Aristotle

ARISTOTLE
P A R T S O F A N IM A L S
M O V E M E N T O F A N IM A L S
P R O G R E S S IO N O F A N IM A L S
ARISTOTLE
WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
A . L . l E C K , M .A ., P h .D .
FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEOE, CAMBRIDGE
AND UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS
AND A FOREWORD BY
H. A. M A R S H A L L , C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.
P R O G R E S S IO N O F A N I M A L S
WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
E . S. F O R S T E R , M .A .
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THK UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
CAM BRIDGE,
HARVARD
MASSACHUSETTS
U N IV E R S IT Y
PRESS
LONDON
W ILLIAM
HEINEMANN
MCMLXI
LTD
CONTENTS
PAOB
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52
P R O G R E S S IO N O F A N IM A L S
In
T
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I ndex
I ndex
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...................................................... 43fi
r a n s l a t io n
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55 2
From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion

of Aristotles merits, but I had not the most remote notion
what a wonderful man he was. Linnaeus and Cuvier have
been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they
were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle.
Charles Darwin to
William Ogle, on
the publication of
his translation of
The Parts o f A n i
mals, 1882.
PARTS OF ANIMALS
To
A . E. P. and L . A . P.
FOREWORD
A r i s t o t l e refers to the D e partibus animalium as an
inquiry into the causes that in each ease have deter
mined the composition o f animals. H e does not,
however, em ploy the category o f causation in the
manner normally adopted bv men o f scienec, sincc
in this book causes are always considered in relation
to ends or purposes, and design is regarded as having
had a far larger share in the origin and development
o f living structures than that allotted to necessity.
In the Historia animalium the parts themselves are
described, for although this work is to some extent
physiological, its main object was to deal with the
anatomy o f the organism. The D e partibus animalium,
on the other hand, is almost exclusively physiological
and teleological, and treats o f the functions o f the
parts. But A ristotles position was that o f a teleologist only in a lim ited degree, for he appears to
have taken that view o f life which Bergson ealls the
doctrine o f internal fmalitv (that is to say, that each
individual, or at any rate caeh specics, is made for
itself, that all its parts conspire for the greatest good
o f the whole, and are intelligently organized in view
o f that end but without regard for other organisms
or kinds o f organisms). Since every organ or part
o f the body was held to have its peculiar funetion,
the existence o f vestigial or rudimentary organs was
a
FOREWORD
unrecognized. This was the doctrine o f internal
finality which was generally accepted until Darwin
elaborated his theory o f Natural Selection. The
wider doctrine o f external finality, according to
which living beings are ordered in regard to one
another, never gained acceptance among scientific
philosophers, and the only indication that Aristotle
ever adopted it is furnished by a passage in wThich
he suggests that the mouth in Selachians is placed
on the under surface so as to allow their prey to
escape while the fish are turning on their backs
before taking their food ; but even this he qualified
by the suggestion that the arrangement served a
useful end for the fishes in question by preventing
them from indulging in the harmful habit o f gluttony.
The D e partibus animalium opens with an intro
duction devoted to general considerations. This is
followed by a discussion o f the three degrees o f
composition, the first degree being composition o f
physical substances, the second degree, o f homo
geneous parts or tissues, and the third, o f hetero
geneous parts or organs. The tissues referred to are
blood, fat, marrow', brain, flesh, and bone. A fte r
describing these, the organs are dealt with, and a
consideration o f their respective functions, first in
sanguineous animals (i.e. in Vertebrates), and secondly
in bloodless animals (i.e. Invertebrates), occupies the
remainder o f the book. The account given o f the
physiology o f the blood is especially interesting, and
it is notew orthy that Aristotle understood something
o f the nature o f the process o f absorption whereby
the food becomes converted into nutriment which is
carried by the blood to all parts o f the body. H e
supposed, however, that the matter derived from the
FOREWORD
gut passed first to the heart in the form o f vapour
or serum, and that it was there converted into true
blood by a process o f concoction. A ristotle knew
nothing o f the real nature o f respiration, and he
regarded the lungs as serving to temper the bodily
heat by means o f the inspired air. H e was also
entirely ignorant o f the fact that the blood passes
back to the heart and lungs after supplying the
tissues and organs with nourishment. On the other
hand, he fully appreciated the existence o f excretory
organs, the function o f which was to remove from the
body such substances as could not be utilized. In
this category are included fluids such as bile, urine,
and sweat. In the section on the gall-bladder, as
in so many other passages in his works on natural
history, it is truly remarkable how correct A ristotle
is in his statements. H e points out that the gall
bladder is not found either in the horse and ass or
in the deer and roe, but is generally present in the
sheep and goat. In the light o f the knowledge that
he possessed, therefore, Aristotle could scarcely have
adopted a theory about this organ which has found
expression in certain modern writings. According
to this theory the gall-bladder is present in the sheep
and ox because, these being ruminating animals,
bile is only required at certain particular times when
food passes into the intestine, whereas in the horse,
which does not chew the cud, but y e t is constantly
eating, food is continually passing into the intestine
and consequently a perpetual flow o f bile is desirable.
Since the gall-bladder is present in the non-ruminating
pig but absent in the ruminating deer and roe, it
is obvious that this theory cannot be consistently
applied.
FOREWORD
I t is interesting to speculate about the school of
research workers who must have contributed in
providing material for this and the other works on
natural science ascribed to Aristotle who they wrere,
the circumstances under which they lived, and wrhat
manner o f facilities were available for their investiga
tions for it would seem certain that no man singlehanded could possibly have acquired such a vast body
o f knowledge, hardly any o f which could have been
derived from earlier observers. Y e t the work in its
completed whole seems to show the mark o f one
master hand, and its uniform character and the clear
line o f teleological reasoning that runs through it
have been wrell brought out in Dr. Pecks translation.
But putting aside its philosophical implications, the
book consists o f an attem pt at a scientific record of
all the apparently known facts relating to animal
function. These are considered comparatively and
as far as possible are brought into relation with one
another. And thus, as the earliest text-book on
animal physiology in the worlds history, this treatise
will ever make its appeal, not only to the classical
philosopher, but to all who are interested in the origin
and growth o f biological science.
F. H . A . M .
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
h e traditional title o f this treatise is not a very
informative one. The subject o f the work is, how
ever, stated quite clearly by Aristotle at the begin
ning o f the second Book in these words : 44 I have
already described with considerable detail in my
Researches upon Animals what and how' many are the
parts o f w'hich animals are composed. W e must now
leave on one side w hat wras said there, as our present
task is to consider w hat are the causes through which
each animal isas I there described it (646 a 7 foil.).
The title ought therefore to be 4 O f the Causes o f the
Paris o f Animals, and this is the title actually applied
to it by Aristotle himself (at D e gen. an. 782 a 21).a
Even so, the w'ord 44 parts is misleading : it in
cludes not only what w e call parts, such as limbs and
organs, but also constituents such as blood and
marrow.6 Perhaps, therefore, no harm is done by
leaving the accepted (and convenient) Latin title
untranslated.
Zoological
The D e partibus, as wrell as the other treatises
works- contained in this volume, forms a portion o f Aris
totles zoological w orks. The foundation o f these is
the Historia animalium, or Researches about Animals,
in nine books (the tenth is generally held to be
Title. T
0 For the meaning of Cause see note below, p. 24.

b See note on part below, p. 28.
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
spurious), in which observations are recorded, and
consequent upon this are the treatises in which
Aristotle puts forward theories founded upon these
observations.
A n animal is, according to Aristotle, a 44 concrete
entity made up o f *' matter and form .
Hence,
in the D e partibus Aristotle treats o f the causes on
account o f which the bodies the m atter o f
animals are shaped and constructed as they are, in
g e n e ra l; in the D e incessu he deals specially with
the parts that subserve locomotion. In the D e anima
he proceeds to consider Soul the form o f an
animal. In the remaining treatises, o f which D e
motu, included in this volume, is one, he deals with
what he calls the functions 44 common to body and
Soul, among which he includes sensation, memory,
appetite, pleasure, pain, waking, sleeping, respira
tion, and so forth (see D e sensu 436 a). The com plete
scheme is set out below :
I. Record o f observations.
Historia animalium.
10 (9) books.
II. Theory based upon observations.

D e partibus
animalium
D e incessu
animalium
(6)
D e anima
1 treating o f the way in

which the m atter
4 books
books
o f animals is arranged to subserve
[treatin g o f the form

S books*!
o f animals the
[ Soul.
ARISTOTLE
Parva naturalia
<)
D e motu ani
malium
D e generatione
animalium
treating o f the func

tions common to
body and Soul, and
in p a r t i c u l a r o f
1 book
some special de
partments o f ani
5 books
mal behaviour.
T h e section (b) is necessary to the completeness o f

the scheme, but as it has given rise to a whole depart
ment o f study, it is usually treated apart from the rest.
Thus the main bulk o f the zoological and biological
works may be taken to consist o f the three great
treatises, Historia animalium, D e partibus animalium,
and D e generatione animalium. I t was these which,
through translations made from the Arabic, were
restored to the W est by those who revived scientific
studies at the beginning o f the thirteenth century.
Date of
T he late D A rcy W . Thompson, in the prefatory
composi
tion. note to his translation o f H . A . f wrote : " I think it
can be shown that A ristotles natural history studies
were carried on, or mainly carried on, in his middle
age, between his two periods o f residence at A thens/
i.e. in the Troad, in Lesbos and in Macedonia, between
the years 347 and 335 : and this view has recently
received convincing support from Mr. H. D . P. L e e ,b
who bases his argument upon an examination o f the
place-names in H .A . This is opposed to the view
which has been current for some years past, that
the zoological works belong to a late period in Aris
to tle s life, and has important consequences for the
reconstruction o f A ristotles philosophical develop The Works of Aristotle translated, vol. ivMOxford, 1910.
* C.Q. xlii. (1948), 61 ff.
* See W. D. Ross, Aristotle, and W. W. Jaeger, Aristotle.
10
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
mcnt, which cannot be dealt with here. I t may,
however, be remarked that, as Thompson said, it
would follow that we m ight legitim ately proceed to
interpret A ristotles more strictly philosophical work
in the light o f his work in natural history. But apart
from these considerations, the great importance o f
the zoological works is that they represent the first
attem pt in Europe to observe and describe in a
scientific way the individual living object.
Throughout the D e partibus Aristotle endeavours to
provide a Final Cause to explain the facts which
he records some purpose which they are supposed
to answer ; and Causes o f this sort are by far the
most common in his treatise. His outlook is there
fore justly described as teleological ; but it is
important not to read too much into this description.
A ristotle is never tired o f telling us that Nature makes
nothing and does nothing without a purpose ;
but i f we ask what that purpose is we may find that
the answer is not quite what we had expected.
Platos notion o f the form tended to divert his
attention from individuals through a hierarchy o f
successive forms ; but for Aristotle form is
not independent o f matter : form must be embodied
in some m atter, that is, in individuals. Thus we find
all through that Aristotle cannot long keep his eyes
from the individual wherein the form is actually
embodied, because it, after all, is the End, the
crowning achievement o f the efforts o f the four
Causes. This outlook controls the arrangement o f
A ristotles treatise. Since all processes o f production
are determined by the nature o f the product which
is to result from them, it is the fully developed product
which we must first make it our business to observe,
The four Causes are dealt with in a separate note, p. 24.
11
Teleology,
ARISTOTLE
and when we have discovered what are its actual
characteristics we may then go on to work out its
Causes and to examine the processes by which it was
produced.
Synopsis
and
Summary.
I give a brief synopsis and a contents-summary

o f the D e partibus :
B R IE F SYNOPSIS OF D E PA R TIB U S
Introduction: Methods.
Composition of Substances : Three modes :
(1) The primary substances.
(2) The uniform parts.
(3) The non-uniform parts.
Consideration of (1) Hot, cold, solid, fluid.
(2) Uniform parts : (a) fluid, (6) solid.
(3) Non-uniform parts, as follows :
External parts of animals.
Internal parts of blooded animals.
Internal parts of bloodless animals.
External parts of bloodless animals.
External parts of blooded animals (resumed).
(a) Vivipara. (b) Ovipara.
S U M M AR Y
I.
639 a 15 ch. 1 Introduction.
Science.
B ook
On the Method o f Natural
Two questions propounded :

