Garden Ecology

Study Guide
Garden Ecology
By
Matt Brooks
About the Authors

Matt Brooks received a Bachelor of Landscape Architecture degree
from the University of Illinois and a Master of Landscape Architecture
degree from the University of Minnesota. He then spent several
years working in the Chicago area with various landscape architectural and design/building firms. In these positions, Matts primary
responsibilities included landscape design and sales and project
management of commercial-, institutional-, and residential-scale
projects. Soon after moving to Minnesota in 1997, Matt accepted a
teaching position with Dakota County Technical College, where he
teaches courses in landscape design, computer-aided design (CAD),
and woody plant identification. In addition to teaching, Matt is
president of Brooks Design Group Inc., a landscape design and
construction services consulting company. Matts work has appeared
in Better Homes and Gardens, in Northern Gardener, and most
recently at the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. Matt
is a member of the Minnesota Nursery and Landscape Association,
where he sits on the Environmental Concerns Committee. He is
also a member of the American Society of Landscape Architects.
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service
marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be
regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Copyright 2012 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be
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Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be
mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton,
Pennsylvania 18515.
Printed in the United States of America
03/13/2014
LESSON ASSIGNMENTS
LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT

AND SOIL SCIENCE
LESSON 2: GARDEN ECOLOGY
27
LESSON 3: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF

COMMON-SENSE PEST CONTROL
49
SELF-CHECK ANSWERS
73
ACHIEVEMENT REVIEW ANSWERS
80
Contents
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
iii
INTRODUCTION
This course includes three lessons. Heres a summary of

what youll study in each one:
In Lesson 1, The Fundamentals of Plant and Soil

Science, youll gain a basic understanding of plants and
soils. Youll learn about plant structure, the function of
various plant parts, and the growth processes inherent
in green plants. Youll also be introduced to the methods
and terms used in identifying plants, the scientific system
for naming plants, the reproductive process in plants,
and the role plant regulators play in the production of
plants. Last, youll study the vital role soils play in the
health of plants, the way soils are formed, differences in
soil structure, and the chemical properties of soils.
Lesson 2, Garden Ecology, builds upon the fundamental

information learned in Lesson 1 through a more holistic
approach that introduces you to the science of ecology as
it applies to the smaller-scale garden or residential landscape. While some of the information in this lesson will
be familiar to you from your readings in Lesson 1, this
additional perspective on the fundamentals will prove
Instructions
Landscaping can be defined as the art and science of altering

the visible features of the land, which results in the creation
of beautiful and functional outdoor environments. Alterations
through the incorporation of living elements such as trees,
shrubs, and flowers; natural elements including landforms,
stones, or water; and built elements such as garden structures, walls, and fences rely on the artistic eye. On the other
hand, an understanding of the environment, the natural
processes that occur in shaping it, and the intricate relationships that exist among the living organisms that dwell there
form the scientific basis of landscaping. Ecology is the term
used to describe the scientific study of the relationships that
occur between living organisms and between living organisms
and their environment. This course presents the concepts of
garden ecology and examines both the living and nonliving
natural components that form the framework of gardens and
the larger landscape.
quite beneficial in a deeper understanding of the subject

matter. In this lesson, youll learn to appreciate not only
the individual parts that make up the garden or landscape but also the intricate interactions among the
various parts that make it a highly functioning ecosystem.
In Lesson 3, The Fundamentals of Common Sense Pest

Control, youll learn about the various natural controls
that keep pest populations in check. Youll also be introduced to the concept of integrated pest management (IPM)
and the treatment strategies and tactics utilized in managing pests in the garden and landscape. Youll learn
how to identify and appreciate the services of beneficial
insects and other organisms in controlling pest populations. Next you'll learn how to choose the right chemical
and microbial tools as well as other organic and inorganic tools used in common sense pest control. And
lastly, this lesson will introduce you to the new frontier
of microbials, pheromones, and insect growth regulators
used in pest control today.
These three lessons are further divided into several individual

assignments that typically correspond to one, sometimes two,
chapters in one of your textbooks. At the end of each assignment, youll complete a self-check to determine how well
youve learned the material youve just studied. The answers to
the self-checks are at the back of this study guide. At the
end of each lesson, you must complete an examination.
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this course, youll be able to
Describe the relationships among landscapes, plants,

and the soils and other living organisms that make up
the ecology of our gardens
List the important roles plants play in our lives and

Earths ecosystem
List the parts typical of higher green plants and explain

their functions
Instructions to Students
Describe the process of photosynthesis and the role it

plays in sustaining all life on Earth
Summarize the natural classification system for the

plant kingdom
Describe the environmental factors that affect plant

growth
Identify the parts of plants that are used in plant

identification
Explain the important role soils play in our lives and

Earths ecosystem
Describe the various components that make up soils and

explain how and why soils differ
Define the term soil structure and list the factors that
influence various soil structures
Describe the different types of plant growth regulators

and their effects on plants
Explain the various forms of plant reproduction and list

the parts of a plant involved in the process
Identify the most common methods used in plant

propagation
Identify the major causes of injury to plants
Identify natural pest controls
List the principles of common sense pest control
Explain the concept of integrated pest management (IPM)
List the different types of beneficial insects and organisms used in IPM
Describe the various organic and inorganic tools used

in IPM
COURSE MATERIALS
This course includes the following materials:
1. This study guide, which contains an introduction to your
course, plus
A lesson assignments page with a schedule of study

assignments
Introductions to lessons and assignments, which

emphasize the main points in the textbooks
Self-checks and answers to help you assess your

understanding of the material
Answers to the Achievement Review features at the

end of each chapter in Ornamental Horticulture
2. Your course textbooks, Ornamental Horticulture: Science,

Operations, & Management; Ecology for Gardeners; and
The Gardeners Guide to Common-Sense Pest Control,
which contain the assigned reading materials
YOUR TEXTBOOKS
This course includes three textbooks: Ornamental
Horticulture: Science, Operations, & Management; Ecology for
Gardeners; and The Gardeners Guide to Common-Sense Pest
Control. These books contain the study material on which the
self-checks and examinations are based. You should become
familiar with your textbooks prior to the beginning of your
studies. Skim through the contents pages of each book. These
pages will give you a preview of the chapters in each textbook, as well as a listing of topics specific to each chapter.
Note: Only selected chapters in your textbooks are required
reading for this course.
Each chapter in Ornamental Horticulture begins with a list
of objectives and key terms. Read these objectives prior to
beginning your studies, as theyll prepare you for what youll
be learning. While reading, pay particular attention to the key
terms that are highlighted in bold type throughout the
chapters. At the end of each chapter is a feature called

Achievement Review. You can use these questions to review
what youve just read and studied in a chapter. The answers
to these exercises are at the back of this study guide. Starting
on page 627 are a number of appendices, which contain useful information such as professional trade organizations,
selected readings for further studies in ornamental horticulture, and examples of plant diseases and insect injuries. A
glossary of all of the key terms listed in your book begins on
page 649. You may find this glossary useful when reviewing
for exams. Finally, an index begins on page 661. Use this
feature to locate specific topics in the textbook.
Your second textbook, Ecology for Gardeners, is broken down
into six chapters. It too contains a glossary of terms that
begins on page 280, a list of books for further reading on
pages 290291, an index of common and scientific names
starting on page 292, and a subject index starting on page
320. In the middle of the textbook (between pages 96 and 97)
are numbered photo plates, which are referenced throughout
the book. The vast amount of information presented in this
book may at times overwhelm you with all of the scientific
names and terminology, and thats OK. Heres a suggestion to
help in your studying: First read through each chapter to get
an overall idea of the material presented, and then go back
with a highlighter and mark the major terms and concepts in
preparation for your exam reviews.
Your third textbook, The Gardeners Guide to Common-Sense
Pest Control, is broken down into two parts. For this study
guide youll be assigned readings from the first half of the
book and in a later study guide youll be referencing the second half of the book. In addition to the assigned readings, you
should read the Preface and Introduction and pages 1316
on sustainable landscape gardening. While not included as
part of your assigned readings, these pages contain insightful
information from the authors and set the tone for the content
presented in the rest of the book. Starting on page 374 is the
Afterword with some closing thoughts by the author followed
by a sample case study that uses the city of San Francisco's
IPM program as an example to highlight the application of the
principles and practices presented in this book. Starting on
page 378 is a reference section with suggestions for further
Note: When referencing

this textbook in your
assignments the title
will be abbreviated to
Pest Control.
reading on particular subjects, listed according to book chapter. Lastly, starting on page 383 is the index, which youll find
helpful when looking up information on a particular topic.
A STUDY PLAN
The following is a recommended procedure for successfully
completing this course while receiving the maximum benefit
from your studies:
1. Read the introduction to each assignment and make
note of assigned readings in both the study guide and
textbook.
2. When applicable, read the chapter objectives at the
beginning of assigned textbook readings; then read the
material for a general understanding of subject matter.
3. Go back and reread assigned materials, highlighting or
underlining key concepts and passages to help you
remember essential information.
4. When you feel you have an understanding of the assigned
reading, take the self-check at the end of the assignment
in your study guide. Compare your answers with those
given at the end of this guide. If you had any incorrect
answers, go back and review the assigned reading material. This review will reinforce your understanding of the
material. The self-checks are designed to reveal weak
points that you need to review. Dont send the self-check
answers to the school. Theyre for you to evaluate your
understanding of the material.
5. Complete each assignment in this way.
6. When you feel you understand all of the material in a
lesson, complete the examination for that lesson.
7. Repeat this procedure for each lesson.
Remember: At any time, you can email your instructor for
information regarding the materials. The instructor can provide you with answers to any questions you may have about
the course or your study materials.
Youre now ready to begin Lesson 1. Good luck!
For:
Read in the
study guide:
Read in the textbook

Ornamental Horticulture:
Assignment 1
Pages 1011
Chapter 1
Assignment 2
Pages 1315
Chapter 2
Assignment 3
Pages 1719
Chapter 3
Assignment 4
Pages 2122
Chapter 4
Assignment 5
Pages 2425
Chapter 5
Examination 102835
Material in Lesson 1
Lesson 2: Garden Ecology

For:
Read in the
study guide:
Read in the textbook

Ecology for Gardeners:
Assignment 6
Page 29
Chapter 1
Assignment 7
Pages 3132
Chapter 2
Assignment 8
Pages 3436
Chapter 3
Assignment 9
Pages 3739
Chapter 4
Assignment 10
Pages 4143
Chapter 5
Assignment 11
Pages 4547
Chapter 6
Examination 102836
Assignments
Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Plant and Soil Science
Lesson 3: Fundamentals of Common

Sense Pest Management
For:
Read in the
study guide:
Read in
the textbook:
Assignment 12
Pages 5052
Chapter 6 in Ornamental
Horticulture
Remember to regularly
check My Courses
on your student
homepage. Your
Assignment 13
Pages 5456
Chapter 2 in Pest Control
Assignment 14
Pages 5759
Chapters 34 in Pest
Control
instructor may post

additional resources
that you can access
to enhance your
Assignment 15
Pages 6162
Assignment 16
Pages 6466
Chapters 67 in Pest
Control
learning experience.
Assignment 17
Pages 6870
Examination 102837

Note: To access and complete any of the examinations for this study
guide, click on the appropriate Take Exam icon on your My Courses
page. You should not have to enter the examination numbers. These
numbers are for reference only if you have reason to contact Student
Services.
Lesson Assignments
The purpose of Lesson 1 is to provide you with a basic understanding of plants and the soils they depend upon for growth
and reproduction. This lesson includes five assignments that
cover Chapters 15 in the textbook Ornamental Horticulture.
Assignment 1 covers plant morphology (structure), plant
nomenclature, plant processes, and requirements for plant
growth. Assignment 2 focuses on the terminology and methods used in describing and identifying plants. Assignment 3
discusses the properties of soil and its importance in plant
health. Assignment 4 explains how and why growth regulators are used, and finally, Assignment 5 describes the many
ways in which plants naturally reproduce and the methods
used by humans in propagating plants.
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, youll be able to
Summarize the important roles plants play in peoples

lives and in Earths ecosystem
List the parts typical of higher green plants and the

functions of these parts
Describe the process of photosynthesis and the role it

plays in sustaining all life on Earth
Describe the natural classification system for the plant

kingdom
Describe the environmental factors that can affect plant

growth
Identify the parts of plants that are used in plant

identification
Explain the important role soils play in peoples lives and

in Earths ecosystem
Characterize the various components that make up soils

and indicate how and why soils differ
Lesson 1
Fundamentals of Plant
and Soil Science
Define the term soil structure and list the factors that
influence various soil structures
Identify the different types of plant growth regulators and

describe their effects on plants
Explain the various forms of plant reproduction and

identify the parts of a plant involved in the process
Describe the most common methods used in plant

propagation
ASSIGNMENT 1:
THE GREEN PLANT
Read the following material. Then read Chapter 1 (pages 124)
in your textbook, Ornamental Horticulture.
Textbook Note
On page 16 of your textbook, the chemical equation for photosynthesis should read as follows:
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
The equation in the textbook is missing the C immediately after
the yield symbol.
Green plants are amazing machinesthe only organisms

capable of manufacturing their own food. Through a process
known as photosynthesis, plants use the raw materials of
sunlight, soil, air, and water to produce the food they need.
In addition, plants are the source of some important nutritional needs of humans. For example, the leaves of some
plants, such as spinach and kale, are loaded with vitamins
and minerals, while tea leaves are brewed into a beverage
rich in antioxidants that protect the human body from ill
health. Other plant partssuch as the roots of carrot and
potato plants; the fleshy fruits of apple and orange trees;
nuts from trees and shrubs; and most notably, the grains
produced by corn, rice, and wheatare sources of nutrition.
10
Garden Ecology
Even the ground beef in your hamburger and the eggs in

