspect.
Reference standards
required. Requires a skilled
inspector to interpret
signals.

MT (Magnetic Particle Testing)

Equipment Needs

Uses

Advantages

Limited to ferromagnetic
materials. Parts must be
cleaned before and after
inspection. Thick coatings
may mask rejectable
indications. Some
applications require parts
to be demagnetized after
inspection.

Prods, yokes, and coils,

suitable for inducing
magnetism into the test
piece. Electric power
source. Magnetic powders.
Some applications require
special facilities and
ultraviolet lights.

Discontinuities open to the

surface, some large voids
slightly subsurface. Most
suitable for cracks.

Limitations
Relatively economical,
expedient, and easy to
interpret. Inspection
equipment is considered
portable. Unlike dye
penetrants, magnetic
particles can detect some
near-surface
discontinuities.

PT (Liquid Penetrant Testing)

Equipment Needs

Uses

Fluorescent or dye
Discontinuities open to
penetrant, developers,
surface, such as cracks,
cleaners (solvents and
porosity, and seams.
emulsifiers), and cleaning
gear. Ultraviolet light
source if fluorescent dye is
used.

Advantages

Limitations

Useful on all nonporous

materials. Portable,
relatively inexpensive
equipment. Expedient
inspection. Results easily
interpreted. Requires no
electrical energy except for
light source. Indications
may be examined visually.

Surface films, such as

coatings, scale, and
smeared metal mask or hide
rejectable defects.
Bleedout from porous
surfaces also can mask
indications. Parts must be
cleaned before and after
inspection.

MATERIALS AND WELDING ENGINEERING