( 1) Are we to begin with the ultimate
species and describe its characteristics,
or with those that are common to
many species ?
12
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
639 b 8
640 b 17
640 b 30
(2) (Put in three ways):

(a) Are we to take first the phenomena,
and then proceed to their Causes ?
(b) Which is the primary Cause, the
Final or the Efficient (Motive) ?
(Answered immediately:
The
Final; with a reference also to the
influence of Necessity.)
(c) Are we to discuss first the pro
cesses by which the animal is
formed, or the characteristics of
it in its completed state ?
Answer to question (2).
We must begin with the phenomena,
then go on to the Causes, and the forma
tive processes or, in other words, the
Final Cause concerns us first and foremost.
This differs from the practice of the early
philosophers, who concerned themselves
with the Material Cause, though some
times also with the Efficient (Motive)
Cause. We must begin at the End, not
at the beginning.
Thus we must consider not merely the
primary substances, but the uniform
parts, which are made out of them, and
also the non-uniform parts. In doing
this, we shall be paying attention to the
Formal Cause, which is more important
than the Material Cause: the animal as
a finished whole is more significant than
the substances out of which it was made.
But mere form or shape is not enough :
shaped matter is not an animal.
Form in its full and true sense involves
Soul : ** Soul somehow is the
animal's Efficient and Final Cause. Act
ually, it is not Soul in its entirety, but
13
ARISTOTLE
some portion of Soul which fulfils this
office.
Thus the universe and the living objects
in it are the products of something
analogous to human a r t: they are con
trolled by a Final Cause.
But Necessity also has its place in the
universe
not ( 1) absolute necessity
nor (2) coercive necessity
but (3) 41 conditional necessity.
These two Causes, the Final Cause and
Necessity, set the stage for our piece.
641 b 10
642 a 1
642 b 5 ch. 2
644 a 11 ch .4
Criticisms o f dichotomy as a method of

classification of animals.
The correct method of classification is by
groups, such as Birds and Fishes.
644 a 23
Answer to question (1).

We must deal with groups, not species (e.g.
Bird, not Crane), and where a species does
not belong to a larger group, we must deal
with species, not individuals (e.g. Man,
not Socrates).
644 b 21 ch. 5
An Exhortation to the study of animals.
645 b l
Final summary o f the Method, combining

answers to both the original questions :
( 1) First we discuss the attributes common
to a group;
(2) Then we give the explanation of them.
II.
ch. 1 Purpose and outline of the Treatise : Our
subject is the c a u s e s of the parts of
animals.
B ook
646 a 8
14
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
646 a 13
647 a 3
647 a 25
647 b 10 ch. 2
648 a 20
649 b 9
651 a 20
651 b 20
652 a 24
653 b 19
ch. 5
ch. 6
ch. 7
ch. 8
ch. 10
Three modes o f composition :

( 1) Oat of the elements or dynameis
(hot, cold, fluid, solid).
(2) The uniform parts (bone, flesh, etc.).
(3) The non-uniform parts (face, hand,
etc.).
The relation of them to each other, and
the way in which the Causes control this
relation.
Parts may be divided into :
(a) Instrumental parts (non-uniform).
(b) Media of sensation (uniform).
The faculty of sensation has its seat in the
heart, which is thus uniform; but it is
also non-uniform, as it has to do with
motion.
The uniform parts, generally. Variations
occur in each of them, as is illustrated by
the example of Blood.
Resumption of the Three modes o f com
position :
(1) The primary substances : meaning of
hot, cold, solid," fluid, with
special reference to Blood. This merges
into a discussion of
(2) The Uniform parts.
Blood. Fibres. Intelligence and sensi
tivity, and temperament generally.
Serum.
Lard and Suet (forms of Blood).
Marrow (a form of Blood).
The Brain.
Flesh the part " p a r excellence
and its counterpart.
Bones, and their counterparts, and
parts similar to Bone.
(3) The Non-uniform parts of animals.
(This occupies the rest of the work.)
15
ARISTOTLE
655 b 28
656 a 14
657 a 12 ch. 11
657 a 25 ch. 13
658 b 27 ch. 16
659 b 20
660 a 14 ch .17
B o o k III.
661 a 34 ch. 1
661 b 27
662 a 16
662 a 34
662 b 23 ch. 2
664 a 13 ch.3
664 a 36
664 b 20
General statement of the three organs

indispensable to animals.
Head : Brain. Sense-organs.
Ears.
Eyes, etc. (ch. 14 : Eyelashes
and digression on Hair).
Nostrils (esp. the Elephant's).
Lips.
Tongue.
Teeth.
(Note on the more and less.")
Mouth.
Beak.
Horns.
Neck : Oesophagus.
Larynx and windpipe.
Epiglottis.
665 a 27 eh. 4
Internal Parts of Blooded Animals:

Viscera:
665 b 5
667 b 15 ch.5
Heart.
Blood-vessels (Great Blood-vessel and
Aorta, and generally).
Lung.
(Why viscera are double, and other
remarks.) Liver and Spleen.
Bladder.
Kidneys.
Diaphragm.
Membranes.
Variations in the Viscera (Liver and
Spleen).
Stomach and Intestines.
Jejunum.
Rennet.
668 b 33 ch. 6
669 b 13 ch. 7
670 b 32
671 a 26
672 b 8
673 b 4
673 b 12
ch. 8
ch. 9
ch. 10
ch. 11
ch. 12
674 a 9 ch. 14
675 b 29
676 a 7 ch. 15
B o o k IV.
676 a 23 ch. 1
16
General.
Internal parts of Ovipara.
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
676 b 16 cli. 2
677 b 15 ch. 3
677 b 37 ch. 4
678 a 27 ch. 5
681 a 10
682 a 30
682 a 35
683 b 4
683 b 25
684 b 7
ch. 6
ch. 7
ch. 8
ch. 9
Gall-bladder and Bile,

Omentum,
Mesentery.
Internal Parts of Bloodless Animals
(Insects, Testacea, Crustacea, Cephalopods). With special reference to the
Sepia's ink, and the Sea-urchin's
ova."
Creatures intermediate between animals
and plants.
External Parts of Bloodless Animals:
O f Insects,
O f Testacea.
O f Crustacea,
O f Cephalopods.
685 b 30 ch. 10 External Parts of Blooded Animals:

(a) Vivipara, (b) Ovipara.
686 a 6
686 a 24
687 a 2
688 a 12
689 a 4
689 b 2
690 a 5
690 b 12
690 b 18
692 b 4
695 b 2
() Vivipara:
Head and Neck.
Hands and Feet and relative propor
tion of limbs. Beginning from Man,
whose position is upright, there is a
gradation of declivity in the animals,
continuing to the plants, which are
upside-down.
Natures habit in assignment of organs.
The structure of the human hand, etc.
Breast.
Excretory organs.
Rear parts.
Hoofs, hucklebones, etc.
() Ovipara:
(i) Serpents and Quadrupeds.
(ii) Birds.
(iii) Fishes.
17
ARISTOTLE
697 a 15
(c) Intermediate Creatures:

Cetacea.
Seals and Bats.
Ostrich.
697 b 27
Conclusion.
A glance at the summary will show clearly the

fiction* orêr o f subjects which Aristotle lays down in the
first book to be followed in a treatise such as the
one in which he is engaged.
Method of
First,
(A ) to describe the parts o f animals as they

are observed to be ; and
then, (B ) to give an account o f their causes, and
their formative processes.0
Under (A ) the order o f preference is to be : first,
the parts ( 1) common to all animals ; (2)
where neccssary, those common to a
group o f animals only ; and lastly, (3) in
exceptional instances, those peculiar to a
single species.
Also, it will be seen how Aristotle works out this
scheme in the three books which follow. Before
considering that, however, we should notice that
Aristotle has a great deal to say about the correct
classification o f animals or rather, against the in
correct classification o f them. Chiefly, he inveighs
against the method o f dichotomy ; and his chief
objection to it is a simple and effective one that it
does not work. I t forces us to assign to each species
one distinguishing mark, and one only (642 b 21
643 a 24). And it cuts off kindred species from each
other on the strength o f some quite subordinate
k
De partibus is concerned chiefly with the causes and less

with the processes.
18
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
characteristic (642 b 10 foil.). The right method,
says Aristotle, is to follow popular usage and divide
the animals up into well-defined groups such as
Birds and Fishes. A nd this leads him to distinguish
two stages o f difference :
() Cases in which the parts differ ** by excess or
defect as in different species o f the same
genus or group.
() Cases in which the resemblance is m erely one
o f analogy as in different genera.
Examples o f (a) : differences o f colour and shape ;
many or few ; large or small ;
smooth or rough ; e.g. soft and
firm flesh, long and short bill,
many or fewr feathers.
( b) bone and fish-spine ; nail and
h o o f; hand and claw ; scale and
feather.
(Reff. for the above, D e part. an. 644 a 11-b 15 ; Hist,
an. 486 a 15-b 21. See also Gen. An. (L o e b ), Introd.)
The doctrine o f differences o f " excess and defect, The morn
and less.
or, as Aristotle also calls them, o f the more and
less, may usefully be compared with that which
underlies the modern theory o f Transformations, and
the comparison o f related forms. Indeed, Professor
D A rcy Thompson asserts that " it is precisely . . .
this Aristotelian * excess and d e fe c t ' in the case
o f form which our co-ordinate method is especially
adapted to analyse, and to reveal and demonstrate
as the main cause o f w hat (again in the Aristotelian
sense) we term * specific * differences ( Growth and
a And o f course, into Blooded and Bloodless, though there
are, as Aristotle points out, no popular names for these
groups.
19
ARISTOTLE
Form , p. 726). The co-ordinates to which he refers
are those o f the Cartesian method, on which is based
the theory o f Transformations. By means o f them
it is possible to exhibit, say, the cannon-bones o f the
ox, the sheep, and the giraffe as strictly proportionate
and successive deformations o f one and the same form.
These deformations can be either simple elongations,
as in the instance just cited, or they may occur
according to an oblique or a radial system o f co
ordinates, etc. In this way, differences o f excess
and defe'ct are reduced to the term inology o f
mathematics ; and it is especially interesting to
notice this, as the phrase excess and defect itself
had, in the Greek o f A ristotles time, a mathematical
connexion. W ith it may be compared the wellknown Platonic phrase, the great and small. But
this is not the place to enlarge upon such topics.6
CUssificaTo return to A ristotles classification. W e find
2 f that he implements his preliminary outline in the
following way :
I. First, he treats o f the parts which are found in
many different groups o f animals, and also those
wliich are to be considered counterparts o f each
other in different groups. This corresponds to
A ( 1) above.
I I . As he proceeds with this, he comes to the
Viscera, which occur only in blooded animals.
This provides a convenient point for embarking
upon his second main division corresponding
For details see DArcy Thompson, op. cit. ch. xvii.
6 The reader is referred to A. E. Taylor, Forms and
Numbers, in Mind, xxxv. 419 foil. ; xxxvi. 12 foil. ; DArcy
Thompson, Excess and Defect, in Mind, xxxviii. 43 foil.
e By viscera Ar. means the blood-like ones only.
20
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
to A (2) above the parts common to a group
o f animals, and we have fir s t:
The Internal Paris o f Blooded Animals.
I I I . This is followed by
The Internal Parts o f Bloodless Animals.
Then,
IV . The External Paris o f Bloodless Animals.
Then,
V. The External Parts o f Blooded Animals,