your omelet depend on plants as the nutritional source for
the cow and chicken that produce the meat and eggs.
Plants also provide raw materials used in the manufacture
of products that bring comfort to peoples lives. For example,
plants are sources for the building materials used in the construction of homes that shelter people from the elements;
theyre the basis of some fibers used in making clothing that
keeps people warm and dry. Other uses for the woody parts
of a plant include the manufacture of paper products that
allow people to communicate the written word through books
and newspapers, to package and ship goods across the
country, and to have a hot pizza delivered to their front
doors. And how would the pizza get delivered if not for the
fossil fuels made possible by plants that covered Earth millions of years ago?
As a student in the Landscape Technology program, youll
learn to appreciate plants in another way as wellthat is,
for their aesthetic and functional roles in gardens and landscapes. To effectively use plants in creating beautiful and
functional outdoor spaces, you must have a basic understanding of plants. The purpose of this assignment is to help
you gain that understanding by introducing you to plant
structure, the terminology used in describing the parts of a
plant, the process of plant growth, and the requirements for
proper growth. Youll also be introduced to the system of
classifying and naming plants.
Now its time to complete Self-Check 1 to help you review
what youve just studied and determine how well you understood the material. In addition, you may wish to complete the
Achievement Review on pages 2427 of the textbook. The
answers to this review can be found at the back of this study
guide.
Lesson 1
11
Self-Check 1
At the end of each section of Garden Ecology, youll be asked to pause and check
your understanding of what youve just read by completing a Self-Check exercise.
Answering these questions will help you review what youve studied so far. Please
complete Self-Check 1 now.
Note: You may also wish to use the reviews at the end of the chapters in your textbook.
The answers to these reviews are also found at the end of this study guide.
Match each term in the left column below with its definition in the right column.
______
1. Photosynthesis
______
2. Chlorophyll
______
3. Oxygen
______
4. Flower
______
5. Transpiration
______
6. Taxonomy
______
7. Plant nomenclature
______
8. Latin
______
9. Phototropism
______ 10. Cell walls
a. The language used in the scientific/botanical naming

of plants
b. A gaseous byproduct of photosynthesis required for
human survival
c. The structures present in plant cells that make them
different from animal cells
d. The process of converting energy from solar to chemical form through the manufacture of sugar
e. The scientific study of plant classification
f.
The green pigment needed by plants to capture the

suns energy
g. The process through which water vapor is released

through pore-like openings in the leaf
h. The system for naming plants
i.
The plant structure containing both pistil and stamen
j. The term used to describe a plants bending growth in

response to a light source
Check your answers with those on page 73.
12
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 2: DESCRIBING
AND IDENTIFYING PLANTS
Read the following material. Then read Chapter 2, pages 2844,
Plants are the primary materials that landscape professionals

use to create attractive gardens and landscapes. The key to
successfully using plants in landscapes is the ability to
describe and identify plants. The problem is that there are
many different methods of describing plants.
One method uses plants common names. This method is

complicated by the fact that one plant may go by several
different names. For example, many people use the term
burning bush to describe a particular shrub that turns
bright red in autumn. Others, however, refer to this
same bush as the winged euonymus. You can see how
using plants common names may lead to confusion.
Another method uses the scientific names of plants that

you learned about in Chapter 1. This method was developed by Karl von Linne, the father of taxonomy. In this
system, each plant has its own unique scientific name
that consists of two parts, the genus and species.
Although this system eliminates confusion among
scientists and professionals familiar with this language,
confusion persists among the general population, who
usually refer to plants by their common names.
Because a scientific
name consists of two
parts, its called a
binomial.
As a landscape professional, you should be knowledgeable in

both the scientific and common names of plants. While overwhelming at first, continued practice and learning through
repeated use will result in the mastering of this new language
that separates landscape professionals from hobbyists.
In addition to their scientific and common names, plants may
also be identified or named in other ways. Here are a few discussed by your textbook in Chapter 2:
Horticultural descriptions of plants. Because the botanical

classification and scientific naming of plants is very specific, it reduces confusion. However, a less complicated
method with more generic terms is often used to refer to
Lesson 1
13
larger groups of plants that share like physical characteristics. For example, the term deciduous refers to plants
that shed their leaves annually, while the term evergreen
refers to plants that retain them for several years. Such
broad categories are useful among professionals in the
field of ornamental horticulture. Your textbook lists and
describes these categories of plants in greater detail on
pages 2931.
Description based on temperature tolerance. Plants are

also categorized according to their tolerances of high
and low air temperatures. While water, sunlight, and
soil nutrients are contributing factors in a plants ability
to survive, temperature extremes are of paramount
importance in determining the suitability of a plant
to a particular climatic zone. The term plant hardiness
describes this ability for plant survival based on air temperature. Hardiness zones have been devised to indicate
a plants suitability to different geographic regions of the
globe. Both heat and cold hardiness zones are displayed
on maps that serve as a general guide to proper plant
selection based on this limiting factor. (Page 32 in your
textbook illustrates a hardiness zone map of North
America.) Specific site features, such as a south-facing
wall or the proximity to large bodies of water or to a large
city, can influence air temperatures on a smaller scale.
Although such features may not appear on the hardiness
zone maps, they can have an influence on the selection
of appropriate plants for a specific location.
The website for the U.S. Department of Agriculture includes an interactive hardiness zone map. To locate this map, type department
agriculture hardiness zone map into your browsers search box.
14
Visual descriptions of plants. In the final pages of

Chapter 2, youll examine the physical features (leaves,
twigs, and fruit) that aid in plant identification. The ability to correctly identify plants is a skill vital to landscape
Garden Ecology
professionals. To obtain this skill, you must acquire

a basic familiarity with the terms used in plant
identification.
While the vast amount of information presented in your textbook can be rather intimidating at first, over time these plant
features and the terms used to describe them will become
second nature to you. In the meantime, when an unfamiliar
term appears in the description of a plant, take the time to
look it up in the glossary or index of your book.
Now, take a moment to complete Self-Check 2 and the
Achievement Review on pages 4446 of the textbook to help
you review what youve just studied. Once you understand
the material, move on to Assignment 3.
Lesson 1
15
Self-Check 2
______
1. Linnaeus
a. A term used to describe a type of fruit
______
2. Herbaceous
b. A term used to describe a bud lacking bud scales
______
3. Perennial
______
4. Hardiness
______
5. Alternate
______
6. Chambered
______
7. Raceme
______
8. Pome
______
9. Lobed
______ 10. Naked
c. The father of taxonomy

d. A term used to describe the structure of a flower
e. A plant that doesnt die after flowering; a plant that can
survive the cold in a dormant state
f.
A term used to describe the margin of a leaf blade
g. A term used to describe the arrangement of leaves along

a plant stem or twig
h. The term used to describe a plant lacking a hard bark covering
on its stems
i.
A term used to describe the pith or inside of a stem or twig
j. The term used to describe a plants tolerances based on temperature extremes
16
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 3: THE SOIL

What Is Soil?
To most people, soil, or dirt, is a nuisance that gets tracked
into the house. To a farmer or horticulturist, however, soil is
the life-giving medium that anchors and nourishes the plants
that are the lifeblood of their professions.
If you want to become a successful landscape professional,
you must have an understanding of the complexities of soil
and its influence on the health of plants. In this assignment,
youll be introduced to physical components that make up
soils and how soils differ. Youll also study the chemical elements essential to plant growth and the processes through
which these elements become available for use by plants.
The primary components of soil include mineral particles
(weathered rock in the form of gravel, sand, silt, and clay),
organic matter, air, and water. Generally, the ratio of these
elements is as follows:
Mineral particles form the bulk of most soils at roughly

45%.
Organic matter contributes only 5%. Of this 5%, approximately 80% is in the form of humus, with the remaining
20% equally split between roots and living organisms.
Air and water account for approximately 25% each.
Soil Separates and Soil Texture

The size and proportion of the mineral particles in soil determine the classification of that soil. These particles are called
soil separates. Since most soils contain a percentage of sand,
silt, and clay, these three separates are used to determine the
classification of soil.
Lesson 1
17
Page 52 in your textbook illustrates the soil texture triangle

developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This triangle
is used to classify the texture class of a soil. If you know the
percentage of two of the three separates (sand, silt, and clay),
you can determine the classification of the texture of a soil.
Heres how it works: The sides of the soil texture triangle are
scaled for the percentages of sand, silt, and clay. Clay percentages are read from left to right across the triangle. Silt is
read from the upper right to lower left. And sand is read from
lower right toward the upper left portion of the triangle. The
boundaries of the different soil texture classes are highlighted
in bold dashed lines.
The intersection of the three particle sizes on the triangle
gives the texture class. For instance, suppose you have a soil
with 20% clay, 60% silt, and 20% sand. Heres how to use
the triangle to determine the soil texture.
1. Find 20 along the side for clay, and draw a line from left
to right from the 20.
2. Find 60 along the line for silt, and draw a line from the
60 down and to the left.
3. Find 20 along the line for sand, and draw a line from the
20 up and to the left.
4. Identify the section in which these three lines intersect.
In this case the soil is silty loam.
Note: In this example, we used the percentages for all three
separates. However, if you know only two of the three, you
can still use the triangle. The intersection of the two lines will
give you the type of soil.
Soil Structure and Organic Material

As youve just learned, the main mineral components of soil
are sand, silt, and clay particles. You also learned that
different types of soil contain different amounts of these
components. In addition, the arrangement of soil particles,
called soil structure, influences the makeup of soil. According
to the website for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, soil
structure is the combination or arrangement of primary soil
18
Garden Ecology
particles into aggregates [larger particles of soil]. . . Soil

structure affects water and air movement through soil,
greatly influencing soils ability to sustain life and perform
other vital soil functions.
In a nutshell, soil structure, or the arrangement of soil particles, influences the soils ability to support plant life.
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity

There are 17 elements essential for plant growth, including
carbon, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper,
and others. Of these 17 elements, soil provides all but three
of them. Only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are obtained by
most plants from sources other than the soil. These elements
determine the pH number, which indicates the acidity, alkalinity, or neutrality of soil. The pH number of a soil affects
the capacity of that particular soil to make essential elements
available for absorption by plant roots. Just as air temperature extremes can be a limiting factor in making plant
selections, so too can the pH of a soil. That is, certain plants
require a specific pH for optimal growth and even survival.
While its possible to modify the pH of a soil through organic
and/or chemical means, its usually best to select plants
according to existing soil conditions.
Pedology, the study of soils, is a science as complex as
botany, the study of plants, or zoology, the study of animals.
You would need years of study to become an expert in the
field. The purpose of this assignment is to introduce you to
properties of soil and the importance soils play in the health
of plantsnot to make you an expert. Future assignments in
this study guide expand on the knowledge gained here, allowing you the ability to appreciate the vital role soils play in a
healthy landscape.
the material, move on to Assignment 4.
Lesson 1
19
Self-Check 3
______
1. pH
______
2. Pedology
______
3. Humus
______
4. Clay
______
5. Soil structure
______
6. Cation exchange
______
7. Alluvial soil
______
8. Air
______
9. Acidic soil
a. A chemical reaction necessary for preventing essential

nutrients from being leached from the soil
b. The soil separate with the smallest particles
c. The relationship between hydrogen and hydroxyl ions that
indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a soil
d. The study of soils
e. A measure of soil pH thats less than 7
f.
An organic colloidal component of soil resulting from the

enzymatic breakdown of plant tissue
g. The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates
______ 10. Alkaline soil
h. A type of transported soil resulting from the movement of

water
i.
A measure of soil pH thats greater than 7
j. An element that can make up 25% of the volume of soil
20
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 4: PLANT GROWTH

REGULATORS
Textbook Note
On page 71 of your textbook in the second full paragraph, the word
kinetic (line 3) should be kinetin.
Growth Regulators Defined

Just like you, plants produce chemical compounds that affect
their growth. In both plants and humans, these naturally
occurring chemical compounds are called hormones.
Hormones specifically related to plants are sometimes
referred to as phytohormones. Plant hormones control normal
plant functions such as root growth, stem elongation, and
other developmental processes. Plant hormones also determine the formation of flowers and leaves, the timing of leaf
senescence (the falling of leaves), the development and ripening of fruit, and even the ultimate death of a plant. Unlike
animals that have specialized glands that produce hormones
and a circulatory system that transports them, every plant
cell is capable of producing hormones that may exert their
effect in a completely different part of the plant. Just as in
the animal kingdom, hormones are vital to plant growth.
Without them, plants would most likely appear and function
in ways other than what were accustomed to.
Types of Growth Regulators

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) may occur naturally. Some
examples are auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins (see
pages 6771). Other PGRs may be man-made. These compounds mimic the functions and processes of naturally
occurring plant hormones. Theyre used in agriculture and
ornamental horticulture to achieve various growth characteristics in plants and to enhance the desirable traits in food
crops and those same traits in ornamental plants.
Lesson 1
21
The table below illustrates some of the more commonly used