which includes
(a) Vivipara.
(b) Ovipara.
(i) Serpents and Quadrupeds.
(ii) Birds.
(iii) Fishes.
(c) Interm ediate Creatures.
References to exceptional instances, as to M an,
corresponding to the division A (3) above, are o f
course to be found throughout the work.
A ristotle thus works out the main lines o f his
classification. A nd in each instance, where possible,
he endeavours to assign the Cause, to name the
purpose, which is responsible for the parts as he
describes them. This corresponds to (B ) above.
A nd here Aristotle is forced to admit an apparent
addition to his scheme o f Causes. The purpose, the
good End, the final Cause, cannot always g e t a free
hand. There is another Cause, Necessity. Aristotle
takes great care to explain what is the nature o f this
Necessity (64*2 a 2 foil.). It is what he calls Necessity
ex hypothesis or conditional Necessity, the sort
o f Necessity which is implied by any final Cause
being what it is. I f a piece o f wood is to be split
by an axe, the axe must ex hypothesi be hard and
sharp, and that necessitates the use o f bronze or
21
Necessity,
ARISTOTLE
iron in the making o f it. The same sort o f Necessity
applies in the works o f Nature, for the living body
itself is an instrument. I t is thus the final Cause
which necessitates the various stages o f the process
o f formation and the use o f such and such material.
Another kind o f Necessity, however, makes its
appearance in Natural objects, and that is simple
Necessity. The mere presence o f certain things in
a living organism entails o f necessity the presence o f
others (see 645 b 32, 677 a 17, b 22). Some results
follow inevitably from the very nature o f the material
used. This simple Necessity can therefore be
regarded as a reassertion o f themselves by the
m otive and material Causes as against the final
Cause. Sometimes, however, even in circumstances
where simple Necessity operates, Nature is able to
use the resulting products to subserve a final Cause
(663 b 22, 32, 677 a 15 ; see also the note on Residues,
p. 32). C f Gen. An. (L o e b ), Introd. 6-9.
Scheme of
The following table will show at a glance the
animals. scjieme
Animals as treated o f by Aristotle in the
D e partibus :
A.
looded
n im a l s
B.
B loo d less A
Man
Insects
Viviparous quadrupeds
Testacea
Oviparous
quadrupeds
and footless animals
(reptiles and amphibians)
Crustacea
Cephalopods
Birds
Fishes
See Be gen. an. 778 b
22
n im a l s
1,
PARTS OF A N IM A LS
Intermediate
between the above classes
Intermediate
between land and water

animals
Cetacea
Seals
between animals and

plants
Ascidians
Sponges
Holothuria
Acalephae
between quadrupeds and

birds
Bats
Ostrich
Note on the Four Classes o f Bloodless Animals.

These, in order o f increasing softness, as noted
above, are the following ( I give the Greek term, its
literal translation, and the term which I have used
to translate it in this volume) :
tcl I v r o f i a
insected animals
ra oo-rpaKoSfpfia shell-skinned animals
ra fmkaKo&TpaKa soft-shelled animals
ra iw.Xa.Kia
softies
Insccts
Testacea
Crustacea
Cephalopods
In using Testacea to translate ra oo-rpaKoSepim

( the animals with earthenware skins ), I use
it in the old-fashioned sense, so as to include a
number o f shelled invertebrates, comprising Gasteropods, Lamellibranchs, and some Echinoderms. I t
does not refer to the Testacea o f modern zoologists,
by whom the term is applied to the Foraminifera
which are shelled Protozoa. The word Ostracoderms (a transliteration o f A risto tles word) is now
given by zoologists to a group o f prim itive fossil
fishes.
23
ARISTOTLE
T
Technical
terms.
e r m in o l o g y
The following notes on some o f the more difficult

and important o f the technical terms used by Aristotle
in the D e partibus will, I hope, help to explain m y
translation and also to give some indication o f the
background o f A ristotles thought. (A fuller account
will be found in D e Gen. An., L oeb edn.)
A I t la, cause.
I retain the traditional translation cause,
although perhaps in some contexts reason may
be a closer rendering, but a variation in the English
term m ight well produce more confusion than clarity.
T o know, says Aristotle, is to know by means o f
Causes (see Anal, post, 94 a 20). A thing is explained
when you know its Causes. And a Cause is that
which is responsible, in any o f four senses, for a
things existence. The four Causes, o f which two
are mentioned very near the beginning o f the first
book (639 b 11), are :
( 1) The Final Cause, the End or O bject towards
which a formative process advances, and f o r the
sake o f which it advances the logos, the rational
purpose.
( 2) The M otive (or Efficient) Cause, the agent which
is responsible for having set the process in motion ;
it is that by ivhich the thing is made.
(3) The Formal Cause, or Form, which is responsible
for the character o f the course which the process
follows (this also is described as the logos, ex
pressing jrhat the thing is).
(4*) The M aterial Cause, or M atter, out o f ivhich the
thing is made.
24
PARTS OF AN IM ALS
It will be seen that the first three Causes tend
naturally to coalesce under the aegis o f the Formal
Cause, in opposition to the fourth, the M aterial
Cause, a contrast which is clearly put by Adam o f
St. Victor in one o f his hymns :
effectiva vel form alis
causa Deus, etjinalis>
sed numquam materia.
Hence, o f course, comes the regular contrast o f
form and m atter, in which, oddly enough, in
modern usage the two terms have almost exchanged
meanings. M ere form , em pty form , in con
trast with the real m atter, are phrases which
indicate a point o f view very different from that o f
Aristotle. A n equally drastic reversal o f meaning
has overtaken the term substance, as contro
versies on transubstantiation, and the existence
o f the word unsubstantial prove. Cause has
certainly been more fortunate ; but its meaning has
been narrowed down, so that cause now usually
suggests the efficient cause only. A t the same
time, we allow ourselves a wider variety o f efficient
causes than Aristotle, and are more ready to admit
actions and events or even series o f actions and events.
W e have, in fact, applied A ristotles precise terminology to the wider uses o f everyday non-technical
purposes. For Aristotle, the doctrine o f the Four
Causes provides an exhaustive and precise classifica
tion o f the things w hich can be responsible for another
thing's existence, and by the naming o f them the
thing can be com pletely accounted for.
As an illustration the following will serve.
Suppose the object to be explained is an oak. The
25
ARISTOTLE
chronological order o f the Causes is different from
their logical one.
(i.)
The M otive Cause: the parent oak which

produced the acorn.
(ii.) The M aterial C ause: the acorn and its nour
ishment.
(iii.) The Formal Cause. Th e acorn as it grew
into a tree followed a process o f development
which had the definite character proper to
oaks.
(iv.) The Final Cause : the end towards which
the process advanced, the perfected oak-tree.
Aoyos.
There are several places in the D e partibus where,
rather than represent \oyo? by an inadequate or
misleading word, I have transliterated it by logos.
This serves the very useful purpose o f reminding the
reader that here is a term o f very varied meanings,
a term which brings into mind a number o f correlated
conceptions, o f which one or another may be upper
most in a particular case. I t is an assistance i f we
bear in mind that underlying the verb \kyetv, as it
is most frequently used, is the conception o f rational
utterance or expression, and the same is to be found
with \oyos, the noun derived from the same root.
Aoyos can signify, simply, something spoken or uttered;
or, with more prominence given to the rationality o f
the utterance, it can signify a rational explanation,
expressive o f a thing s nature, o f the plan o f i t ; and
from this come the further meanings o f principle, or
law, and also o f definition, or form ula, as expressing
26
the structure or character o f the object defined.
(N ote here the application o f the term logos to the
Final and Formal Causes, reeorded in the foregoing
note.) Another common meaning is seen especially
in the use o f the dative Aoya> (cf. the verb Aoyt( o/juxi
and its noun) by reasoning, in thought, as opposed to
fact or action. (See 640 a 32, A r t is the Aoyos rou
iipyov o avev ti }s vA>/s; at 646 b 2 we read o f the
Aoyos o f a process o f formation sueh as building, and
the Aoyos o f the house which is b u ilt ; at 67S a 35
o f the Aoyos which defines the essence o f something,
and at 695 b 19 o f the Aoyos o f the essence. A t
639 b 15 the Cause for the sake o f which the
Final Cause is described as being a Aoyos.)
ri'<ris, form ation, or proeess o f formation.

rtyi'ecrâi, to be form ed, to go through a proeess
o f formation.
These are the translations which I normally use,
as more appropriate in a biological treatise than
coming into being, and the like.
The proeess o f formation is o f course closely con
nected in A ristotles thought with the doctrine o f the
Four Causes.
reVeo-is is a process which, at any rate in biology,
results in the production o f an actual object, a living
creature.
r v 7i<?is also contrasted with o i W a and <j>v<nsa: the
order o f things, we are told, in the process o f formation
is the reverse o f the order in reality. For example,
the bricks and mortar exist for the sake o f the house
a Care should be taken not to regard <j>vois as meaning
the process of <f>veo9ai.
B
27
ARISTOTLE
which is to be built out o f them, but they and not it
come first in the order o f tim e and fact. Aristotle
sums this up by saying that what comes last in the
process comes first in nature (646 a 25).
Mo/nov, ** part.
The term which occurs in the title o f the treatise
and is traditionally rendered part includes more
than is normally included in the English part o f
the body. For instance, this would not normally
be applied to blood, but the term fiopiov is applied
by Aristotle to all the constituent substances o f the
body as well as to the limbs and organs. For him,
blood is one o f the
fxopia (648 a 2 ; see also
664 a 9, 690 a 8). A striking instance o f the use o f
fxopiov in this sense is the phrase ra ofxoiofieprj fiopia,
which are the subject o f the next following note.
Ta ofioiofieprj jxopia, the uniform parts.
Ta dvofioioficpyj fxopia, ,c the non-uniform parts.
A ristotles application o f the term fiopiov to both
these classes emphasizes the inclusiveness o f its
meaning. As examples o f the uniform parts he
mentions (647 b 10) blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,
semen, bile, milk, flesh these are soft and fluid
ones ; also bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-vessel
these are hard and solid ones. O f non-uniform
parts he gives as examples (640 b 20) face, hand, foot.
The relation o f the uniform parts to the nonuniform he describes as follows (647 b 22 foil.) :
For the meaning of fluid and solid see below,
p. 32.
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
(a) some o f the uniform are the material out o f
which the non-uniform are made (i.e. each
instrumental part is made out o f bones, sinews,
flesh, etc.) ;
( b) some act as the nutriment o f (a) ;
(c) some are the residue o f (6) faeces, urine.
I t is not possible to equate the two classes with the
later division into tissues and organs, since blood,
for instance, though 41 uniform, is not a tissue ; the
term organs, however, corresponds closely with
Aristotle's own description ra opyaviKa fxcprj
(647 b 23), instrumental parts.
The practical difference between the two classes
is that each o f the uniform parts has its o w t i definite
character as a substajice (in the modern sense), while
cach o f the non-uniform parts has its own definite
character as a conformation or organ. The heart is
the only part which belongs to both classes (647 a 25
fo il.): it consists o f one uniform part only, namely,
flesh ; but it also has essentially a definite configura
tion, and thus it is a non-uniform part.
Three stages or degrees o f composition, so far
as biology is concerned, are enumerated by A ristotle
(at 646 a 13 foil.). W h at Aristotle seems to mean,
though he has not expressed him self quite clearly,
is that there are three stages involved in the com
position o f compound bodies, namely,
( 1) the S w a zis (see following note) ;
( 2) the uniform parts ;
(3) the non-uniform parts ;
and finally, o f course, out o f the non-uniform parts
(4) the animal itself is composed.
29
ARISTOTLE
W e have thus:
( 1 ) the simplest sorts of matter ;
( 2) the simplest organic substances compounded
out of the foregoing (having no definite size,
shape, or structure) ;
( 3) the instrumental parts of the body constructed
out of the foregoing (having definite size, shape,
and structure) ; and
(4) the organism as a 'whole, assembled out of the
foregoing.
Note. For a description of the way in which the
term Ta o/xoto/xc/??} has caused confusion in the accounts
of Anaxagoras's theories see Class. Qu., 1931, xxv. 34
following.
Aipafits*
This is one of the most difficult terms to render in
English.
The specialized meaning of Svra/x, potenti
ally, as opposed to cvtpycla, actually, is so well
known that there is no need to enlarge upon it here.
Nor need I discuss the mathematical meaning of
Svvapis. Other meanings need some comment.
( 1)
Avva/us was the old technical term for what
were later to be called c t t o ( e l e m e n t s ) .
It
appears in the writings of the Hippocratic corpus
and in Platos Timaeus. The best example of its
use in D e partibus is at the beginning of Book II.
(646 a 15). The list of Swdptis included the sub
stances known as to vypov, to i//>oi', to Oepfiov, to
\pv\pov, to 7-tKpov, to ykvKv, to Spi/xv, etc., etc. Only
the first four of these were regarded by Aristotle as
30
PARTS OF AN IM ALS
the material o f compound bodies : all the " other
differences, he says, are consequent upon these.
The original meaning underlying this usage o f the
term seems to have been strong substance o f a
particular character/ This would be very appro
priate to t o SpifiVy t o T r iK p o v y etc. (see IIept dpxa(r)$
n^TpLKTjs). There is no notion here o f the substance
having power in the sense o f power to affect an
external body in a particular way. (This meaning
developed later.) I f any effect did result, it would
be described simply as the presence o f the strong
substance, and the remedy for it was to concoct
the strong substance or otherwise to bring it into
a harmless condition by blending it with other
substances.
(2) As each o f the substances known as Wa/iets
has its own peculiar character, sharply marked off
from the others, the meaning o f peculiar and dis
tinctive character was naturally associated with the
term. This seems to be its meaning in 655 b 12 :
d i 'd y K i ]*
Sc T u v ra TTarra y tu tS r]
ku
orc/xa i' \ e t
tyjv
(fiiwiv o7tAov yap avry Svi'aftis. Indeed, in this mean

ing, Svvapis seems to be a slightly more emphatic
version o f <i'cn?, with which it is often used in con
junction (in Hippocrates, for instance), or in a parallel
way as in the passage just cited. Compare also
651 b 21, where the marrow is asserted to be ou/zatos
tl<s
not, as some suppose, t /'/s yovijs cnrepp.aTiK-tj
<5vi'apis. Other instances o f this use o f SiVa/xts will
be found in D e partibus.
(3) From this usage it is not far to the idiomatic,
pleonastic usage, e.g. :
678 a 13 7/ to)v Ivrkpdiv Sm'a/zis almost =
682 b 15 rj twv tttc/owv Svvaptis.
Ta
evTepa.
31
ARISTOTLE
657 a 4
1) twv pvKTrjpuiV Svvapis Sufrvrjs.
This is paralleled by a similar usage o f <j>v<ri$ x

663 a 34 rj rwv Kcparoiv <j>v<ris,
676 b 11 fj tuv kvrkptav <l>vcris,
(O ther references for Svvapis : 640 a 24, 646 a 14,
b 17, 650 a 5, 651 b 21, 652 b 8, 12, 653 a 2, 655 b 12,
658 b 34. See further Gen. Jw., Loeb edn., Introd.
23 ff.).
T5 vypov Kal rb ^tjpovy M fluid substance and solid
substance,** the fluid and the solid.
These are two o f the Swdfitis.
Following O gle, I use these renderings as being
more in conformity with the definitions given by
Aristotle than the moist and the dry, which have
often been used. Actually neither pair o f English
words quite expresses the Greek. A ristotles de
finition o f them (at D e gen. et corr. 329 b 30) is this :
vypov is that which is not lim ited by any limit o f
its own but can be readily limited, ypov is that
which is readily lim ited by a limit o f its own but can
with difficulty be limited i.e. o f course by a limit
imposed from without.
H e discusses the various senses in which these
terms are used at 649 b 9 following.
IIe/HTTa>/za, residue.
This term I have translated throughout residue,
32
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
as being more literal and at the same time less mis
leading than excrem ent/ Surplus would have
been even better i f the word had been a little more
manageable.
Residue is so called because it is that wliich is
left over when the living organism, by acting upon
the nutriment which it has taken, has provided itself
with a sufficient supply for its upkeep. Some o f the
surplus will be useless material contained in the food
from the outset, or else has been produced during
the process o f reducing the food into a condition
suitable for its purposes in the body. The useless
residues include the excrements. In order to appreci
ate the status o f the useful residues the outlines o f
the processes through which the food passes must be
kept clearly in mind. Briefly, then, the food is
masticated in the mouth, then passed on to the
stomach and then the heart, where it is concocted a
by means o f heat in other words, it is turned into
blood, which is the 44 ultimate nourishment ; and
this, when distributed into the blood-vessels, supplies
the body with nutrition. Generally, however, more
blood is produced than is necessary for the actual
upkeep o f the body, and this surplus undergoes a
further stage o f concoction, and is used by Nature
in various ways. Marrow' is a residue ; so are semen,
catamenia, milk.
Sometimes, wiien nutrition is
specially abundant, the surplus blood is concocted
into fat (lard and suet). And some o f the blood,
reaching the extremities o f the vessels in which it
travels, makes its wray out in the form o f nails, claws,
or hair. The Aristotelian doctrine o f residues came
down to Shakespeare, as is shown by the passage
0 See page 34.
33
ARISTOTLE
in Hamlet
(h i.
iv.) where the Queen says to H a m le t:
Your bedded haire, like life in excrements,

Start up, and stand an end.
This theory, as applied to hair, is expounded by
Aristotle at 658 b 14 following, and modern biochemists
have reason for believing that some pigmentation in
animals, such as the black melanin o f mammalian
hair, or the yellow xanthopterine o f the butterflys
wing, is physiologically a form o f excretion.
Concoct
coficoction.
These terms, which have already appeared in

these notes, are used to translate Triororciv, irexfns, The
Greek words are the same as those employed to
denote the process o f ripening or maturing o f fruit,
corn, and the like by means o f heat also that o f
baking and cooking.
Terms sometimes associated with these are
and /xtrapaAAetv. For example, at 650 a 5 wre read
that 7T\J/is and jturafioXi) take place Sia tvJs to? Oep/iov
Bvvdfiem; and at 651 b 26, as the creatures grow
and g e t matured, the parts fitTafidkXec their
colour, and so do the viscera.
V v x n , Soul.
The English word Soul, as will be seen, over
emphasizes, when compared with
certain
aspects o f the Greek term, but it is by far the most
convenient rendering, and I have used it in pre
ference to life or vital principle.
I t will be useful to have an outline o f A ristotles
general doctrine about Soul.
The different parts or faculties o f Soul can
34
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
be arranged in a series in a definite order, so that the
possession o f any one o f them implies the possession
o f all those which precede it in the list :
( 1)
(2)
S)
4)
( 5)
nutritive Soul
sentient Soul
appetitive Soul
locomotive Soul
rational Soul
in all plants
in all animals
1
,
) ln so,ne ammals
in man only
A t 641 a 23 Aristotle speaks o f parts o f the