PGRs, along with their functions and practical uses.
PGR
Function
Practical Uses
Auxins
Promote or inhibit growth
Stimulate root growth on plant cuttings; encourage flower formation
Gibberellins
Stimulate cell division and

enlargement
Increase stalk length; enhance seed

germination and fruiting
Cytokinins
Stimulate cell division and

shoot formation
Prolong storage life of flowers and

vegetables; stimulate bud initiation
Ethylene
Influences leaf abscission

and ripening of fruit
Induces uniform ripening in fruits

and vegetables
Abscisic acid
Inhibits growth
Prevents greenhouse plants from

becoming too tall or leggy; can
promote early fruit and leaf drop
The use of plant growth regulators is less common among

landscapers than among those who grow agricultural and
ornamental crops. Nevertheless, if youre going to be working
in the landscaping field, you should have an awareness of the
effects that PGRs have on plant growth. You should also be
familiar with their potential uses and associated benefits. All
of these are valuable tools professional landscapers may use
in managing landscapes under their care. Here are two good
examples how this knowledge can be helpful:
1. Knowledge of a plants normal response to maintenance
practices such as trimming and pruning will allow you to
propose solutions to plant maintenance problems with
known results rather than by trial and error.
2. Plant growth retardants have been developed for use on
turfgrasses in an attempt to slow their rate of growth.
Applying these retardants properly to plants can give a
return in investment many times over in reduced labor
hours, fuel costs, and dumping/recycling fees.
Achievement Review on page 76 of the textbook to help you
review what youve just studied. Once you understand the
material, move on to Assignment 5.
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Garden Ecology
Self-Check 4
______
1. Auxins
______
2. Geotropism
______
3. Gibberellins
______
4. Cytokinins
______
5. Ethylene
______
6. Parthenocarpic
______
7. Rosetted
______
8. Hormones
______
9. Growth retardants
______ 10. Abscisic acid
a. Growth habit of plants with good leaf formation but

retarded intermodal growth
b. A term used to describe fruits without seeds
c. A naturally occurring growth inhibitor that counters the
effects of gibberellins
d. Plant hormones that both promote and inhibit plant
growth
e. Naturally occurring compounds that influence plant growth
and development
f.
A term used to describe the response of auxin to gravity

and the resulting growth reaction in plants
g. A group of plant hormones that promote cell enlargement

and increases in plant height
h. Naturally occurring hormones that promote the division of
plant cells
i.
A type of plant growth regulator that promotes the ripening of fruit
j. Generic term used to describe growth regulators used in

the landscape trade to slow the growth of turfgrasses
Lesson 1
23
ASSIGNMENT 5: PLANT
REPRODUCTION
The study of plant reproduction and plant breeding may

seem more appropriate to students pursuing a degree in
botany or greenhouse production. However, a basic understanding of the ways in which plants are produced for sale
to the landscape industry will enable you to make informed
choices when purchasing plants for your next landscape
project. After reading the material in your textbook, you may
decide to grow and propagate some plants yourself rather
than purchase them from a greenhouse or nursery. Many of
the plant reproduction techniques presented in the textbook
can be easily achieved with limited investment in tools and
materials. Many landscape professionals have incorporated
this aspect of ornamental horticulture into their business
plans, finding it to be both profitable and fun.
Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Plants reproduce through either sexual or asexual
reproduction. Sexual reproduction relies on the formation
and pollination of flowers, followed by the development and
germination of seeds. When plants pollinate themselves, the
resulting plants are almost identical to the parents. When
plants pollinate with other plants, the resulting plants are
similar to but different than both parents because two sets
of chromosomes are combined to form one plant.
Asexual reproduction occurs through many different means
that bypass the lengthy flower-seed germination process.
Instead, this process of reproduction uses the vegetative
parts of a plant to produce an entirely new plant. Examples
of such vegetative parts are runners, stolons, sucker shoots,
bulbs, stems, and even leaves. These parts are described on
pages 8184. The plant that results from asexual reproduction is almost identical to its parent because theres no
combining of chromosomes from different plants.
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Garden Ecology
Asexual reproduction allows plant breeders to make exact

duplicates of plants. While asexual reproduction provides
more reliable results, theres concern that without the crosspollination and mixing of chromosomes of sexual reproduction,
plants are unable to adapt or evolve in response to changes
in their environment.
The propagation of plants for use in the landscape trade is
generally carried out by those in the greenhouse and nursery
industry; however, the ease with which some plants can be
propagated makes it feasibleand profitablefor landscape
contractors as well. For example, because dividing a plant
crown is perhaps the easiest method of plant propagation,
landscape contractors would be wise to perform this job
themselves. Many shrubs and most herbaceous perennials,
such as the ever-present daylily or hosta, are easily divided
into two or more new plants by simply digging up the parent
plant and slicing it into smaller sections with a sharp shovel
or knife. These new divisions can then be planted back into
the garden or potted for use on another job.
Caution
Many plants developed by plant breeders are patented. Because they
carry trademark protections, its illegal to propagate and sell these
plants without first paying a royalty fee to the breeder.
At first read, some of the material in Chapter 5 of your textbook may seem a bit overwhelming and difficult to follow. Try
not to get too hung up on the details. Instead, concentrate on
the overall concepts presented, rereading pages that cover the
more complex concepts of plant reproduction as needed.
the material, move on to the examination for Lesson 1.
Lesson 1
25
Self-Check 5
Match each term in the left column below with its definition in the right
column.
a. The deliberate controlling and manipulation of plant
reproduction
______
1. Asexual reproduction
______
2. Layering
______
3. Propagation
______
4. Clone
______
5. Stratification
______
6. Runner
e. A stem that grows along the ground surface forming new

plants at the nodes
______
7. Bulb
f.
______
8. Grafting
______
9. Cuttings
______ 10. Gregor Mendel
b. A propagation method in which two plants are joined and

eventually become one plant
c. Pieces of plants removed for the purpose of propagation
d. A modified stem or root tissue that stores food during
dormant periods
A process in which new plants are produced without the

formation of seeds
g. An Augustinian monk who utilized the common garden

pea to study plant genetics
h. An exact duplicate of the parent plant achieved through
asexual means
i.
A means of plant reproduction in which roots form on a

stem still attached to the parent plant
j. The exposure of seeds to low temperatures necessary for

seed germination
26
Garden Ecology
Garden Ecology
Assignment 6 provides a review and deeper explanation of

basic concepts and terms used in describing plants and the
way in which they function. Assignment 7 introduces you to
the many other living organisms besides plants and the roles
they play in a healthy ecosystem. Assignment 8 examines
the environmental factors, including the nonliving mineral
substances, that influence plants. Assignment 9 covers the
interactions of plants with natural forces and mineral
substances. Assignment 10 discusses the influences of competition and mutualism in the garden environment. And
finally, Assignment 11 focuses on the role human beings
play in the stewardship and management of the garden
environment.
OBJECTIVES
Use the proper scientific terms to describe the basic

parts and structure of a green plant
Describe the life cycle and various stages of growth and

development of a green plant
List and categorize the living organisms other than

plants that may inhabit the garden environment
Lesson 2
In Lesson 1, you learned the fundamentals of plant and soil

science. In this lesson, youll build upon what youve learned
about plants and soils by reviewing basic concepts and materials and by studying the complex interactions that occur
between plants, soils, and their surrounding environment.
This holistic approach to the study of plants, soils, and other
living organisms in the environment is the branch of science
known as ecology. While ecology can be studied at many levels, the focus of this lesson is on the ecology of smaller-scale
landscapes and gardens. It also considers the influences and
roles played by human beings in the workings of these environments. All of the assigned readings for this lesson are in
the textbook Ecology for Gardeners.
27
Discuss the effects that other living organisms can have

on plant growth
Outline the environmental factors that influence plant

growth and soil formation
Summarize the primary energy inputs in the garden

environment
Describe the material cycles and their importance in the

garden environment
Characterize the interactions of plants with the natural

forces of heat, light, and gravity, along with other forces
that influence plant growth and development
Discuss the interactions of plants with mineral

substances
Describe the concept of plant communities and their

variation in space and time
Explain the concept of biodiversity
Summarize the interactions among garden organisms,

including competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism,
and mutualism
Provide an overview of the concepts of stewardship and

holistic management of the garden environment
ASSIGNMENT 6: THE
NATURE OF PLANTS
in your textbook, Ecology for Gardeners.
The love of plants often draws people to the landscape

professionand for good reason. Plants are fascinating in
their ability to transform the energy of the sun into food that
sustains all higher life-forms, including humans. Plants also
provide the raw materials people use to build shelters, produce medicines, and make the fibers used in the manufacture
of clothing and paper products of all sorts. The energy that
powers todays world economy ultimately finds its source in
28
Garden Ecology
the plants that covered the globe millions and millions of

years ago. For all that plants provide, landscape professionals
generally consider them as the foremost building blocks from
which attractive gardens and landscapes are made.
Just as a pre-med student must learn about the human
anatomy before working with patients, a landscape professional must also become familiar with the nature of plants
prior to successfully using them in a landscape. Make that
your goal as you study Chapter 1.
As you read the material in Chapter 1, you may begin to
wonder why you need to learn so much about plant parts
and about the way in which plants grow, develop, and reproduce. The answer is simple: Many of the books youll be
using as a landscape professional use this information to
describe and identify plants. If youre unfamiliar with these
terms, youll find it difficult to identify and choose plants for
a landscape project.
Much of the material youll study in this assignment was
introduced in Lesson 1. Let this assignment serve as a both a
review and further study of plants from another perspective
information that will reinforce your understanding and
appreciation of the subject matter.
Now, take a moment to complete Self-Check 6 to help you
Lesson 2
29
Self-Check 6
______
1. Nodes
a. The first of the two-part Latin name given to each plant
______
2. Conifers
b. Horizontal stems below the soil surface that produce roots and
new shoots
______
3. Stomates
c. Points along the stem at which leaves and branches arise
______
4. Rhizome
d. Plants that generally have needle-shaped leaves or flat, narrow

leaves that remain on the plants for several years
______
5. Root hairs
______
6. Mycorrhizae
______
7. Cotyledons
______
8. Genus
______
9. Meristems
______ 10. Species
e. The second of the two-part Latin name given to each plant

f.
Plant tissue where new cells form from the division of existing
cells leading to plant growth
g. Pores on the surface of a leaf that allow water vapor to escape

during the process of transpiration
h. The points along a plants root where the great majority of water
is absorbed
i.
The parts of plants that provide a source of energy to newly

emerging seedlings prior to the formation of true leaves
j. Associations between plant roots and soil-borne fungi in which

each usually benefits from the other
30
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 7: OTHER
GARDEN INHABITANTS
Read the following material. Then read Chapter 2 (pages 4790)
in your textbook, Ecology for Gardeners.
Imagine that youre standing in the middle of a very large,

empty parking lot or in a barren desert on a hot summer day.
What do you see? What do you hear? Chances are you dont
see or hear much in the way of any life-form. Now put yourself in the middle of a prairie on that same hot summer day,
and what do you see and hear? More than likely, youll hear
the buzzing sound of bees and wasps as they hover around
the multitude of prairie flowers and grasses. Youll see grasshoppers jumping from the tall grasses, hawks soaring on the
warm breezes above, and if youre lucky, a small herd of buffalo rumbling by. Now wander inside the cool shade of the
wooded ravine at the edge of the prairie and notice the salamanders and frogs in a shallow pool of water, a snake
winding its way through the bulrushes, and a spider making
a meal of the unlucky fly trapped in its web. Take a break on
the trunk of a fallen tree and notice the roaming army of ants
and the centipedes that scatter when you lift a piece of rotting
bark. Pick up a stick and brush aside the layer of decaying
leaves and twigs and take notice of the red worms and
ground beetles going about their business. Pick up a handful
of soil and take a closer look with your pocket lens and
observe the array of microfauna that go unnoticed to the
naked eye.
Now what does all that mean? Simply this: A landscape
devoid of plants is most likely going to be deficient in other
life-forms as well. On the other hand, a landscape with
plants will most likely be occupied by a diversity of animal
life. Some of these life-forms may be considered a nuisance
as in the case of a hungry deer that nibbles the succulent
growth of your hosta to the ground or a rabbit that lops the
flowers off your tulips just as theyre about to bloom.
However, others, such as the worms that aerate and enrich
the soil with their castings and the bees and wasps that pollinate flowers, are essential to the functioning of a garden
ecosystem. For a landscape professional, an understanding
Lesson 2
31
and appreciation of the complex relationships between

plant and animal life in the garden environment are vital to
the care and stewardship of man-made landscapes.
In this assignment, youll be introduced to the nonplant
garden inhabitants that play vital roles in the functioning of
healthy garden ecosystems. Some, like hungry rabbits, are
readily recognizable and easily identified as either helpers or
nuisances to gardeners. However, others, like nematodes and
bacteria, may not be recognized so easily. An untrained eye
may jump to the conclusion that many of these less familiar
organisms are only something to be reckoned with and
immediately reach for the can of bug spray. In fact, these
organisms may be doing landscape plants a favor. Learning
to first identify and then separate the good guys from the bad
is the first step in maintaining healthy ecosystems while doing
as little harm as possible.
In reading through your textbook, try not to be intimidated
by the sheer number of hard-to-pronounce scientific names
of individual organisms. Instead focus on the big picture to
gain an appreciation of the diversity of life-forms in the garden and how each contributes to a balanced and healthy
ecosystem.
32
Garden Ecology
Self-Check 7
______
1. Animals
a. Organisms that consume decomposed organic material
______
2. Herbivores
b. The larval stage of moths and butterflies
______
3. Metamorphosis
c. Organisms that are unable to photosynthesize and are composed

of more than one cell
______
4. Caterpillars
______
5. Omnivores
______
6. True bugs
______
7. Hymenoptera
g. Organisms that eat plants or plant parts
______
8. Detritivores
h. Organisms called the saints of the garden
______
9. Insects
i.
______ 10. Earthworms
d. Organisms with three distinct body segments, including a head,

a thorax, and a posterior abdomen
e. Organisms that eat both plants and animals
f.
A term used to describe the multiphase life cycle of insects
Generally the most beneficial of all insect groups, which includes

ants, bees, and wasps
j. Relatively soft-bodied insects that have piercing-sucking

mouthparts and undergo incomplete metamorphosis
Lesson 2
33
ASSIGNMENT 8: THE
GARDEN ENVIRONMENT
Read the following material. Then read Chapter 3 (pages 91
122) in your textbook, Ecology for Gardeners.
Up until this point, the focus of Lesson 2 has been on the