Soul, and though he often uses this phrase, the
description he prefers is faculties. In the passage
which follows (641 a 33 foil.) all except appetitive
Soul are mentioned. Sentient Soul is mentioned
again at 650 b 24, 667 b 23, 672 b 16.
Aristotle raises the question whether it is the
business o f Natural science to deal with Soul in its
entirety, and concludes that it is not necessary, since
man is the only animal in which rational Soul is
found. Thus it is only some part or parts o f Soul,
and not Soul in its entirety, which constitute animal
nature.
In the passage 641 a 14 following, Aristotle takes
for granted his doctrine about Soul, which is as
follows (D e anima, Book II.). Anim ate bodies, bodies
with Soul in them (eji\pv\a), are concrete sub
stances made up o f matter and form. In this
partnership, o f course, the body is the m atter and the
Soul is the form. Thus Soul may be described as the
form or realization (ei'reAf\;iu, actuality )
o f the animal (cf. D e part., loc. cit.).
This statement, however, is elsewhere made more
precise. I t is possible to distinguish I jvo realiza
tions o f an an im al; for an animal has Soul in i t
b2
35
ARISTOTLE
even when it is asleep, but its full activity is not
evident until it is awake and about its business. W e
must call Soul, then, the first realization o f the
animal, its waking life its second realization.
This distinction does not concern us in the D e partibus.
But an expansion o f the definition is not irrelevant.
Aristotle states that the Soul is the first realization
o f a body furnished with organs. The priority o f
Soul over body is emphasized in the passage just
referred to (640 b 23 641 a 32), and in another in
teresting passage (687 a 8 foil.) Aristotle maintains
that man has hands because he is the most intelli
gen t animal, and not, as some have said, the most
intelligent animal becausc he has hands.
W ith this is connected the question whether the
Soul is independent o f the b o d y ; though it is not
raised in D e partibus. As we have seen already, a
fcoov is a single concretc entity made up o f Soul and
body, i.e. a certain form implanted in certain matter.
The m atter can exist, for it did exist, apart from the
form ; and as the form that is implanted in all the
individuals o f a species is one and the same form,
clearly it can exist apart from any one individuals
m atter though o f course its existence is not in
dependent o f all the individuals matter. Further
more, the form the Soul requires m atter o f a
particular kind : not any sort o f m atter will do.
From these considerations two conclusions seem to
follow : ( 1) that transmigration is impossible : a
human Soul cannot function in a hyenas body, any
more than the carpenters art can be executed by
means o f musical instruments ; (2) the Soul cannot
function without a body at a l l ; cannot, we may say,
exist (414 a 19).
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
So far, so good. But Aristotle is not satisfied.
H e feels the Soul is more than that. H e finds a
loophole. There may be some part o f Soul (the
rational part) which is not the realization o f any
body. The Soul, besides being the form, the formal
Cause, o f the body, is also its final Cause, and not
only that, but the m otive Cause too o f all the changes
originated in the body (D e anima 415 b 7-28), for, as
we saw (p. 25), the three non-material Causes tend
to coalesce into one. This independent part o f
Soul ** comes into the body from without (see De
gen. an. 736 b 25 foil.) and continues to exist after
the death o f the body (see D e anima 413 a 6, b 24 foil.,
430 a 22, etc.). A ll ,this, however, raises problems
not touched upon in D e pariibus; indeed Aristotle
himself offers no solution o f them.
K p a v is 9 a iro K p K rts, <t v v t t ] i s .
I have indicated above, in the note on Svvajxis,

some o f the older (Hippocratic) medical terminology
o f which traces are to be found in the D e partibus.
There is no room for an adequate discussion o f such
terms and theories, and the following bare references
must suffice.
In the Hippocratic treatise U tp l 8 i a ( the theory
is put forward that the human organism, body and
Soul alike, is composed o f fire and water (wrhich
really consist o f the hot, the solid, the cold,
and the fluid ) the function o f fire being to cause
motion, o f water to provide nourishment. In ch. 35
wre have a list o f the different varieties o f Blend
(Kprjfrts, (rvyKprjo-is) o f fire and water which may be
37
ARISTOTLE
found in the Soul in different individuals, and upon
the Blend its health and sensitivity a depend.
W ith these statements may be compared the
following passages in D e partibus :
652 b 8
Some, says Aristotle, maintain that the

Soul is flic ; but it is better to say
that it subsists in some such material.
" The hot is indeed the most ser
viceable material for the functions
which the Soul has to perform, and
these include nourishing and causing
motion.
647 b 30 foil. H ere is a reference to the different
varieties o f blood, and Aristotle tells
us which sort o f blood is alo-OyjTLKoWepov
and which animals are on that account
<f>povijXMTpa ( c f 650 b 24 and 686 b 28).
The phrase aifxaros Kpacris is actually
used at 686 a 9* (C f. also 650 b 29, the
Kpao-is in the h e a rt; 652 b 35, the parts
in the head are colder than the o-vp.fXTpos Kpao'is ; 669 a 11, the Kpacris
o f the body ; 673 b 26, its eiKpacrta.)
Th e term crriT?;is, which occurs frequently in the
IIc/h Siarn/s, is found only once in the D e partibus
at 677 a 14 bile is said to be a residue or crrm/fis.
Properly speaking, <ri'm/is is the term applicable to
the colliquesccnce or decay o f the parts o f the body
themselves. (C f. (rvvT^y/j.a at D e gen. an, 724 b 26
fo il.; also
456 b 3 i ; cf. also P la tts note
at the end o f his translation o f D e gen. an., on 724 b 27.)
Th e effect o f the colliquescence is to produce an
* The adjective used is (f>p6vtfios.
38
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
unhealthy d7r6Kpi(ri<s (abscession) a very common
term in Uepl Siat7-779 (see chh. 58 foil, throughout).
I t occurs twice in D e partibus. In both places it is
used o f a ircpiTTMfjLa. A t G90 a 9 the surplus earthy
matter diroKpicriv Xapftdvti, and forms a continuous
nail or hoof. A t 681 b 35 Aristotle speaks o f the
place where the (T7rp/xaTLKy or the TrepiTTUJ/xaTiKr)
airoKpio-is is effected ; and here aTroKpia-is seems to
mean simply act o f excretion. The meaning o f
the term seems both here and in Hippocrates to be
specially associated with 7rptTTw/xara, either useful
ones, or useless and even harmful ones. A great
deal o f Ilcpt Siarn/s is taken up with suggestions for
gettin g rid o f harmful dTroKpicreis.
Th e meaning o f d.T7QKpuris is therefore wider than
excretion or secretion, as used in their present
usual sense, though these are included among its
meanings.
Td f i a W o v koll f j t t o v , the more and less, see

above, p. 19, and Gen. An. (L o e b ), Introd. S 70 ff.
r a n s l a t io n s
of
r i s t o t l e s
Z o o lo g y
The history o f the translation o f A ristotles w'orks Transia*

begins with the Nestorian Christians o f Asia Minor, ^to/iea
wfho w ere familiar with the Greek language as their ^v0r1^ icai
service-books were wTitten in it, and before the wor
coming o f the Arabs they had translated some o f the
works o f Aristotle and Galen into Syriac. Before
39
ARISTOTLE
Ibas, who in that year was made Bishop o f
Edessa, had translated into Syriac the commentaries
o f Theodore on the works o f Aristotle. Jacob, one
o f Ib ass successors at Edessa ( d. 7 0 8 ), translated the
Categories into Syriac, but a much earlier version had
been made by Sergios o f Resh 'A in a (d. 5 3 6 ), who
had studied Greek at Alexandria. In 765 the Nestorian physician Georgios was summoned to Bagdad
by the Caliph, and translated numerous Greek words
into Arabic for him. B y the beginning o f the ninth
century, translation was in full swing at Bagdad,
under the Caliphate o f al-Mamun (8 1 3 -8 3 3 ), son o f
Harun-al-Rashid. Th e first leader o f this school
o f translators was the physician Ibn al-Batriq, who
translated the Historia animalium, the D e partibus
animalium, and the D e generatione animalium into
Arabic.
But it was through southern Italy, Sicily and Spain
that the transmission o f Aristotle's works from the
Arabic into Latin was effected. Messina had been
recovered from the Saracens b y 1060, and the whole
o f Sicily was freed by 1091. Under the Norman
kings, Greeks, Saracens and Latins lived together
in one community, and the court was the meetingground for eminent persons o f all nations and
languages. The reconquest o f Spain had begun in
the eighth century, so that here also an opportunity
offered for making the works o f Greek science
available in Latin. Archbishop Raymond o f Toledo
(1 1 2 6 -1 1 5 1 ) and Bishop Michael o f Tarazona (11191151) were the patrons o f the translators, who made
Toledo the centre o f their activity. One o f these
was M ichael Scot.
There is in existence an Arabic translation o f
435 ,
40
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
the zoological works, o f which there is a m s . in
the British Museum. It is probable that this is the
translation made by Ibn al-Batriq, and that this
Arabic version is the original from which M ichael
Scot made his Latin translation at Toled o.6 Michael
was, among his other accomplishments, astrologer to
Frederick II., K in g o f Sicily, at his court at Palermo,
and before 1217 he had reached Toledo and was at
work there on his translations from the Arabic. His
D e animalibus (a translation o f the zoological works in
nineteen books) is one o f his earliest works, and two
m s s . o f i t c contain a note which gives a later lim it
o f 1220 for the work. Other evidence d establishes
that it was certainly finished before 1217, and it may
even be placed in the first decade o f the century.
I t is probable that Michael had as collaborator one
Andrew, canon o f Palencia, form erly a Jew. One
o f the earliest to make use o f M ich aels transla
tions was Robert Grosseteste,* Bishop o f Lincoln
( d. 125 3), one o f the leading Aristotelian scholars
o f the tim e, who quotes from M ichael's version o f
a B.M.Add. 7511 (I3th-llth century). Thjte is the m s .
referred to by Steinschneider, Die arabischen Ubersetzungen
p. 64. as B.M. 437. I have seen this m s .
b Judging from the passages which Dr. R. Levy kindly
read for me in the Arabic m s ., the Latin version is a close
translation from it. Also, the contents-preface which is found
prefixed to Michael Scots translation corresponds exactly
with the preface which precedes the Arabic version in this
m s . (see the B.M. catalogue, Catalogus codicum manuscript
torum orlentalhim, p. 215).
c One o f them is m s . Caius 109, in the library of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. It is of the thirteenth
century.
d See S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions, p. 75.
Born at Stradbroke, Suffolk. A Franciscan.
41
ARISTOTLE
D e generatione,a The D e animalibus also formed the
basis o f a commentary in twenty-six books by
Albertus Magnus.5 This was probably written soon
after the middle o f the thirteenth century. E xcept
for the portions which appear in Albertuss com
mentary, and the earlier part o f the first chapter,6
M ich aels version has never been printed in extenso.
M ichael died in or before 1235, and is reputed to
have been buried, as he was born, in the lowlands o f
Scotland.
About the same time, at the request o f a pupil o f
Albertus, St. Thomas Aquinas (1 2 2 7 -1 2 7 4 ), who re
quired more accurate versions for his commentaries
on the works o f Aristotle, new translations, direct
from the Greek, were being undertaken by W illiam
o f M oerbeke.d W illiam was born about 1215. H e
became a Dominican, was confessor to Popes Clement
IV . and G regory X ., and was Archbishop o f Corinth.
H e acted as Greek secretary at the Council o f Lyons
in 1274. H e died in 12S6. The earliest dated trans
lation made by him is one o f the D e partibus animalium.
T h e date 1260 occurs in a m s . o f it at Florence (Faesulani 168 ), which also contains Hist. an.,Deprogressu
an., and D e gen. an. This translation was made at
Thebes.
Am ong later Latin translators o f the zoological
According to Roger Bacon, Michael appeared at Oxford
in 1230, bringing with him the works of Aristotle in natural
history and mathematics.
b Ed. princeps, Rome, 1478; latest ed., H. Stadler,
1916-1921.
c 639 a 1 640 a 20, printed by G. Furlani in Rivista
degli Studi Oriental/, ix. (1922), pp. 246-249.
d A small town south of Ghent on the borders of Flanders
and Brabant.
42
PARTS OF AN IM ALS
works the names o f two Greeks must be mentioned.
George o f Trebizond (Trapezuntius), who was born
in Crete in 1395, visited Ita ly between 1430 and
1438, and was secretary to the humanist Pope
Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. G eorges work,
however, was hurried and not over-exact, and he,
together with his predecessors, was superseded by
his contemporary Theodore o f Gaza, who was born
in Thessalonica about 1400, and was professor o f
Greek at Ferrara in 1447. In 1450 Theodore wras
invited by the Pope to go to Rome to make Latin
versions o f Aristotle and other Greek authors. His
translation o f the zoological w orks," dedicated to the
Pope, Sixtus IV ., soon became the standard version,
and it is printed in the Berlin edition o f Aristotle.
Translations o f the D e gen. wrere made by Augus
tinus Niphus, o f the University o f Padua (11-73-1546),
and o f the D e gen. and D e incessu by P eter Alcyonius
(Venice, 1487-1527). The Degen. was also translated
by Andronieus Callixtus o f Byzantium (d. 1478).
W ith the later Latin versions we need not here
concern ourselves, but something must be said o f
the scientific workers who wrere inspired by Aristotle,
and o f the translations into modern languages.
The Renaissance biologists show unmistakably the Aristotles
difference in quality which there is between A ristotles successorsphysics and his biology.
Hieronimo Fabrizio o f
Aequapendente (1537-1619) knew and admired
A ristotles work on em bryology, and wrhat is more,
himself carried out further important observations
on the same subject. His brilliant successor, W illiam
Harvey (1578-1657), wTas a student o f Aristotle, and
a In eighteen books, excluding the spurious tenth book of
the Historia animalium.
43
ARISTOTLE
much o f his inspiration came from that source.
W illiam H arvey was the first to make any substantial
advance in em bryology sincc Aristotle himself. But
this is more appropriate to the D e generatione than
to the D e partibus. In other departments o f study,
however, during the seventeenth ccntury, the
authority o f Aristotle and the scholastic doctrine
with which he was identified were being combated
in the name o f freedom, and thus it came about that
the zoological works also, which had been brought
to light by the dark ages, were allowed to pass back
into oblivion by the age o f enlightenment. T h ey were
not rediscovered until the end o f the eighteenth
century by Cuvier (1769-1832) and Saint-Hilaire
(1805-1895) in the nineteenth.
M
odern
E d it io n s
1. The Berlin edition of Aristotle, by Immanuel Bekker.