living constituents of plants and animals in the garden environment. While plants and the animals that feed on these
plants are of great concern to landscape professionals, the
physical elements of sunlight, air, water, and soilalong with
their influences on the health of gardens and landscapes
deserve equal consideration in the study of designing and
caring for these unique environments.
Sunlight
As youve already learned, sunlight is the ultimate source of
all energybe it the gasoline that powers your rototiller, the
food you eat that keeps you going, or the direct rays of sunlight that make garden plants grow. How gardeners and
landscape professionals make use of this amazing source of
energy rests on their knowledge of the physical properties of
sunlight, how it changes from one geographic location to
another, and how it changes throughout the year.
Air
The air that surrounds people and plants in the environment
is influenced by the energy of the sun. It, too, is an important
factor in the health of both plants and animals. While its
impossible to actually see the individual components that
comprise the atmosphere, a basic understanding of its chemical makeup and the way in which it influences everything
from plant vigor to the health of soils will enable you to better
care for plants in the landscapes youre responsible for. To
better appreciate the influence air has on plants, consider the
wilting effects on a newly planted tree from a hot, dry, summer breeze or the sinking of cold air from high ground that
settles over a low spot in the landscape, resulting in an early
autumn frost and an abrupt end to the life of your coveted
tomato plants.
34
Garden Ecology
Natural Waters
A sufficient supply of water is often the difference between a
healthy plant and a dead one. The lack of waterif all other
needs of the plant are being metcan be the limiting factor
to a plants success. The most obvious effects that wateror
the lack of itcan have on an ecosystem can be seen in
places like the desert in the southwestern United States,
where this lack of water has a profound effect on the quantity, size, and types of plants and animals that are able to
survive in the arid environment. As detrimental as the lack of
water may be to the survival of plants and animals, an overabundance of water can have equally unfavorable effects on
plant health. Saturated soils can become anaerobic and toxic
to plants. Water also affects the movement of soil nutrients
in a process known as leaching that over time can remove
essential soil nutrients. Such soil becomes unsuitable to
many plants unless chemical fertilizers are added to it.
The term anaerobic

means without
oxygen.
An understanding of the physical properties of water and its

effects on plant and soil health is yet another vital component in the successful handling of garden environments.
Soil
Often seen as nothing more than the medium by which
plants anchor themselves to the earth while absorbing the
nutrients and water essential to their survival, soil is a precious resource that through ignorance and neglect is being
depleted at alarming rates. In many instances, soils that have
taken hundreds and even thousands of years to form are
simply stripped away during the land development process,
rendering the site inhospitable to the sustainable growth of
plants. In such instances, common practice is to spread a
thin layer of topsoil over the disturbed ground after buildings
and roads have been constructed. However, the soil that
results is far from that which was there before the development process began. If plants are to prosper and thrive in
such soil, some degree of remediation of the soils is required.
To carry out the vital process of rebuilding a healthy soil,
landscape professionals must possess knowledge of the components and processes that form healthy soils. Armed with
this knowledge, along with an understanding of the many
Lesson 2
35
nutrient cycles that are critical to maintaining soil health,

landscape professionals avoid the costly mistake of taking
the soil for granted.
Self-Check 8
______
1. Loam
______
2. Sunlight
______
3. Humus
______
4. Anaerobic
______
5. Nitrogen
______
6. Transpiration
______
7. Limiting factor
______
8. Material cycle
______
9. Oxygen
______ 10. Clay
a. The gas that comprises 7880 percent of the air in the lower
atmosphere
b. A process that results in the greatest loss of soil water through
the leaves and stems of plants
c. A series of transformations in which a substance begins and
ends in the same form
d. An energy source that drives evaporation, wind currents, and
the process of photosynthesis
e. A soil-borne substance composed of very large organic molecules derived from the remains of dead plants, animals, and
microbes
f.
A soil with a more-or-less balanced blend of sand, silt, and clay

particles
g. The gas that comprises 1820 percent of the air in the lower
atmosphere
h. A type of soil thats prone to shrinking, swelling, and compaction
i.
A critical resource or factor whose deficiency or excess limits the

growth of a plant
j. A condition in which free oxygen is scarce or absent such as in

stagnant water or compacted soils
36
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 9: PLANTS
IN THE ENVIRONMENT
To survive in the environment, plants must be fighters, or

they at least must be able to adapt to the whims of nature.
Unlike animals, plants lack the ability to move about in
search of food, water, warmth, or even a mate. To make up
for this lack of mobility, plants have many clever ways in
which to adapt to surrounding environmental conditions.
The ability of plants to adapt in response to natural forces
such as heat and light, or to the physical and mineral properties of different soil types has resulted in an astounding
diversity of plant life here on Earth, each precisely suited to
the unique environment in which it grows.
Interactions of Plants
with Natural Forces
Heat
When selecting plants for a garden, landscape professionals
give their greatest consideration to two criteria: plant hardiness and sunlight requirements. As youve already learned,
plant hardiness refers to the ability of a particular plant to
survive a minimum cold temperature. This factor is a very
important consideration in the selection of appropriate plants
for a garden. In addition, duration and variation in air temperature play equally significant roles in the life cycle and
survival of many plant species in temperate climates.
Light
The second consideration is sunlightin particular, how
much sunlight a particular plant needs to flower, set fruit,
and thrive in a landscape. To expect a plant that has existed
for years in the moist, shaded rainforest environment of the
Pacific Northwest to suddenly adapt to the blazing sun of an
Lesson 2
37
arid and treeless backyard in Texas is a lot to ask. And conversely, the sun-loving prairie blazing star that blooms so
profusely in the open prairie wont flower the way you had
hoped when planted in your customers shaded backyard.
Interactions of Plants
with Mineral Substances
After temperature and sunlight requirements, soils and their
mineral makeup, along with moisture levels, are probably the
next most significant limiting factors in the survival of plants.
Minerals
The creation of soil, which occurs over a long span of time, is
directly influenced by the underlying parent material of rock
and other mineral formations. The plants that grow in association with these varied soil types are specially adapted to
them. Therefore, theyll perform poorly when suddenly placed
in soils of a different composition.
Consider this example: People have tried to plant an acidloving rhododendron in a limestone-based, alkaline soil.
These attempts generally result in failure. While soils can be
modified and made more hospitable to certain plants through
the addition of various minerals and nutrients, this task can
be quite expensive on a large scale and can easily be avoided
by selecting plants suited to the soils youre working with.
Water
In nature, water is often the most critical limiting factor in
plant survival. With the aid of aqueducts and irrigation
ditches in pre-modern times and the garden hose and extensive underground irrigation systems of today, people have
found a way around the limiting factor that a lack of water
can present. The problem, however, is that this artificial
means of sustaining plants has tremendous environmental
costs. Therefore, planting indigenous species in favor of
exotic species that may not be adapted to local conditions
should be strongly considered.
38
Garden Ecology
Although the lack of water is a definite limiting factor, too

much of it can be equally limiting to plants ability to thrive
in the landscape, as many a drowned Japanese yew can
attest.
While some of the effects on plants from too much or too little water can be quite obvious, others such as the leaching of
nutrients from the soil go unnoticed but can have significant
consequences on soil fertility and plant health. Chapter 4 in
your textbook goes into more detail on the effects of water
and other soil nutrients essential to plant health and their
influences on evolution of plant communities.
Lesson 2
39
Self-Check 9
______
1. Vernalization
______
2. Sexual
reproduction
a. The growth condition involving excessive stem elongation and

pale color, usually due to inadequate light levels
b. The practice that compensates for root loss in perennials during
transplanting
______
3. Respiration
______
4. Etiolation
______
5. Water
______
6. Hardening off
e. A nutrient important to the proper growth of root systems and

their ability to take up nutrients from the soil
______
7. Pruning
f.
______
8. Nitrogen
______
9. Potassium
______ 10. Sodium
c. A chemically inert substance that must be converted before it

can be used by plants
d. The plant process thats especially sensitive to excessively high
temperatures
In low-light situations, the process that exceeds the rate of photosynthesis and leads to exhaustion of a plants energy reserve
g. The process in which flowering is induced by exposure to a minimum period of cold

h. A substance thats highly toxic to plants and devastating to soil
structure; the sixth most abundant element in Earths crust
i.
The most critical nutrient for plants and the main source of
hydrogen required for photosynthesis
j. The process of preparing indoor-grown plants for harsher, outside growing conditions
40
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 10: INTERACTIONS

AMONG GARDEN ORGANISMS
The study of plants, animals, and the nonliving components

of the garden environment is a logical first step in understanding the ecology of gardens. The next important step is to
consider the ways in which these living organisms interact
with each other and their surrounding environment. A simple
way to consider these interactions is to determine whether
the effects they have on one another are positive or negative.
For example, a caterpillar that feeds on the leaves of a young
tree is fat and happy, while the tree has been stripped of all
of its leaves1 for the caterpillar, 0 for the tree. Then, in flies
a bird that eats the plump caterpillar1 for the bird, 0 for
the caterpillar. Its not always clear who are the winners and
losers as new players continually join the game. What should
be clear, however, is that something seen as negative at one
point may later be perceived as positive. As a landscape professional, you should approach your study of gardens and
landscapes from a holistic and ecological point of view. Such
a view is much more challenging and interesting than the
shortsighted approach that sidesteps the wisdom of nature
in favor of the quick fix at the end of a spray nozzle.
Competition
Competition among organisms can be classified as either
intraspecific, in which individuals of the same species compete against each other, or interspecific, in which organisms
of differing species compete for the limited resources in the
environment. Plants have developed an amazing array of
mechanisms that allow them to compete with other plants in
their quest for the limited resources in the environment. One
example of such a mechanism is very familiar to gardeners
who have tried to plant a garden in the vicinity of a black
walnut tree. This particular species of tree has the ability to
produce the chemical compound juglone, which is toxic to the
other plants around it. Other tactics such as early or rapid
Lesson 2
41
growth, the ability to survive in a wide range of growing

conditions, and the ability to produce and disperse prolific
amounts of long-lived seeds over great distances are examples of a plants competitive abilities.
Plants arent always in direct competition with each other,
however. At times, plants cooperate by occupying different
niches in the environment. For example, in forest environments, the shade-loving groundcover plants thrive in the
shadow cast by overhead canopy trees.
Herbivory
Perhaps more menacing to plants than the competition
among plant species is the threat of herbivory, in which all
or part of a plant is consumed by other organismsincluding
people. Herbivory comes in many forms:
The chewing of leaves by hungry caterpillars
The draining of a plants vital fluids by thirsty aphids
The consumption of fruits and seeds by birds and

mammals
In response, plants have developed both physical and chemical methods to deter predators. For example, some plants
have stiff bristles on the surface of their leaves and stems,
and others produce bitter-tasting tannins. While a certain
level of herbivory is basic to the normal functioning of the
food web, populations of certain organisms may occasionally
become a detriment to the garden environment and peoples
desire for some level of control over nature.
As a landscape professional, you should have the ability to
maintain a certain level of control in the garden. This ability
begins with a basic understanding of the various methods by
which plants are preyed upon by other organisms and the
methods of identifying the culprits. Specific actions you can
take to control the spread of unwanted plant pests are covered in forthcoming assignments.
42
Garden Ecology
Other Interactions
Chapter 5 also covers the topics of predation, parasitism, and
the win-win interactions among garden organisms known as
mutualism. A mutualism familiar to many gardeners is that
which occurs between the Rhizobium bacteria and plants in
the legume family, such as peas and beans. In this instance,
the bacteria that live on the roots of a pea plant make it possible for the plant to absorb atmospheric nitrogen. In return, the
bacteria are allowed to absorb nutrients from the pea planta
win-win situation for both the bacteria and the pea plant.
An appreciation of these and the many other complex interactions that naturally occur among garden organisms will
enable you to work in harmony with, rather than against, the
natural rhythms of the garden ecosystem.
Lesson 2
43
Self-Check 10
______
1. Alleopathy
______
2. Seed bank
______
3. Herbivory
______
4. Gall
______
5. Physical defense
______
6. Tannin
______
7. Mimicry
______
8. Parasitism
______
9. Mutualism
______ 10. Mycorrhizae
a. A situation in which all or part of a plants tissues or fluids are

consumed by another organism
b. A tumor-like growth on leaves or stems that provides shelter
and food to invading organisms
c. A form of competition among plants in which one plant releases
a chemical thats harmful to other plants
d. Spines, bristles, and thorns, which serve to protect plants from
herbivores
e. A defense tactic whereby a plant produces plant parts that
resemble other plants in an attempt to confuse or deceive
predators
f.
A long-term association between two or more species in which

all participants benefit
g. Fungi that live in close association with plant roots, helping them
extract nutrients from the soil
h. A buildup of seeds in the soil in excess of what was produced in
the preceding year
i.
A chemical defense common in tea leaves and acorns
j. An interaction in which one individual removes nutrients, fluids,

or tissues from another over an extended period of time
44
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 11: GARDENING

AS APPLIED ECOLOGY
Putting the Environment First

As a landscape professional, you should always work in such
a way that does as little harm as possible to the natural
landscape. In fact, you should attempt to restore any damage
that may have inadvertently been caused by others.
All kinds of people work in the landscape. Some are simply
backyard gardeners with small vegetable plots; others are
landscape designers who are creating plans for entire yards.
No matter the person, however, the goal should be the same:
to follow the example set by nature and garden or landscape
just as nature does. To illustrate this point, consider the
statement made by architect and author William McDonough
in his book Cradle to Cradle: In nature, the word waste does
not exist. If thats true, then why do so many people rake
the leaves from their yards each fall and send them to the
landfill or compost center instead of composting them in their
own yards where they can nourish the soil the way it happens
in any healthy forest ecosystem? Granted, it isnt always possible or practical to fully mimic nature in some places and
under certain circumstances, but adherence to this philosophy as the guiding principle in every decision related to
landscapes can result in gardens and landscapes more in
tune with nature and a landscape industry thats a better
steward of the environment.
Most people dont intentionally do things they know are
going to be harmful to the environment. However, many,
through ignorance of the complex interactions that occur in
healthy ecosystems, do so in their attempt to improve the
environment around them. They may plant a tree ill-suited to
existing site conditions that leads to the spraying of harmful
chemicals, or they may attempt to maintain a lush bluegrass
lawn in an arid climate by applying copious amounts of water
Lesson 2
45
and fertilizer. Such decisions result in losing battles that

consume precious resources and work against the laws of
nature.
In your work with landscapes, dont always look for the quick
and easy fix of synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers.
In the long run, such solutions often create more problems
than they solve and at unnecessary environmental costs.
Instead, heres a good approach to take with the landscape
environment:
Make concern for the environment a top priority.
Be willing to be patient with low-tech, proven methods.
Stewardship
As you study Chapter 6, youll notice that a key term in that
chapter is stewardship. This term is used in relationship to
soil (pages 240241), water (pages 241242), and the atmosphere (page 243).
Soil is a precious, life-supporting resource. To be a good
steward of soil, you can
Help to keep it aerated by maintaining a high level of

organic matter in the soil
Control erosion
Take measures to avoid compacted soil
To be a good steward of water, you can

Xeriscaping is the
process of gardening in
such a way to eliminate
the need for supplemental water from
irrigation.
Follow the principles of xeriscaping by using droughttolerant plant species in arid climates
Apply a protective covering of mulch to reduce the

amount of water lost through evaporation
To be a good steward of the atmosphere, you should give

careful consideration to the placement of trees in the landscape. Proper tree placement can result in lower ambient air
temperatures as well as lower amounts of energy required to
cool a house on a hot summer day.
46
Garden Ecology
These simple, low-cost strategies that eliminate the need for

more costly solutions down the line are all part of being a
good steward of the environment and should be standard
procedure rather than the exception to the rule. Other suggestions are presented on pages 240243.
Managing Garden Organisms

Gardens have enemies. Its just a fact of life. These enemies
may be other plants, animals, or insects. Possibly the best
advice for dealing with these enemies is that mentioned on
page 244 of your textbook: From an ecological perspective,
however, it may not be desirable, even if feasible, to utterly
eliminate garden pests. Instead, we should try to manage
both pests and their often more numerous desirable garden
neighbors for the greater welfare of the garden and the environment as a whole. Pages 243264 present a variety of
environmentally safe ways to deal with these enemies.
Finally, the last few pages of Chapter 6 cover the ways in
which you can effectively manage plant nutrients, soil
amendments, and energy in a gardenthree important elements you must consider as a landscape professional.
material, move on to your exam for Lesson 2.
Lesson 2
47
Self-Check 11
______
1. Terracing
a. One ecologically sound way to prevent the growth of weeds
______
2. Hardpan
b. A plant species that herbivorous insects prefer over other

plants in a garden
______
3. Landscape fabrics
______
4. Trap crop
______
5. Fallowing
______
6. Crop rotation
______
7. Companion plant
______
8. Systemic
______
9. Green manure
______ 10. Hilltops
c. One method to reduce soil erosion on steep slopes

d. A technique of starving herbivorous insects by leaving a plot
of ground bare for a period of time
e. A plant that either repels harmful organisms or attracts
beneficial ones
f.
Another term for a cover crop in which plants are grown and
tilled into the soil for soil improvement
g. An area that tends to offer longer frost-free growing seasons

than does land in a valley setting
h. A situation that can be created when soils are repeatedly
tilled to the same depth or are walked on when wet
i.
A technique to lower herbivorous insect populations by

growing unrelated plants in succession on the same plot of
ground
j. A type of fungicide thats absorbed by a plant and cant be

washed off
48
Garden Ecology
Here are some of the topics youll be studying in Lesson 3:
Common causes of injuries sustained by plants in the

landscape as well as disease and pest problems that can
weaken and, in extreme cases, kill plants
Natures way of controlling pests
How an integrated approach to pest management

utilizing beneficial insects and other less toxic control
methods is better for you and the environment
The strategies and tactics used in an integrated pest

control system that can be implemented in an effort to
lessen the damage done by unwanted garden pests and
the misuse of toxic chemicals
Assignment 12 presents a broad overview of plant pests

and control methods used in maintaining healthy plants.
Assignment 13 is an introduction to natural pest controls
and the fine balance that exists in nature, in which living
organisms (including those considered pests) control their
own populations. In Assignment 14 youll revisit the subject
of integrated pest management (IPM), but in much greater
detail, and youll learn about the various treatment strategies
applied in IPM. In Assignment 15 youll be introduced to the
multitude of beneficial insects and other organisms that are
an integral part of a successful IPM program. Assignment 16
will teach you how to choose the right chemical or microbial
tools along with other useful inorganics, organics, and botanicals when beneficial organisms alone won't do the trick.
Finally, in Assignment 17 youll discover the new frontiers of
microbials, pheromones, and insect growth regulators being
utilized in IPM programs today.
Lesson 3
Fundamentals of Common
Sense Pest Management
49
OBJECTIVES
Discuss the major causes of injury to plants
List common symptoms of injured plants
Describe conventional methods used in controlling plant

pests
Describe an integrated approach to pest management

(IPM)
Describe natures role in pest management
Identify the treatment strategies and tactics utilized in

an IPM system
List the beneficial insects and other organisms utilized in

IPM
Discuss the conventional use of chemicals in controlling

pests and the ramifications to both environmental and
human health
Describe less-toxic alternatives to pest control
Discuss the use of microbials, pheromones, and insect

growth regulators in an IPM system
ASSIGNMENT 12: PLANT

INJURIES AND THEIR CONTROL
135) in your textbook, Ornamental Horticulture.
Assignment 12 presents a broad overview of all of the bad

things that can happen to plants in the landscape. Unlike
animals, plants are rooted in the ground. Therefore, they
cant move out of harms way when a severe windstorm
approaches, nor can they run and hide from an encroaching
infestation of gypsy moths. As a result, plants are constantly
defending themselves from potential threats to their lives and
at times suffering a certain level of injury. In extreme, the
50
Garden Ecology
plants die. Plants have been around for a long time and arent
completely defenseless, however. As you learned in Lesson 2,
many plants, over long periods of time, have developed some
clever defense mechanisms to combat the never-ending
onslaught that nature can bring.
However, plants cant always completely fend for themselves.
Therefore, to stay healthy and alive, they need the help of
others. An integral part of being a landscape professional is
acquiring the ability to identify and diagnose the reasons for
injury, poor health, and even the cause of death to plants.
Some in the landscape trade, such as grounds-maintenance
supervisors and tree- and lawn-care specialists, must be
experts in the diagnosis and treatment of plant pests.
However, anyone working with plants should have a basic
knowledge of this important subject mattera subject made
more difficult by a plants inability to answer the plant doctors questions.
The reasons for poor plant performance, poor health and
plant failure can be attributed to individual or multiple factors, including the following:
Physical injury such as that due to lightning strikes,

high winds, and heavy snow loads, which can result in
open wounds susceptible to disease
Physical damage caused by animals such as rodents that

strip the bark clean from the base of young trees, cutting
off the flow of water and nutrients
Damage from insects such as slugs that chew holes in

the succulent leaves of hosta or the sawfly larvae that
strip needles clean from pine trees
Disease caused by plant pathogens including bacteria,

fungi, and viruses, which may be spread in multiple
ways including insects, gardening tools, and the wind
Poor cultural practices such as improper pruning, planting a tree too deeply in its hole, and creating stress
caused by too much or too little water
Plant selections based solely on aesthetic reasoning,

ignoring the cultural needs of the plant; in other words,
choosing the wrong plant for the wrong spot
Lesson 3
51
Whatever the cause of injury or poor plant health, the

treatment or control measures you take as a landscape professional must be proportional to the severity of the problem.
For example, suppose an entire lawn is treated with toxic
chemicals just because dandelions have been spotted in isolated areas of the lawn. Not only is this approach bad for the
environment and the children and pets that love to play on
the lawn, but its also a waste of time and money. A different
approach to this situation is integrated pest management
(IPM). In IPM, prevention is the overriding principle in maintaining plant health. For example, a landscape professional
may choose to spray a small patch of weeds before they
become a bigger problem, or plant something better adapted
to the growing conditions of a particular site. In following an
integrated pest management approach, chemical treatment
should be considered only after all costs, both monetary and
environmental, are weighed against the perceived threats and
benefits of any treatment program.
In this assignment youve barely scratched the surface of the
integrated approach to pest management. In the remaining
assignments for this lesson youll be gaining a much deeper
knowledge and appreciation of the integrated approach to
pest management.
52
Garden Ecology
Self-Check 12
1. The pest management approach that balances the benefits of selected control measures
against costs to public health and the environment is known as _______.
2. The part of an insects body where the legs are attached is called the _______.
3. The reproductive organs of an insects body are located in the _______.
4. Flowing water, livestock, and vehicles are examples of agents of _______.
5. Spores of fungi, bacterial ooze, and virus particles are examples of _______.
6. A/an _______ is a plant with no economic value or one thats growing in a place where its
not desired.
7. The term used to describe the removal of bark at the base of a plant by chewing animals is
_______.
8. _______ is the principle used in controlling plant pests, which focuses on preventing the
establishment of a pest.
9. _______ is the term used to describe the yellowing of plant foliage as a result of low light
levels.
Lesson 3
53
ASSIGNMENT 13:
NATURAL PEST CONTROLS
Read the following material. Then read pages 1826 in The
Gardeners Guide to Common-Sense Pest Control.
Through millions of years of evolution and perfection, Mother

Nature has devised an intricate system of checks and balances
that keep disease and pest problems to tolerable levels. So
why do we ignore this delicate balance of pest control and
reach for a bottle of toxic spray every time we spot a bug or a
weed in the garden? For most of us its a matter of ignorance
and conditioning that over the years has taught us the quick
and easy route to pest management through the miracle of
chemistry in a bottle. However, as the ill effects of our
increased reliance on chemical toxins, both to the environment
and to our own bodies, become more apparent every day, the
motivation for the widespread and indiscriminate use of these
chemicals is increasingly coming under rigorous debate. To
turn the tide on the conventional, chemical-based mentality
heavily promoted by the pesticide industry, its time to rediscover the wisdom of Mother Nature and start practicing the
less-toxic approach to pest control that took so long to perfect.
In this assignment youll be introduced to the natural controls that maintain the delicate balance between pest and
predator in a healthy ecosystem. Youll see how climate and
weather over the long and short term have a profound effect
on pest populations from one year to the next. Influential as
well is the availability of food and water for both pest and
predator, which are also directly affected by climate and
weather. Without food or water no organism can survive, so
by limiting or even eliminating one or both you can have
great control over a particular pest. Take the common mosquito for example. It needs standing water in which to lay its
eggs and reproduce. By simply re-grading the ground where
water used to collect and remain for several days, such that
water no longer collects there, youve eliminated a pest problem without resorting to a more toxic, chemical-based solution.
Other natural pest controls youll learn about include habitat
modification, pathogens, predators, and parasites; youll also
learn how these natural controls work. Without a basic
understanding or appreciation of how nature works, we too
54
Garden Ecology
often rely on the synthetic solutions of the pesticide industry

and unintentionally do more harm than good. This often
occurs when nonselective pesticides are used to eliminate
one particular pestat the same time they also eliminate a
whole host of other, beneficial, predator organisms. In knocking out the beneficials we basically sentence ourselves to a
chemical treadmill of pest control, and are no longer the beneficiaries of the free services once provided.
In this and forthcoming assignments youll gain a much better appreciation of the vital role predators play in natural
pest control. Youll no longer look at all bugs in the same
light, as worthless creatures that need to be stomped on, but
instead recognize many of them as allies in your fight to keep
the bad guys at bay. Youll also be reminded of the central
role many nonornamental plants play in providing food and
habitat for beneficial insects and the importance of their
inclusion in our vision of an attractive landscape.
Our vision of beauty has sometimes gotten us into trouble
when our interventions in perfecting nature have led to
unintended consequences and sometimes devastating results.
Whether deliberate or accidental, the majority of our most
troublesome pest problems have been the result of the introduction of exotic species into areas in which they wouldnt
naturally occur. A prime example is the case of Dutch elm
disease. The introduced exotic species, virus-carrying beetles
transported halfway around the world inside a shipment of
wood products from Europe, took down one of North Americas
most beautiful trees. When the beetles arrived there were no
natural predators to keep the virus from spreading. Still
today, majestic elms infected with the virus are being cut
down in an attempt to prevent further damage. Meanwhile
scientists work to breed a disease-resistant variety of elm so
it can be reintroduced into its former range. More recently, a
beetle mistakenly imported on wooden shipping pallets from
Asia is destroying nearly all ash species in the Midwest, again
because there are no natural predators to control their spread.
In addition to the assigned reading for this assignment, you
might want to review the information on sustainable landscape gardening presented on pages 1316. While this
information will be covered in a future study guide, it may be
helpful to review it now.
Lesson 3
55