Vol. i. (pp. G39-G97) includes P. A. Berlin, 1831.
1a. The Oxford edition (a reprint of the preceding). Vol. v.
includes P.A. Oxford, 1837.
2. One-volume edition of Aristotles works, by C. II. Weise
(pre-Bekker text). Leipzig, 1843.
3. The Leipzig edition. Vol. v. contains P ,A ., edited and
translated into German by A. von Frantzius. Leip
zig, 1853.
4. The Didot edition. Vol. iii. includes P.A. Edited by
Bussemaker. Paris, 1854.
5. The Teubner edition. Edited by Bernhardt Langkavel.
Leipzig, 1868.
G. The Bude edition. Edited by Pierre Louis. With a
French translation and notes. Paris, 1956.
T
r a n s l a t io n s
w it h o u t
ext
7. Thomas Taylor. English translation of Aristotle in ten

44
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
volumes. Vol. vi. includes P. A. (pp. 3-163). London,
1810.
8. F. N. Titze. German translation of Book I. In his
Aristoteles uber die wissenschaftliche Behandlungsart
der Naturkunde. Prague, 1819.
9. Anton Karsch. German translation. Stuttgart, 1855
(second ed., Berlin, 1911).
10. William Ogle. English translation, with notes. Lon
don, 1882.
11. J. Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire. French translation, with
notes. Paris, 1885.
11. William Ogle. English translation, with notes (a re
vision of No. 10). Oxford 1911.
12. Francisco Gallach Pales. Aristoteles: Obras completas. Vol. X contains De partibus and De incessu
animalium. Spanish translation, without notes. Vol.
lxii. of Nueva Biblioteca Filosojica. Madrid, 1932.
Langkavel reproduces almost verbatim the Berlin
text, together with Bekkers apparatus, to which a
great deal o f other m atter has been added, including
some o f B ekkers m s . notes in his copy o f Erasmuss
edition, and some corrected reports o f the readings
o f the m s . E, which Langkavel himself inspected.
Also, there are some emendations proposed by
Bonitz.
A n y English translator must stand very much
indebted to the work o f W illiam O gle, whose trans
lation, originally published in 1882, was revised by
its author and republished in the O xford series of
translations o f Aristotle in 1911. It is not possible
to overrate the care and exactness with which this
piece o f work was executed. I should like here to
acknowledge m y own indebtedness to it, and I have
had its accuracy as a model before me. W ith re
gard to style, it will be seen that I have aimed at pro
ducing something rather different from O g le s version.
45
ARISTOTLE
T
The mss.
Restoration
of the text.
he
ext
The manuscript authorities cited by Bekker for the

D e partibus will be found on p. 50.
The dates o f some o f the m s s . as given by different
scholars vary considerably : for details I refer the
reader to the various catalogues, and also to L. Dittm eyers edition o f Ilist. an. (L eip zig, 1907) and W . W.
Jaegers edition o f De an. motu, etc. (L eip zig, 1913).
I have relied upon the apparatus o f Bekker and
Langkavel for the readings o f the Greek m s s ., except
for those o f Z, the oldest parts o f which I have collated
from photostats ; and at several places I have in
spected the m s . itself. In some places (e.g. 663 b 17,
685 a 2, 16) I found the reading had been defectively
reported. It is clear that a more reliable collation of
the chief m s s . o f D e partibus is clearly needed. From
a different source I have attem pted to restore intelligi
bility to several corrupt passages with the aid o f the
Arabic version and the Latin version o f Michael
Scot, which represent an earlier stage o f the Aristo
telian te x t than our Greek m s s . Am ong the passages
dealt with in this way are the passage at 654 b 14following, which has been dislocated by glosses and
phrases imported from elsewhere, and the remark
able passage about the structure o f the Cephalopods
at 684 b 22 following, where considerable havoc has
been done to the text by references to a diagram
wThich were inserted at some period between the
date o f the m s . from which the Arabic version was
made and that o f the archetype o f all our present
Greek m s s . I have been able to restore this passage,
though not always the actual Greek words, by refer
ence to the Arabic version and Michael Scots Latin
a See additional note on p. 434.
46
PARTS OF A N IM ALS
translation made from it. Dr. Reuben L e v y has
most kindly read this passage for me in the 13th-14th
century Arabic m s . in the British Museum, Add. 7511.
For these two passages, and for a good many other
suspected places, I have consulted all the known m s s .
o f Michael Scots version which are to be found in
this country. T h ey are (excluding m s s . which contain
m erely abridgements or extracts) :
Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 109
University Library Ii. 3. 16

,,
,,
Dd. 4.30
Oxford, Merton College 278
Balliol College 252

London, British Museum Royal 12. C. X V
Harl. 4970
A ll these are o f the thirteenth or fourteenth
century.
I have inspected at test places the following three
m s s . o f W illiam o f M oerb ek es version :
Oxford, Merton College 270
n
ji
?
2/1
Balliol College 250

W illiam s translation wras made from a m s . or m s s .
w'hich had already been infected by the corruptions
found in the Greek m s s . which exist to-day.
I should like here to express m y thanks to the
Librarians who so kindly made arrangements for me
to inspect the m s s . under their care.
W h ere I have accepted the reading o f the Berlin Scop* of
edition, I have not given any record o f the m s . vari- crlucus!18
ants. These are to be found in the apparatus criticus
o f that edition and o f L an gkavels edition.
So far as I know, this m s . has not been mentioned in any

of the published lists of m s s . of Michael Scots De animalibus.
47
ARISTOTLE
I have endeavoured, except in the passage
691 b 28 to 695 a 22 in the fourth Book, to record
all places where I have departed from the tex t of
the Berlin edition, and I have given the source of
the reading which I have adopted. W here Bekker
himself introduced a reading different from that of
the m s s ., this is attributed to him by name.
Punctua
I have not recorded all o f the many passages in
tion.
which I have corrected the punctuation. The text
has been reparagraphed throughout.
R eference
Short biblio
graphy.
The following list includes authorities for state

ments made in the Introduction, and books which
the student o f the Aristotelian zoological works and
their history will find u sefu l:
C. II. Haskins, Studies in the History o f Medieval Science,
ed. 2, Cambridge, Mass., 1927.
W. Jnegcr, Aristotle (English tr. bv R. Robinson), Oxford,
1934.
L. Leclerc, Ilistoire de la medecine arabe, Paris, 1876.
T. E. Loncs, Aristotle's Researches in Natural Science,
London, 1912.
W. D. Ross, Aristotle, London, 1930.
J. E. Sandys, A History o f Classical Scholarship, Cam
bridge, 1908-1921.
C. Singer, Studies in the History and Method o f Science,
Oxford, 1921.
C. Singer, Greek Biology and Greek Medicine, Oxford, 1922.
M. Steinschneider, Die arabischen Vbersetzungen aus deni
Griechischen (Beiheft X II. zum Centralblatt fiir
Bibliotliekswesen), Leipzig, 1893.
M. Steinschneider, Die europdischen Vbersetzungen aus dein
Arabischen, in Sitzungsberichted. kais. Ahad. der Il'iss,,
cxlix., Vienna, 1905.
D Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and Form, Cambridge,
1917 (new ed., 1942).
48
D'Arcy W. Thompson, Essay on Natural Science 99 in
The Legacy o f Greece, Oxford, 1924.
S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions o f the Aristo
telian Scientific Corpus, London, 1931.
F. Wustenfeld, Die Uhersetzungen arahischer Werke in das
Lateinische, in Abhandlnngen dcr k. GeselL d. IViss.
zu Gottingen, xxii., 1877.
ckno w led gem ents
I t is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help

which I have received from many friends at Cambridge,
not only by way o f reading typescript and proof and
by discussion, but also by the interest which they
have shown in the work and by their continuous
encouragement. The following have read the trans
lation either in whole or in p a r t : Prof. F. M . Cornford, Professor o f Ancient Ph ilosoph y; Dr. F. H. A.
Marshall, Reader in Agricultural Physiology (who has
also kindly written the Foreword to this volume),
and Dr. Joseph Needham, Reader in Biochemistry.
I am under a particular obligation to m y colleague
M r. H . Rackham, who has read the whole translation
both in typescript and in proof. I am indebted
to Dr. Sydney Smith and a number o f other friends
for their kindness in discussing various points and
for reading certain passages. Dr. Reuben L e v y ,
Professor o f Persian, has kindly read for me some
passages in the Arabic translation o f the zoological
works. T o all o f these gentlem en, without wiiose
aid the work could not have been earned through,
I record m y sincerest thanks.
The present (third) edition has again been revised.
A . L. P.
July Uth 1952
49
SlGLA
E
Y
Z
U
P
S
Q
b
m
Parisinus regius 1853 (see p. 434)

Vaticanus graecus 261
Oxoniensis Coll. Corp. Chr. W .A . 2. 7 (see p. 434
Vaticanus 260
Vaticanus graecus 1339
Laurentianus Mediceus 81. 1
Marcianus 200
Parisinus 1859
Parisinus 1921
Michael Scots Latin version, from my
own transcription.
The usual reading, as in the Berlin
vulg.
edition.
Langkavel Emendations proposed by Langkavel in
his edition.
Emendations proposed by W illiam Ogk*
Ogle
in footnotes to his translation.
Emendations proposed by Arthur Platt,
Platt
either (a) in Notes on Aristotle, in
Journal o f Philology, 1913, xxxii. 292
following, or ( b) recorded by Ogle in
footnotes to his translation.
Suggestions in private communications
Cornford j
to me from Professor Cornford and Mr.
Rackhaml
Rackham.
Th(urot)
Ch. Thurot, in Rev. Arch., 1867.
Peck
Emendations proposed by myself.
a O f over 100 textual points, many being of minor import

ance, raised by Th., about a third had been dealt with in my
first edition (before Th.s work came to my notice), M>me of
them more fully, by other scholars or myself. Some of Th.s
other suggestions have been adopted in this edition.
50
The maister Cooke was called Concoction.

Spenser, Faerie Queen
API 2 TOTEAOT 2
riEPI ZS2IGN MOPIflN
A
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52
h vva crd a i
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ARISTOTLE
PARTS OF ANIMALS
BOOK I
here
are, as it seems, two ways in which a
person may be competent in respect o f any study or
investigation, whether it be a noble one or a humble :
he may have either what can rightly be called a
scientific knowledge o f the subject; or he may have
what is roughly described as an educated persons
competence, and therefore be able to ju dge correctly
which parts o f an exposition are satisfactory and
which are not. That, in fact, is the sort o f person
we take the man o f general education to be ; his
education consists in the ability to do this. In
this case, however, we expect to find in the one
individual the ability to judge o f almost all subjects,
whereas in the other case the ability is confined to
some special science; for o f course it is possible to
possess this ability for a limited field only. Hence
it is clear that in the investigation o f Nature, or
Natural science, as in every other, there must first
o f all be certain defined rules b y which the ac
ceptability o f the method o f exposition may be
tested, apart from whether the statements made
53
A R IS T O T L E
639
is fievcuv,
,,
TOV 7rcos> eXL TaXrjues, ire ovrw s
elre aAAcos1. Aeyou S otov 7rorepov Set X a ^ a v o v r a s

pLLav eKaorrjv ovalav rrepl ravrrjs hioptêiv /ca0*
avrrjv, otov
jSoos*
77
7rept
fiiv o v s > rj r a
koivov
20 7roAAot9
avOpwrrov (frvoeais
7}
Aeovros'
Koivfj ovfifieprjKora Tract Kara rt
vrroOeîevovs 7roAAd yap
vnapx^t
ra v ra
yeVeotr erep ois ov oiv dXXrjXcov, otov vnros,
ara77ro7j, av^rjats, </>0lois9 Oavaros, /cat 7rpo?

tols
7)
/cat rtros* aAAou /ca0* e/cao7*ov 7rpoêtptô-
to J -
oaa r o ia v ra rcov Xenrofxevcov 7Ta0u>v re /cat
Siafle'aeaw a6i)Xov ya p /cat aStoptcrroi' eon Aeyetv

iw
7rept
r o v r w v <f>avepov S ort /cat /cara jiepos
ptev X eyovres rrepl 7toAAojv epovfiev 7roXXaKis r a v r a

25 Kal yap
tc u v
47777019
/cat /cuot /cat avOpwrrois V7rapêt
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GVfxêPrjKora1 Xeyrj n s , 7roAAa/cts" avayKaoOrjaerai
7rept
auran' Ae'yetv, ocra raura /iev vrrapxî rot?
etSet Sia<f>epovoi
30 Siacftopav.
tojv
ip<x)v, a v ra Se firjSefiiav eêt
e re pa S too*? eartv ofs ou/t/JatVet rrjv
639 b p ev Karrjyoptav eêtv rrjv avrrjv Staêpetv Se rrj

/car etSos1 Sia<f)Opa, otov rj rcov iocov
yap (f>aivetai /xta r<p etSet Staêpet yap
7ropeta* 01)
777*7) 01? /cat
vevats /cat jSaStots' /cat epifjis.

Ato Set [J.r) SiaXeXrjdei'ai rr&s em oK errreov, Xeyoj
5 Se 7rorepov Koivfj Kara y ev o s rrpcorov, eld' vorepov
1 to avfi^c^TjKOTa Ogle: raiv (jvnfiefi-qKOTcov vnlg.
54
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, I. i.
represent the truth or do not. I mean, for instance,
should we take each single species severally by turn
(such as Man, or Lion, or Ox, or whatever it may
be), and define what we have to say about it, in and
by it s e lf; or should we first establish as our basis the
attributes that are common to all o f them because
o f some common character which they possess ? there
being many attributes which are identical though
they occur in many groups which differ among them
selves, e.g. sleep, respiration, growth, decay, death,
together with those other remaining affections and
conditions which are o f a similar kind. I raise this,
for at present discussion o f these matters is an obscure
business, lacking any definite scheme. H ow ever,
thus much is plain, that even i f we discuss them
species by species, we shall be givin g the same de
scriptions many times over for many different animals,
since every one o f the attributes I mentioned occurs
in horses and dogs and human beings alike. Thus,
i f our description proceeds by taking the attributes
for every species, we shall be obliged to describe the
same ones many times over, namely, those which
although they occur in different species o f animals are
themselves identical and present no difference what
ever. V ery likely, too, there are other attributes,
which, though they come under the same general
head, exhibit specific differences ; for example, the
locomotion o f animals : o f which there are plainly
more species than one e.g. flight, swimming, walk
ing, creeping.
Therefore we must make up our minds about
the method o f our investigation and decide whether
we will consider first what the whole group has in
55
A R IS T O T L E
)b
,
T repl
ra > v
vvv
yap
Ih lc o v
o i
d e c o p r jr e o v ,
h iiL p ia r a i
nepl
Kad
rj
a vro v,
eK a a rov
evO vs.
ou Se y e
to
vvv
p r j O r j a o f i e v o v , o l o v r r o r e p o v K a O a T r e p o l fjL a O rjfJL a riK ol
T a 77e p l r r j v a a r p o X o y l a v S e i K v v o v a i v , o v r c o Set K a l
rov
T a (j)a i v o f i e v a T T p w r o v r a
(f w a i K o v
10 d e c o p r j a a v r a
Kal
ra
fJLepi]
ra
T re p l
T re p l r a
eK a a rov,
u>a
e n e iO '
ovrco
A e y e i v t o S ia r l K a l r a s a i r l a s , fj a X X c o s T ro ts .
TTpos
Se
r r jv
r o v r o is ,
yeveaw
r r jv
odev
T ie p l
r r jv
ap \rj
rj
rovrcov,
TrXeiovs opcbfiev alrLas nepl
eVei
(f f v a i K r j v , o l o v
r r js
rro ia
r r jv
K iv r ja e t u s ,
T rpcorrj
ovrog,
K a ra
yap
r e y y r jv
rfj
la r p o s
a p xrj
Kal
S ia v o la
r r jv
ev
rj
Aoyo?
ro ts
v y ie ia v
eK a a rov,
e p y o is
ov
Kal
o5
rj
Tra a w
StOTt
eveK a
ev
ro ts
VTra pêi
r r js
Kal
Kal
rre^V K ev.
ev
Ao y o s
re
ro ts
a v v e a r r jK o a iv .
o p ia a jie v o s
0iK 0& 0fJL0s
7r o i r j r e o v
Kal
eveK a
n v o s
Kal rag alrlas
aTToSiSoaox r o v s X o y o v s
20 i a r l t o
eveK a
o fio lc u s
< f> vo ei
a la O r ja e t
rfj
ov
Sto p i a r e o v
Se v r e p a
Kal
15 (f y a l v e r a L Se T r p t b r r j f j v A e y o j i e v
yap
ovrcos*
r r jv
ov
rj
fie v
o iK ta v ,
n o L o v a iv
JJl o X X o v
S*
t o K a X o v e v r o l s r r j s <f>vaecos
T e '^ v ^ s.
r o ls
K a ra
to
< f> va w
a v d y K r js
o fio lc o s ,
eiIs
a This point is resumed and decided below, 644 a 23 ff.t

645 b 2 ff.
b Causes. See Introduction, pp. 24 ff.
* Formation. See Introduction, pp. 27 f.
d i.e. the final cause.
e i.e. the motive or efficient cause.
1 See Introduction, pp. 26 f.
B Cf. 645 a >4.
56
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I. i.
common, and afterwards the specific peculiarities ;
or begin straightway with the particular species.
Hitherto this has not been definitely settled. And
there is a further point which has not y e t been
d ecid ed : should the student o f Nature follow the
same sort o f procedure as the mathematician follows
in his astronomical expositions that is to say,
should he consider first o f all the phenomena which
occur in animals, and the parts o f each o f them, and
having done that go on to state the reasons and the
causes; or should he follow some other procedure ?
Furthermore, we see that there are more causesb
than one concerned in the form ation6 o f natural
things : there is the Cause f o r the sake o f which the
thing is form ed/ and the Cause to which the begin?iing o f the motion is due.6 Therefore another point
for us to decide is which o f these two Causes stands
first and which comes second. Clearly the first is
that which we call the Final Cause that for the
sake o f which the thing is form ed since that is
the logosf o f the thing its rational ground, and
the logos is always the beginning for products o f
Nature as well as for those o f A rt. The physician
or the builder sets before him self something quite
definite the one, health, apprehensible by the
mind, the other, a house, apprehensible by the
senses ; and once he has go t this, each o f them
can tell you the causes and the rational grounds
for everything he does, and why it must be done
as he does it. Y e t the Final Cause (purpose) and the
Good (Beautiful) 9 is more fu llv present in the works
o f Nature than in the works o f A rt. A n d moreover
the factor o f Necessity is not present in all the
works o f Nature in a similar sense. Alm ost all
57
ARISTOTLE
639 b
o
7je i p w v r a i
ov
SceXo/xevoi
vrrapx^L
Si
ira vT es
fx iv
to
25 U7ro0creaj?
ox^Sov
7rocraxtos
/cat
Tots*
aTrXais
ev
Xoyovs
tovs
A eyera i
a t S to is ,
t o is
yeveoei
Tracrtv
wo7Tp
to
ev
t o ls r e x v a a r o l s , o l o v ot/cta /cat rco v aXXcov

T o t o v r o jv .
tw v
a va y K rj
S i T O ta v S e
ava y e tv,
a va y/ c a to v .
to
r r jv
otcoovv
vX rjv
vtt -
a p f a t el e o r a t ot/cta fj a A A o T t r e X o s * K al y e v e o d a i
re
7Tpatrov, e t r a T o S e , /cat
K a l K ivr]9 fjva i S et T o S e
t o u t o v S ^ t o v rpOTTOV e ^ e ^ r js fie x p i
tov
30 ofi eveK a y i v e r a i e / c a o r o v /cat e o r t v .