Self-Check 13
Match the description with the term or phrase. Theres only one correct answer for each.
______
a. Long
d. Introduced
g. Short
b. Predator
e. Food
h. Native
c. Faster
f.
i.
Parasitoid
Pathogen
1. Climate is the _______-term overview of temperature and humidity changes in a

region.
______
2. Weather is the local and _______-term variation in climate.
______
3. Insect populations grow _______ under warm temperature conditions.
______
4. Along with habitat modification, limiting an organisms access to _______ is a simple,

nontoxic method of pest control.
______
5. General term used to define disease-causing fungi, bacteria, and viruses.
______
6. A/an _______ lays eggs in or on the body of a host, which develop into maggot-like
larvae that eat away at and eventually kill the host organism.
______
7. _______ insect populations tend to fluctuate, rising and falling from year to year due
to natural controls.
______
8. _____ insect populations tend to remain high due to the lack of natural controls.
______
9. A/an _______ can be defined as a free-living, general feeder thats often critical to the
suppression of natural populations of other living organisms.
56
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 14:
INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED
PEST MANAGEMENT
Read the following material. Then read pages 2753 in Pest
Control.
In your textbook reading for Assignment 12, the subject of

integrated pest management, or IPM, was introduced briefly.
In this assignment youll gain a more complete understanding of the IPM approach to pest management and discover
how this method better aligns with the natural pest controls
discussed in your last assignment. Central to the IPM
approach is the ability to answer the following questions:
When does an organism become a pest? To what extent is the
damage tolerable? To assist in answering these questions
youll consider the different types of damage caused by pests,
which can be categorized as either economic, medical, or
aesthetic in character. Youll also learn the importance in
properly monitoring pest problems, what to look for and
where, and when and where to apply treatment measures.
Unlike more conventional approaches to pest management
that rely heavily on quick, mostly toxic methods, integrated
pest management is a systems approach to decision making
that employs least-toxic chemical controls in a very targeted
way and only as a last resort.
For the most part conventional pest management practices
(conveniently) ignore the harmful side effects of toxic chemicals and instead place greater emphasis on the perception of
immediate and complete results. Conventional pest control
practices also tend to treat the symptoms rather than eliminate the source of the problem. For example, instead of
eradicating weeds in a customers lawn by building strong
healthy turf that can outcompete the weeds forever, the
uninformed lawn care specialist would instead spray for temporary control (and the guarantee of return visits) while
ignoring the longer-term damage done to the life of the soil
below. This is like the doctor that treats a patients chronic
bronchitis by prescribing an inhaler and antibiotics but not
insisting she quit smoking as well.
Lesson 3
57
IPM, on the other hand, teaches us that there are no quick

and easy fixes that lead to lasting and satisfactory results.
Rather, the whole-systems approach of IPM allows for more
enduring long-term solutions by looking at the bigger picture
to fully understand the pest problem at hand. Instead of
blasting a bed of aphid-infested rose bushes with some
chemical solution, the practitioner of an IPM approach to
gardening wouldnt have allowed the situation to get to this
point in the first place. This is because she would have been
monitoring for pests on a regular basis, giving her ample
opportunity to intervene and avoid the need for more extreme
measures later on.
When and where to look for pests before they start causing
extreme damage can be tricky business, as theyre not always
present when you are. This is where recognizing evidence of
pest damage, such as sawdust at a borers exit hole or the
slimy trail of a night-feeding slug, comes in handy. While this
all takes time and diligence, it does away with heavy-handed
and costly treatments typical of someone thats not paying
attention and always working in crisis mode. It also leaves
the rose garden smelling like a rose garden.
When the results of monitoring suggest theres a particular
pest problem its time to decide when and where to treat. For
lasting results, the timing of treatment controls is critical, as
pests go through several growth stages and the majority of
treatments are very specific as to the life cycle stage in which
theyre most effective. Waiting just a day or two to apply
treatments can be the difference between near total control
and none at all.
Once optimal timing has been established, there needs to a
decision on how much of an area is to be treated. The IPM
approach calls for treating only as much as needs to be
treated rather than following a blanket approach to pest control. This limited and targeted approach to applying control
measures, especially those of a chemical nature, is referred to
as spot treatment. Like other IPM practices, spot treatments
can take more time and require a more observant eye to be
effective; however, the benefits in terms of potential cost savings and reduced collateral damage to nontargeted organisms
far outweigh other options.
58
Garden Ecology
Other treatment strategies that youll learn about in the IPM

approach to pest control can be divided into two categories:
indirect and direct suppression. Indirect strategies are implemented early on and are more proactive in nature, such as
redesigning a garden to eliminate plant species that are
highly vulnerable to pests. The tactics of indirect suppression
strategies are meant to prevent problems from happening in
the first place, thus eliminating the need for heavy reliance
on direct suppression tactics, which address the pest problem
itself. While spraying herbicides and pesticides is considered
a last resort measure of direct suppression, other less toxic
tactics in this category include physical controls such as
sticky traps and biological controls such as the release of
beneficial insects that prey on the damage-causing pests.
Following the implementation of treatment strategies its
important to evaluate results and redesign the IPM program
as needed to correct or improve program outcomes.
As a landscape professional practicing the integrated pest
management approach to pest control, an important part of
your job will be educating your customers in the benefits of
such an approach. While selling a less toxic and more environmentally friendly approach to pest control is a pretty easy
sell to most, the difficulty in convincing customers to take the
IPM route is in persuading them to be patient and give it time
to work. As a society we all want quick results and immediate
gratification in everything we do. The IPM approach appears
to be contrary to this belief system at least when looking at
the short termbut in the long term, IPM is the only way to
go. Convince your customers to give it a try, make it work for
them, and theyll be your customers for life.
Lesson 3
59
Self-Check 14
Fill in the blanks.
1. The first objective of IPM is to _______ or _______ pests out of the system.
2. _______ controls can produce permanent pest suppression, whereas _______ must be
reapplied on a regular basis.
3. The size of the predator and parasitoid populations will always lag slightly behind that of the
_______.
4. The acronym IPM stands for _______.
5. The use of Vedalia Lady Beetles to control the spread of the cottony-cushion scale in California
citrus orchards in the 1880s is an example of a direct _______ control.
6. The two major treatment strategies of an IPM system are referred to as either _______ or
_______ suppression.
7. IPM is a decision-making systems approach to pest control that uses regular _______ to
determine if and when treatments are needed.
8. An early and integral part of any IPM program is determining _______ levels for any given
pest and acceptance that total elimination is near impossible.
9. Correct _______ is crucial in the application of many newer, less toxic pesticide products such
as microbial controls and insect hormones.
10. Redesigning a landscape with plants more appropriate to local growing conditions is a strategy
that falls under the _______ category of suppression of pests.
60
Garden Ecology
ASSIGNMENT 15:
MEET THE BENEFICIALS
Read the following material. Then read pages 5478 in your
textbook Pest Control.
For most individuals the words beneficial and insect just

dont go together. From a very young age were taught to fear
insects and instinctively stomp on them without hesitation;
as adults we reach for the can of bug spray whenever they
cross our paths. As a landscape professional involved in the
management of pests in gardens and landscapes, its important to understand the vital role insects and other organisms
of prey play in a healthy ecosystem. Once understood, the
term beneficial insect is no longer an oxymoronrather, its
a fascinating concept in the world of pest control and integrated pest management.
In undisturbed ecosystems the delicate balance of nature
ordinarily keeps pest problems to a minimum. In environments altered by humans, such as the typical suburban
backyard, pest problems are much more likely to occur.
Every day across America acres of prairie, meadow, and
forests once teeming with abundant populations of insects
and other wildlife are transformed into barren deserts of turfgrass lawn and beds of rock mulch sparsely planted with a
select number of ornamental plant species. With disturbance
on such a scale, severe reductions in the diversity of animal
and insect species, and near complete elimination of native
plant species, occurs. In this new altered landscape, the
insects and other beneficial organisms that once kept pest
problems in check are no longer present in sufficient numbers, largely because their sources of food and habitat are no
longer present. This once stable ecosystem is now out of balance and provides an open-door invitation to pests.
The good news is that we can bring balance back to even the
most dysfunctional suburban backyard ecosystem and
restore healthy populations of beneficial organisms that
lessen the need for chemical pest controls. The most effective
measures will include designing plant species that provide
food and habitat for natural predators back into the system.
Coupled with this, the removal of plant species that are most
Lesson 3
61
susceptible to ongoing pest problems should be considered.

Water is also integral to creating an inviting habitat, especially for birds and toads, which are often overlooked as
beneficial organisms. This can be as simple as a shallow bowl
filled with water. Bird and bat houses located throughout the
yard will invite these hungry predators back into the landscape. These simple measures, coupled with reductions in
chemical applications, will make conditions more inviting to
the beneficial organisms you want in your garden.
In this assignment youll be introduced to the insects that are
most beneficial in keeping pest populations at low levels.
Other than insects, the only other organisms included in
your reading are bats, voracious eaters of both garden pests
and annoying mosquitoes. As mentioned above, however,
birds, toads, and even snakes are great consumers of garden
pests and should be considered a part of any IPM program.
As you read through the descriptions of the beneficial
insects, pay attention to their various stages of development,
as its common to mistake a beneficial for something else and
kill it inadvertently. A good example is the lady beetle, which
in its adult form is easily recognizable by its cute spotted red
or orange humpback. In its juvenile state, however, its a little more scary-looking and susceptible to eradication in a
case of mistaken identity. Also pay attention to preferred
habitat as well as times of day (or night) when creatures are
active.
While the need for habitat is readily understood, many individuals are unaware of how easily this can be provided.
Leaving a light layer of leaf litter in planting beds or using
coarse wood chips on garden paths invites beneficial beetles,
while small rock piles are the perfect hiding place for toads
and spiders. Enjoy your time meeting the beneficials, as
theyre your garden allies in a least-toxic approach to pest
control.
62
Garden Ecology
Self-Check 15
a. Spiders
d. Predatory mites
g. Bats
b. Hover flies
e. Lady beetles
h. Lacewings
c. Centipedes
f.
i.
______
Ground beetles
j. Ants
Wasps
1. Nocturnal flying mammals that can consume upwards of 1,000 mosquitoes per hour
and 4,500 insects in one night
______
2. Flying insects classified as either social, solitary predatory, or parasitic
______
3. Often mistaken for bees and wasps these nectar- and pollen-feeders are frequently
seen floating above flowers in the garden and landscape.
______
4. This flying insect with comparatively large delicate wings is mass-produced and
released for control of aphids in gardens and greenhouses.
______
5. Sometimes seen flying at night, these ground-dwelling predators prey on other

surface-dwelling organisms including mites, snails, and earthworms.
______
6. More often considered household pests, these industrious insects are often seen in
symbiotic relationships with aphids.
______
7. Probably the cutest and least feared by humans, these garden predators are best
known for their voracious appetite for aphids.
______
8. Common in both the garden and inside the house, these predators have one pair of
legs per body segment and poison glands that open through their jaws.
______
9. Very small and fast-moving, these predatory organisms feed on other plant-feeding
organisms of the same species as well as thrips.
______ 10. Feared by many humans, this insect-eating predator often traps its prey in silky webs.
Lesson 3
63
ASSIGNMENT 16: CHOOSING THE

RIGHT PESTICIDECHEMICALS,
MICROBIALS, ORGANICS,
INORGANICS, AND BOTANICALS
textbook, Pest Control.
In this lesson so far, youve learned about natural pest controls, been introduced to the principles and practices of
integrated pest management, and met the beneficial organisms used in pest control. The information learned thus far is
helpful in reducing the need for direct control measures,
which have traditionally relied heavily on the use of toxic
chemicals in the management of garden pests. In this assignment youll be introduced to the myriad of pesticides utilized
in the direct suppression of garden pests. While the term
pesticide is often defined as a chemical used to kill pests,
especially insects, a more accurate definition would read a
substance used for destroying insects or other organisms
harmful to cultivated plants or to animals. Notice the substitution of the word substance in the second definition for the
word chemical in the first. In this assignment youll learn
about the use of conventional chemical controls as well as
other pesticides that are equally, if not more, effective,
including microbial and plant-based formulations available
for use in a less-toxic approach to pest control.
The use of chemical controls in pest management has a long
history dating back to 2000 B.C., when pre-Roman civilizations
burned bricks of sulfur to use as fumigants, medicines, and
as incense in religious ceremonies. Later on, the Romans
used the fumes from the combustion of sulfur as an insecticide and to purify rooms of the sick by cleansing the air, which
was believed to harbor evil spirits. Fast-forward to today and
sulfur remains popular in part due to its low toxicity to
humans as well as its effectiveness in treating powdery
mildews, rust, apple scab, and rose black spot among other
plant diseases. Up until the 1940s, pest control chemicals
were derived from plants (botanicals) and inorganic compounds
such as sulfur. The first synthetic (man-made) chemical
64
Garden Ecology
compounds for pest control were developed during World

War II. DDT is the most infamousit was hailed as the
insecticide to solve all the worlds insect problems. Given the
early success of synthetic pesticides, especially in areas of
agricultural and human health, the rapid development and
widespread use of other synthetics soon followed and the
modern-day pesticide industry was off and running.
In a relatively short time, however, it became increasingly
apparent that the heavy reliance on synthetic pesticides came
at a cost not only to the environment but to human health as
well. DDT almost wiped out some bird species, for example. It
was also clear that after repeated use, the new pesticides
were having less of an effect in controlling pest populations,
as resistance to the pesticides was on the rise. This in turn
led to heavier use of existing pesticides in ever-stronger concentrations, as well as the development of newer, more toxic
chemicals. Today there are over 17,000 pesticides registered
with the EPA. Perhaps most unsettling is the latest development in genetically engineered crops, which are designed to
be resistant to the spraying of herbicides (most notably
Roundup) or have been genetically manipulated to manufacture their own pesticidesthese are actually on the EPAs list
of registered pesticides. While the EPA isnt responsible for
determining the toxicity of pesticides on human health (they
leave that up to the manufacturers!), they do set safety
guidelines for proper use, labeling, and other safety standards that youll learn about in Chapter 6 of your textbook.
If all of this talk about the dangers of synthetic pesticides
has you wondering, youre not alone. Thankfully there are
less-toxic options out there and these will be the subject of
Chapter 7 in your textbook. While some of these options
include time-tested pesticides such as the same elemental
sulfur used by the Romans centuries ago, and well-known
botanical pesticides derived from plants, youll learn about
more recent developments in insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils as well. As you learn about these alternatives, keep
in mind that just because these pesticides are presented as a
less-toxic option to synthetics does not mean they should be
used with any less caution and care. And because many of
these pesticides are more quickly broken down once applied,
timing of applications is of utmost importance in maximizing
Lesson 3
65
their effectiveness. Lastly, its important these products be

used as intended so as to produce positive results and build
trust among the general public so as to someday replace the
more toxic options.
As a landscape professional, its your duty to understand
proper handling and use of any pesticide as well as its effect
on the environment, your health, and the health of your customers. If you intend to incorporate the use of pesticides into
your landscape business, youll most likely be required to
pass a pesticide applicators exam and obtain a license prior
to providing such services. Even if pest control services arent
part of your business or career plans, a basic understanding
of their uses, potential dangers, and safer, less-toxic options
should be known. This will at least allow you to have educated discussions with customers and specialists providing
pest control services when needed.
While this assignment contains a wealth of information, its
really just an introduction to the subject. Further courses
and training will most likely be needed before you can
become actively involved in this specialized area of the landscape business.
66
Garden Ecology
Self-Check 16
a. Less
d. Soaps
g. More
b. Copper
e. Botanical
h. Attractants
c. Lungs
f.
i.
______
Sulfur
j. Repellents
Oils
1. Elemental _______ is one of the oldest effective pesticides and is still popular today
because of its low toxicity to humans.
______
2. Many _______-based compounds, including the Bordeaux mixture, are used as fungicides due to their ability to change the properties of cellular proteins and deactivate
enzyme systems in fungi and algae.
______
3. Pesticidal and insecticidal _______ kill insect pests by penetrating their outer covering
and disrupting the integrity of cell membranes, resulting in dehydration and death.
______
4. In general, horticultural _______ kill insects at all stages of development by smothering them.
______
5. Pyrethrum and azadirachtin are examples of _______ pesticides, all of which are
derived from plants.
______
6. A hazard level rating of danger means a pesticide is _______ toxic than one with a
hazard level rating of warning.
______
7. A hazard level rating of caution means a pesticide is _______ toxic than one with a
hazard level rating of warning.
______
8. _______ are a classification of pesticide that function by luring pests to traps or poisons.
______
9. _______ are a classification of pesticide that deter insect pests from feeding on the
target plant.
______ 10. In humans, pesticides are absorbed most rapidly through the _______.
Lesson 3
67
ASSIGNMENT 17: NEW

FRONTIERS: MICROBIALS,
PHEROMONES, AND INSECT
GROWTH REGULATORS
textbook, Pest Control.
In this last assignment of your study guide youll be learning

about the most recent advances in pesticide research and
development. These new biologically based pesticides are
derived from naturally occurring organisms such as bacteria,
fungi, and viruses, as well as chemical analogues of naturally occurring biochemicals such as pheromones and insect
growth regulators (IGRs). These pesticides are much more
environmentally sound than traditional poisons. They closely
resemble, or in some instances are identical to, the chemicals
naturally produced by insects and plants. The resulting
combination of increased effectiveness, safety, and biodegradability all point to a brighter future in less toxic pest control.
While these latest innovations are a big improvement over
conventional, broad-spectrum pesticides, they do require
greater expertise and awareness on the part of the user for
satisfactory results. This is because theyre typically more
target-specific, are effective only when applied in a very
timely manner, and have shorter shelf-lives as compared to
conventional synthetics.
The biological and biochemical pesticides youll be studying
fall under three major classes:
Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism such as a
bacterium, fungus, virus, or protozoan, or the toxins they
produce, along with other compounds to increase shelf-life
and facilitate application as sprays, dusts, or granules. While
microbial pesticides may control several different kinds of
pests, individual active ingredients are usually specific to a
particular pest and are virtually nontoxic to humans and
other organisms, including the natural predators of the target
pest. Other advantages in using microbial pesticides include
their ability to biodegrade more rapidly than conventional
68
Garden Ecology
pesticides and the lower likelihood of pest resistance due to

their highly selective nature. Because microbial pesticides
contain living organisms, they must be used within a shorter
time frame than chemical synthetics, which can be stored for
several years and still remain effective. Theyre also more particular as to the environmental conditions under which they
must be applied (warm, moist conditions on cloudy days are
best) and require exact timing to coincide with the pests
most vulnerable growth stage.
Pheromones are chemical substances given off by organisms
that elicit a specific reaction upon reception by another
organism of the same species. In the context of your readings
on pest control, its assumed insects are the organisms being
referred to when discussing pheromones. Insect pheromones
are broken down into two subgroupsprimer pheromones
and releaser pheromones. Primer pheromones are slow-acting
and responsible for gradual changes in growth and development. The releaser type are faster acting and are associated
with sexual attraction, reproduction, and alarm or warning
signals. Of these, the releaser types responsible for sexual
attraction are the most commonly usedthey attract insects
to traps used in detection and monitoring of insect populations. Other pheromones are used to attract insects to baits
containing insecticides meant to kill them, while others are
used to confuse insects and disrupt mating patterns. Most
pheromones currently in use are synthetic formulations of
the chemicals naturally produced by insects.
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are chemical compounds or
hormones that alter the growth and development of insects.
There are two ways in which IGRs can disrupt an insects
growth cycle:
Using juvenile hormones, which prevent an insect from

ever growing into a mature adult
Using chitin synthesis inhibitors, which block insects

ability to produce a new or exoskeleton during the molting process
While insects that never mature are unable to reproduce,

those unable to produce a new exoskeleton prior to shedding
their old one will soon die. When using IGRs its important to
Lesson 3
69
select the correct formulation, as one or the other may not be

effective on the targeted pest because of where they are in
their life cycle. Some pests, grubs for example, cause more
harm in their juvenile stage than as adults. Its also important to know that IGRs are slower acting, and may take
anywhere from 310 days to kill the targeted insect. However,
its likely the pest will stop feeding sometime before death
actually occurs.
In addition to the biological and biochemical pesticides presented above, your textbook includes a discussion on the
controversial topic of genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
which are being introduced primarily by the agribusiness
industry and are used in growing food crops today. While the
use of GMOs in food production isnt directly relevant to the
day-to-day dealings of the landscape professional, its a topic
of great interest to a growing number of people as concerns
about the potential long-term effects of such use are raising
red flags. Of primary concern are the new breeds of superweeds that are showing resistance to the popular herbicide
Roundup. These can become a problem for landscape professionals as they spread beyond the cornfields. Also of concern
is the developing resistance to the bacterial insecticide BT,
which has long been the go-to insecticide of organic producers but may soon become ineffective. The latest research
points to potential harmful effects on the human body from
ingesting these genetically altered food crops as well as the
animals that feed on them. With this, many concerned consumers are once again turning to their backyards as a source
of pesticide-free and GMO-free food.
70
Garden Ecology
Self-Check 17
a. Epizootic
d. Bacterial
g. United States
b. Pheromones
e. BT
h. Nematodes
c. Superweed
f.
i.
______
Russia
j. Insect growth
regulators
Microbial
1. _______ pesticides contain living microorganisms or the toxins they produce as an

active ingredient.
______
2. Term used to describe the chemical signals emitted by insects and other organisms
that enable the organisms to communicate with other members of the same species
______
3. Term used to describe compounds that mimic or interfere with the natural hormones
that regulate an insects developmental stages
______
4. Generic term used to describe a pest plant that has become resistant to a particular
herbicide because of continuous, long-term use
______
5. The active ingredient in the majority of _______ insecticides is the rod-shaped

organism in the Bacillus genus.
______
6. When ingested, _______, a bacterial stomach poison, disables an insects protective

gut enzymes, leading to holes in the gut wall and eventual blood poisoning.
______
7. Country with the highest number of herbicide-resistant weed species
______
8. One of several countries that require labeling of genetically modified food

ingredients/GMOs
______
9. Most effective when applied to moist soil, _______ are tiny, mostly microscopic roundworms that release toxic bacteria into the host insects and poison their blood.
______ 10. Term used to describe the rapid increase in fungal pathogens which leads to a disease
outbreak
Lesson 3
71
NOTES
72
Garden Ecology
SELF-CHECK ANSWERS
1. d
2. f
3. b
4. i
5. g
6. e
7. h
8. a
9. j
10. c
Self-Check 2
1. c
2. h
3. e
4. j
5. g
6. i
7. d
8. a
9. f
10. b
Answers
Self-Check 1
73
Self-Check 3
1. c
2. d
3. f
4. b
5. g
6. a
7. h
8. j
9. e
10. i
Self-Check 4
1. d
2. f
3. g
4. h
5. i
6. b
7. a
8. e
9. j
10. c
Self-Check 5
1. f
2. i
3. a
4. h
74
Self-Check Answers
5. j
6. e
7. d
8. b
9. c
10. g
Self-Check 6
1. c
2. d
3. g
4. b
5. h
6. j
7. i
8. a
9. f
10. e
Self-Check 7
1. c
2. g
3. f
4. b
5. e
6. j
7. i
8. a
9. d
10. h
Self-Check Answers
75
Self-Check 8
1. f
2. d
3. e
4. j
5. a
6. b
7. i
8. c
9. g
10. h
Self-Check 9
1. g
2. d
3. f
4. a
5. i
6. j
7. b
8. c
9. e
10. h
Self-Check 10
1. c
2. h
3. a
4. b
76
Self-Check Answers
5. d
6. i
7. e
8. j
9. f
10. g
Self-Check 11
1. c
2. h
3. a
4. b
5. d
6. i
7. e
8. j
9. f
10. g
Self-Check 12
1. IPM
2. thorax
3. abdomen
4. dissemination
5. inoculum
6. weed
7. girdling
8. Exclusion
9. Etiolation
Self-Check Answers
77
Self-Check 13
1. a
2. g
3. c
4. e
5. i
6. f
7. h
8. d
9. b
Self-Check 14
1. design, redesign
2. Biological, pesticides
3. pest
4. integrated pest management
5. biological
6. direct, indirect
7. monitoring
8. tolerance
9. timing
10. indirect
Self-Check 15
1. g
2. i
3. b
4. h
5. f
78
Self-Check Answers
6. j
7. e
8. c
9. d
10. a
Self-Check 16
1. f
2. b
3. d
4. i
5. e
6. g
7. a
8. h
9. j
10. c
Self-Check 17
1. i
2. b
3. j
4. c
5. d
6. e
7. g
8. f
9. h
10. a
Self-Check Answers
79
ACHIEVEMENT
REVIEW ANSWERS
Chapter 1: The Green Plant
(pages 2427)
A. Essay
Your answer should include the following information:
Plants take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.
The animal kingdom is more dependent.
Plants are the only living organisms capable of manufacturing their own food.
Man must provide a pollution-free environment and

suitable habitat for plants.
B. Multiple Choice
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. d
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. a
9. d
10. c
11. a
12. b
13. b
14. d
15. a
16. d
80
Self-Check Answers
17. b
18. c
19. c
C. Short Answer
1. leaves, stems, roots, and cones or flowers
2. Angiospermopsida: flowers; Coniferopsida: cones
3. tap roots and fibrous roots
4. adventitious
5. Destruction of chlorophyll as leaves begin to die permits
other pigments to be seen.
6. From top to bottom on the left are cortex (storage),
primary xylem (conducts water and minerals), primary
phloem (conducts organic matter), and apical meristem
(the area where growth occurs).
From top to bottom on the right are epidermis (surface
layer), pericycle (the area where branch roots develop),
endodermis (inner boundary of the cortex), root hair (the
area where absorption occurs), and the root cap (protects
the growing point).
7. The stem on the left is a herbaceous monocot stem
(scattered vascular bundles); the stem in the middle is a
herbaceous dicot stem (ringed vascular bundles). The
parts of these stems from top to bottom are epidermis,
xylem, cambium, and phloem. The stem on the right is a
woody dicot stem (concentric cylincric vascular bundles).
The parts of this stem from top to bottom are cork, cortex, pith, xylem, cambium, and phloem.
8. The parts on the left from top to bottom are the petal,
the pollen tube, and the ovule. The parts on the right
from top to bottom are the pistil (stigma, style, and
ovary), pollen, the stamen (anther and filament), and the
sepal.
9. a. complete
b. incomplete
c. perfect
d. imperfect
Self-Check Answers
81
10. a. monoecious
b. dioecious
D. True/False
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. False
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. True
13. False
14. False
Chapter 2: Describing and Identifying

Plants (pages 4446)
A. Short Answer
1. a. taxonomy
b. taxonomists
c. binomial
d. species
e. endangered
f. one
g. a specimen plant
h. Linnaeus
82
Self-Check Answers
i. a
j. 86
2. a. Woody plants have a corky outer bark. Herbaceous
plants are weaker and more succulent. Woody stems
increase in diameter each year; herbaceous stems
dont. Woody plants usually survive the winter; herbaceous plants often dont.
b. Evergreens retain their leaves all year; deciduous
plants dont.
c. Trees have a single stem and shrubs have multiple
stems. Trees are usually larger than shrubs.
d. Vines climb, given support. Groundcovers dont
exceed 18 inches in height. Some plants function as
both vines and groundcovers.
e. Annuals complete their life cycle in one year.
Perennials live for several years.
f. Biennials are vegetative their first year; in the second
year, they flower and die. Perennials may flower every
year and live longer.
g. Hardy plants will survive the winter temperatures in a
given locale; tender plants wont.
h. Bedding plants are grown outdoors for their flowers.
Foliage plants are used indoors for their leaves.
i. Native plants evolve in a given area. Exotic plants are
brought into an area from another region.
j. Naturalized plants were brought into an area as
exotics but adapted so well that they dont need
human tending to survive.
k. Specimen plants are visually distinctive due to their
growth habit, flowers, bark, or fruit. Accent plants differ from others with which theyre grouped, but not as
strikingly as specimen plants do.
3. The following information identifies the leaves from left to
right:
Simple leaf, acute apex, cuneate base, and serrate

margin
Self-Check Answers
83
Simple leaf, acute apex, truncate base, and doubly

serrate margin
Simple leaf, cuspidate apex, cordate base, and entire

margin
4. The following information identifies the flowers from left

to right:
Solitary blossoms and terminal
Axillary
Spike (without stalks); oldest flowers at base of

inflorescence
Raceme (each flower stalked); oldest flowers at base

of inflorescence
Panicle (compound raceme; oldest flowers at base)
Catkin, bract, and unisexual flowers
Cyme; oldest flowers at terminals
Corymb; oldest flowers at outer edge
Umbel; oldest flowers at outer edge
Compound umbel; oldest flowers at outer edge
5. The following information labels the fruits from left to

right and top to bottom:
84
Drupe, exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp
Pome
Berry
Legume (pod)
Capsule (opens by valves along sutured lines)
Achene and bristles
Multiple fruit (forms from many flowers in a tight

cluster); separate fruit
Aggregate (forms from one flower)
Self-Check Answers
Indehiscent (husk doesnt split); nut in the center;

softer outer husk
Dehiscent nut (husk splits when ripe); nut in the

center; softer outer husk
Winged samaras
Aggregate of samaras
Follicle
Cons, bract, scale, and seed
6. a. epigynous flower
b. perigynous flower
c. hypogynous flower
d. singular flower
e. composite flower
f. simple fruit
g. aggregate fruit
h. accessory fruit
i. multiple fruit
j. endocarp
k. exocarp
l. mesocarp
Chapter 3: The Soil (pages 6465)

A. Short Answer
1.
a. Soil is the thin outer layer of Earths crust made of
weathered minerals, living and nonliving organisms,
water, and air.
b. Topsoil is the uppermost layer of the soil profile,
finely weathered and richest in organic matter.
Self-Check Answers
85
c. Subsoil is the intermediate layer of the soil profile

between the topsoil and the bedrock. Its weathered
but low in organic matter.
d. Humus is a complex colloidal mixture in the soil
formed by enzymatic action on the coarser, tougher
organic matter.
e. Soil texture is the proportion of soil separates of
different sizes in any one soil.
f. An essential element is any one of 17 chemical
elements required for successful growth and development of a green plant.
g. Macronutrients are essential elements used in large
quantities by green plants.
h. Micronutrients are essential elements used in smaller
quantities by green plants.
i.
Leaching is the rapid passage of nutrients through

the soil and beyond the root region.
j.
Soil structure is the arrangement of finer soil

particles.
k. A cation is a positively charged ion.

l.
Cation exchange is the exchange of hydrogen particles held on colloidal particles of the soil for cations
furnished from decomposing organic matter, weathering rocks, or applied fertilizer.
m. A complete fertilizer is a fertilizer that contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

n. Fertilizer analysis is the percentage of weight of N
(nitrogen), P (phosphoric acid), and K (potash) in a
fertilizer.
o. Nutrient ratio is a reduction of the fertilizer analysis
to the lowest common denominator.
86
Self-Check Answers
p. A high-analysis fertilizer is one with 30 percent or

more of its weignt in available nutrients.
q. A low-analysis fertilizer is one with less than 30 percent of its weignt in available nutrients.
2. Weathering elements, movement of the soil, topography,
climate, and the amount of organic material in the soil
3. a. 5
b. 3
c. 4
d. 1
4. Clay, silt, sand, and gravel
5. a. Sandy loam
b. Silt loam
c. Clay
d. Loamy sand
6. Sand, sandy loam, loam, clay loam, silty clay, and clay
7. a. Clay
b. Sand
c. Sand
d. Silt
e. Clay
f. Clay
8. Carbon (C), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), boron (B), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), nitrogen (N),
sulfur (S) chlorine (Cl), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and
nickel (Ni)
Self-Check Answers
87
9.
Fertilizer Characteristic
Low-Analysis
Fertilizer
High-Analysis
Fertilizer
Contains N, P, and K
All Complete
Fertilizers
X
Less than 30 percent of its weight

is in available nutrients
Most bulky to store and handle
Contains 30 percent or more of its

weight in available nutrients
Costs more per pound of nutrients
Requires less time to apply a given
amount of nutrient
X
X
X
Contains filler material
Requires less material to apply a

given amount of nutrients per
square foot
B. Essay
1. Organic matter in the soil decomposes through the
action of the digestive enzymes of microbes. The end
products of decomposition are CO2, water, nitrates,
phosphates, sulfates, calcium compounds, energy, and
humus. Humus binds the mineral separates of the soil
into large aggregates. This creates a crumb, or granular,
soil structure, which is desirable.
2. Two methods are thought to explain the movement of
nutrients from the soil into the plant. One is the passage
of minerals through the permeable outer membrane of
the root cells in response to a concentration gradient
between solutions in the cell and in the soil. The other
explanation is ion exchange and contact exchange. With
ion exchange, positively charge ions are absorbed and
released by the root cell. With contact exchange, there is
direct exchange between ions on the soil particles and
those in the root cells.
C. True/False
1. True
2. True
88
Self-Check Answers
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. True
7. False
8. True
9. True
10. True
Chapter 4: Plant Growth Regulators

(page 76)
A. Short Answer
1. a, d, and f
2. a. Avena coleoptile test
b. Dwarf corn test
c. Tobacco parenchymal cells test
3. a. Auxins and cytokinins
b. All three
c. Gibberellins and cytokinins
d. Auxins
e. Auxins and gibberellins
f. Auxins
g. Gibberellins
4. a. IAA, IBA, or NAA
b. A-Rest, B-Nine, Cyocel, or Florel
c. Florel
d. A-Rest or Phosfon
B. Essay Explanations
1. Apical dominance is eliminated by the pruning, allowing
growth by lateral buds.
Self-Check Answers
89
2. Auxins concentrate on the side of the stem opposite the

light. Growth is accelerated on that side.
3. The grower needed to apply a growth retardant to promote shorter, compact plants.
Chapter 5: Plant Reproduction

(pages 9193)
A. Short Answer
1. a. Reproduction is the duplication of organisms.
b. Propagation is controlled reproduction.
c. Sexual propagation is reproduction through the
formation of seeds.
d. Asexual propagation is vegetative reproduction with
no fusion of sex cells and no seed formation.
e. A gamete is a sex cell, essential to sexual reproduction.
f. A zygote is the cell resulting from the fusion of two
gametes.
g. Meiosis is the two divisions of a cell during which
homologous chromosomes separate and the diploidal
cell is reduced to a haploidal cell.
h. Mitosis is nuclear division that results in new nuclei
that have the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the original nucleus.
i. A clone is a plant or group of plants reproduced
asexually from a single parent.
j. Clonal variety refers to plants of horticultural importance that are propagated almost totally by asexual
means.
2. The following information describes the diagrams from
left to right:
90
Interphase (cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell wall): The

nucleus is not dividing. During this stage, new
nuclear material is synthesized.
Self-Check Answers
Prophase: The chromosomes in the nucleus become

short and thick.
Prophase: Each chromosome doubles. Each part is

termed a chromatid while paired.
Metaphase (spindle fibers): The doubled chromosomes move to the center of the cell. Spindle fibers
form between the ends of the cell. Some attach to the
chromatids.
Anaphase: The chromatids separate, each one going

toward an opposite end of the cell. Identical groups of
chromosomes are located at each end of the cell.
Telophase (cell plate forming): The spindle fibers disappear. The groups of chromosomes reorganize into
new nuclei as nuclear envelopes develop around each
group. The formation of a cell plate begins.
Telophase (cell plate formed): cytokinesis is accomplished when the cell plate is formed between two
separate nuclei.
Interphase: The cell plate becomes a cell wall, and

two cells result from the original one. Each contains
the same number and kind of chromosomes as the
original cell.
3. The following information describes the diagrams from

left to right:
Diploidal cell at the beginning of prophase: The cell is

in a diploidal condition and termed a zygote. The
chromosomes in the nucleus become short and thick.
Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair along

their entire length. They dont fuse. The pairing is
termed synapsis. Each chromosome doubles to produce four chromatids per pair.
Metaphase I (spindle fibers): The chromosome pairs

move to the horizontal center of the cell. Spindle
fibers form between the ends of the cell. Some attach
to the chromatids.
Self-Check Answers
91
Anaphase I: The homologous chromosomes separate.

The groups of chromosomes at each end of the cell
arent the same. The chromatids havent separated.
Telophase I (cell plate)
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Haploidal cells
4. Some seeds have a water-impermeable seed coat that

must be broken in a process known as scarification.
Other seeds require a cold treatment known as stratification to promote the production of a growth stimulator or
the destruction of a growth inhibitor.
5. a. Stolons
b. Layering
c. Runners
d. Apomictic embryos
e. Grafting
f. Sucker shoots
g. Cuttings
h. Bulbs
i. Tissue culture
B. Multiple Choice
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. d
7. d
8. c
9. c
10. b
92
Self-Check Answers
Chapter 6: Plant Injuries and Their

Control (pages 136139)
A. Short Answer
1. a, c, d, e, i
2. a. 4
b. 6
c. 1
d. 3
e. 2
f. 5
3. a. Phyllum Arthropoda
b. Class Hexapoda
c. joined appendages
d. bilateral body symmetry
e. exoskeleton, outside body
f. head, thorax, abdomen
g. six legs
h. none to two pairs of wings
i. one pair of antennae
j. simple and compound eyes
k. abdomen
l. air tubes
4. Chewing: grasshoppers and beetles
Siphoning: moths and butterflies
Sponging: houseflies
Rasping-sucking: thrips
Piercing-sucking: aphids, scale, and leafhoppers
Chewing-lapping: bees
5. egg, larvae, pupa, and adult
Self-Check Answers
93
6. a. Instar: a growth stage of nymphs

b. Molting: the shedding of an insects exoskeleton
7. the larval stage
8.
Characteristic
Prokaryotes
Bacteria
Fungi
Nematodes
Eukaryotes
Viruses
Only single-celled in size
Multicelled in size
Nonchlorophyllous
Reproduce only in a living host
X
X
Reproduce by cell division
Reproduce by sexual and asexual means
9.
Across
Down
1. Thallus
2. Caryogamy
3. Zygote
4. Haploid
5. Plasmogamy
8. Conidia
6. Hyphae
7. Mycellium
10. a. C
b. A
c. B
d. C
e. A
f. C
g. A
h. B
i. B
j. A
94
Self-Check Answers
11. a. rotting
b. gall
c. chlorosis
d. gall
e. dwarfing
f. tunneling
g. tunneling
h. holes
i. wilting
12. Necrosis
13. Partial control: the severity of the damage to the host is
reduced, but not completely obliterated.
Absolute control: total control of the pest; all symptoms
are absent.
Profitable control: the point at which costs of control are
less than the monetary value of the crop.
14. a. resistance
b. exclusion
c. protection
d. eradication
e. exclusion
f. eradication
g. resistance
h. protection
i. eradication
j. exclusion
15. a. 4
b. 1
c. 3
d. 5
e. 9
f. 6
Self-Check Answers
95
g. 7
h. 2
i. 8
16. CautionA
WarningA, B
Danger-PoisonA, B
17. IPM uses biological controls such as predatory insects
and resistant varieties of crops in combination with cultural manipulation techniques such as open spacing and
reduced humidity to minimize the amount and frequency
of chemical pesticides used in horticultural production.
B. Multiple Choice
1. b
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
C. True/False
1. a. False
b. True
c. True
d. True
e. False
f. False
g. False
h. True
i. False
j. True
k. False
l. True
m. True
96
Self-Check Answers

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Garden Ecology

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Study Guide

About the Authors

Copyright 2012 by Penn Foster, Inc.

LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT

LESSON 2: GARDEN ECOLOGY

LESSON 3: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF

ACHIEVEMENT REVIEW ANSWERS

This course includes three lessons. Heres a summary of

In Lesson 1, The Fundamentals of Plant and Soil

Lesson 2, Garden Ecology, builds upon the fundamental

Landscaping can be defined as the art and science of altering

quite beneficial in a deeper understanding of the subject

In Lesson 3, The Fundamentals of Common Sense Pest

These three lessons are further divided into several individual

Describe the relationships among landscapes, plants,

List the important roles plants play in our lives and

List the parts typical of higher green plants and explain

Describe the process of photosynthesis and the role it

Summarize the natural classification system for the

Describe the environmental factors that affect plant

Identify the parts of plants that are used in plant

Explain the important role soils play in our lives and

Describe the various components that make up soils and

Describe the different types of plant growth regulators

Explain the various forms of plant reproduction and list

Identify the most common methods used in plant

Identify the major causes of injury to plants

Identify natural pest controls

List the principles of common sense pest control

Explain the concept of integrated pest management (IPM)

Describe the various organic and inorganic tools used

A lesson assignments page with a schedule of study

Introductions to lessons and assignments, which

Self-checks and answers to help you assess your

Answers to the Achievement Review features at the

2. Your course textbooks, Ornamental Horticulture: Science,

chapters. At the end of each chapter is a feature called

Note: When referencing

Read in the textbook

Lesson 2: Garden Ecology

Read in the textbook

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Plant and Soil Science

Lesson 3: Fundamentals of Common

Chapter 2 in Pest Control

instructor may post

Chapter 5 in Pest Control

Chapter 8 in Pest Control

Summarize the important roles plants play in peoples

List the parts typical of higher green plants and the

Describe the process of photosynthesis and the role it

Describe the natural classification system for the plant

Describe the environmental factors that can affect plant

Identify the parts of plants that are used in plant

Explain the important role soils play in peoples lives and

Characterize the various components that make up soils

Identify the different types of plant growth regulators and

Explain the various forms of plant reproduction and

Describe the most common methods used in plant

Green plants are amazing machinesthe only organisms

Even the ground beef in your hamburger and the eggs in

______ 10. Cell walls

a. The language used in the scientific/botanical naming

The green pigment needed by plants to capture the