640 a /cat e v
< j> v o e i
t o is
y iv o fx e v o is .
aAA* o
T p orros
T r js
7r i
t^ s*
/cat
tt } s
<f>voiKr}s K a l
tujv
OeojprjTLKcljv im o T rjfjia jv .
ov,
o\
tocs
oe
t o v t c o v .)
< > /
e o o fie v o v
to
rj y a p a p x rj
<
k at
eT ep os
a7ToSe[ea)s
S* eV eT ep ois irepl
a v a y K rjs
T eX ovs
wcravTOJS S i
e 7re t y a p
tc
(e lp r jr a i
t o is
p>iv
to
/ & > * *
ro to vo
e c rrtv rj
6 v y l e i a rj o a v O p t D T r o s , a v a y K i q t o S e t v a t 77 y e v e o O a t,
>\\
aAA
>
ou/c
>
e 7re t
to o
>
e c rrtv
77
yeyovev,
> A
e/cetvo
>>
a ** Absolute/
simple or unconditional necessity,
belongs to the eternal things, such as the heavenly bodies
or the eternal truths of mathematics. For further details
see De gen. et corr. 337 b 14 ff.
*
At Met. 1025 b ff. Aristotle makes a threefold classifica
tion of the sciences into (a) theoretical (contemplative),
(6) practical, (c) productive. The result of (a) is knowledge
only, of (6) knowledge and action, of (e) knowledge, action,
and some article or product. The three theoretical
sciences are theology (i.e. metaphysics), mathematics, and
physics (natural science). In the present passage, however,
Aristotle contrasts natural science with the theoretical
sciences. This is because he is considering Nature as a
craftsman whose craft or science belongs to the third class
the productive sciences. Our study of Natures science
58
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, I. i.
philosophers endeavour to carry back their explana
tions to N ecessity; but they omit to distinguish the
various meanings o f Necessity. There is absolute
Necessity,which belongs to the eternal things ; and
there is conditional Necessity, which has to do
with everything that is formed by the processes o f
Nature, as well as with the products o f A rt, such as
houses and so forth. I f a house, or any other End,
is to be realized, it is necessary that such and such
material shall be available ; one thing must first be
formed, and set in motion, and then another thing ;
and so on continually in the same manner up to the
End, which is the Final Cause, for the sake o f which
every one o f those things is formed and for which it
exists. The things which are formed in Nature are
in like case. H ow beit, the method o f reasoning
in Natural seience and also the mode o f Necessity
itself is not the same as in the Theoretical sciences.
( I have spoken o f this m atter in another treatise.6)
Th ey differ in the following w av.c In the Theoretical
sciences, we begin with what already is ; but in
Natural scienee with what is going to be : thus, we say,
Because that which is going to be health, perhaps, or
man has a certain character. therefore o f necessity
some particular thing, P , must be, or must be formed ;
not, Because P is now', or has been formed, therefore
the other thing (health, or man) o f necessity is now
may be a theoretical science, but Natures science itself
is productive.
c The reasoning process in a theoretical science, e.g.
mathematics, begins, say, with A, and then deduces from it
the consequences B, C, D. In a productive science,
e.g. building, it begins with the house which is to be built,
D, and works backwards through the preliminary stages
which must be realized in order to produce the house,
C, B, A. Cf. below, 640 a 16 ff.
C
59
ARISTOTLE
64011 avayKrjs
ea rly rj ca ra t.
aprrjaai
rrjs
oi5S cortv els atStov o v v a7roStccos rrjv avay/cqv,

j,
/M > /
/O* 2__.
TOiavrrjs

* >
C*>OT 177'> 7Tt
TO O
eO TLV ,
OTL
TO O
G TLV.
01-
wpiOTat, Se Kal rrepl t o vtco v ev erep ois, Kai rTOLOis

vrrapxî Kal rrola a v r lot p4</)i Kal Sta, n V
io
a tn a v.
A c t Se fir) XeXrjOevaL Kal rrorepov rrpoGrjKeL A e y e tv ,

coorrep o i rrporepov
eK a crrov
o i yap
yiveoO a i
rt
e7r0L0vvT0 ttjv decoplav, 7TO)s
rre<f>VK fiaXXov
fiiKpov hia<j>epeL t o v t o
7rate
ecrrtv.
eK elvo v.
rj
eoLKe
8* evrevQ ev a p K rio v etvai (Kadarrep

elrrofiev, o n
15 eK a arov
XeKTeov)
ovfip a lve i
rrpcoTov Ta
yevog,
Kal
eW
rrepl
Kal rrpOTepav
(fyaivofieva XrjrrTeov rrepl
ovtcd
ra ?
yeveoecos*
a lr la s
fxaXXov
tovtcov
yap
ra S e
Kal rrepl rrjv oiKoSofirjoLV errel tolov S9
e a rl t o etSos rrjs ot/aas*, t) ro to v S * ecrrtv rj o ik la otl

y t V e r a t o v r cos.
rj y a p yeveoLS eveKa rrjs o v o la s
e a rlv, aA A o i \ ^ o v o la eveKa rrjs ye ve o e tog.

20 EfirreSoKXrjs
77oAAa rots*
ye ve 'a e t,
ovk
opdcbs
cools S ta
olov
Kal
ttjv
to
eipr)Ke
Xeycov
ovfi^ rjva i
p a x tv
ovrcos
roLavrrjv
Siorrep
v7rap)(eiv
ev rfj
e ^ etv
on
GTpa<f>evTOS KaTaxOfjvai ovvefir], ayvocov rrpcorov fxev

otl
Set t o arrepfia t o gvvlgtolv 1 vrrapx^cv Toiavrrjv
ovviotov
Platt: avarav vulg.
0
Though of course this Necessity has its place in natural
science (see 64-2 a 31 ff.). It is, however, not the only sort
of Necessity in Natural science, and not the paramount one.
6 See De gen. et corr. 337 b 25 ff. An example of a nonconvertible proposition is : Foundations are necessary for a
house to be built. You cannot say, I f foundations are laid
a house must of necessity be built, because it is not ab
solutely and always necessary that a house should be built.
* Cf. Plato, Philebus 54 a - c .
60
or will be in the future. Nor, in a proeess o f
reasoning o f this kind, is it possible to trace
back the links o f Necessity to eternity, so as to say,
Because A is, therefore Z is. I have, however, dis
cussed these matters in another work,b and I there
stated where either kind o f Necessity applies, which
propositions involving Necessity are convertible, and
the reasons why.
W e must also decide whether we are to discuss
the processes by which each animal comes to be
formed which is what the earlier philosophers
studied or rather the animal as it actually is.
Obviously there is a considerable difference between
the two methods. I said earlier that we ought first
to take the phenomena that are observed in each
group, and then go on to state their causes. This
applies just as much to the subject o f the process o f
formation : here too we ought surely to begin with
things as they are actually observed to be when
completed. Even in building the fact is that the
particular stages o f the process come about because
the Form o f the house is such and such, rather than
that the house is such and such bccauê the process
o f its formation follows a particular course : the
process is for the sake o f the actual thing, the thing
is not for the sake o f the process.6 So Empedocles
Was WTong w'hen he said that many o f the character
istics which animals have are due to some accident
in the process o f their formation, as when he
accounts for the vertebrae o f the backbone by say
ing d *' the fetus gets twisted and so the backbone
is broken into pieces : he was unaware ( a) that
the seed w'hich gives rise to the animal must to
4 Emped. frag. 97 (Diels, Fragment e*, 31
97).
(31
ARISTOTLE
\ o v S vvap.LV, e t 0 o t l t o 7TOLrjaav TTpoTtpov V7rrjpxev
25 o v fjiovov Tip A oyco
aXXa
/cat t lu X P vcP y VV$ 7 a P
av6pOJ7TOS avdpCOTTOV, <X)GT S t a

etva t
Se
rj
yeveoL S
K al
e r n
T o ta S e
tw v
TO
KLVOV T O td v S
a v fifia tv e i
avTOfJcaTcos
t io S l .
[o fio ico s
S o k o v v tc o v
y iv e o d a i
KaOaTrep K al e V t t c o v T e x v a o T C o v e r t a y a p 1 ^ctt arro

T a v T O fia T o v
so u y t e t a .
y tV e ra t
cSv2 ûev
TauTa
oiJv
T o t?
oltto T e ^ r^ s *,
irpoVTrdpxet
to
o to v
t t o lt jt lk o v
[0)Lt0t0V ],3 OLOV 7) 4 dvSpLaVT07T0Lr]TLKT], oO [ y a p ] 5 y t v e ra t

a v ev
to s
a v T O fia T O V .
T r js
y a p
/z e v
rj
to > v
fx o p lc o v
t o v t o v ,
e^ et,
e^ et*
o t l
y ev ea tv
a>St
oX cos
S
T rpcoT ov
T oS e.
/c a t
TOUTOV
8*37 T O V
< f)V O L
S to
ju a A t o r a
e tv a t,
e fv a t
t l
K aX cos
T o to u ro v ,
a v fifia lv e iv
T pO TTO V
aveu
iy y v r a r a
eoT t
fio p ic o v
o fio lc o s '
a X X c o s , 7 rj
eV et
tcov
e p y o v
d v 0 p c o 77c p
fX 7j ,
T O ia v T r jv
y tV eT a t
tc i> v
t o
d S v v a ro v
S to
t o v
tv x ^ S
eV S e^ era t
Se
e V e T a i-
K al
tJ v
y a p
et
aT ro
y t r e r a t .] 8
t o u t
ou
X o y o s
T ot?
o u rco
e V etS ^
T a v ra
T exvrj
/c a t
to v tc o v .
rj
Se
K a io v
t o ;v
K al
c v t c o s
t^ v
cos
ra u t
t o v t o
rj
e c r n v .
t X v tj
A e /C T e o v
35 s (a
640 b y e
v X r js
a v a y -
t o S c ,
OfJiOLCOS
77 t
e tra
7 T<ZV -
a v v L G T a fid v c o v .
O t /zev oi5v a p ^ a t o t
/cat
7t p < j o t o l
^ iX o a o ^ a a v r e s
1 cvia yap om. Z1.

2 <5v Z : r<3v vulg.
3 om. Z*.
* 7} Z : om. vulg.
6 om. Z.
6 ofioiuts (1. 27) . . . ytVcrat, ex
1032-1034 exorta.
olim ut vid. in marg. 610 b 4 adscripta : inepta seclusi.
7 on oAco? Z1 : oAcos oti a. a. vulg.
0 . the same character as the animal which it is to pro
duce. For dynamis see Introduction, pp. 30 ff.
b No doubt a marginal note appended to 640 b 4.
62
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, I. i.
begin with have the appropriate specific character 0 ;
and (6) that the producing agent was p re-ex isten t:
it was chronologically earlier as well as logically
earlier : in other words, men are begotten by men,
and therefore the process o f the childs formation is
what it is because its parent was a man. [Similarly
too with those that appear to be form ed spontane
ously, just as with those produced by the arts ; for
some that are form ed spontaneously are identical
with those produced by art, e.g. health. As for those
things whose producing agent is pre-existent, e.g. the
art o f statuary, no spontaneous formation occurs. A r t
is the logos o f the article without the m atter. And
similarly with the products o f chance : they are
form ed by the same process that art would em ploy.] b
So the best way o f putting the m atter wrould be to
say that because the essence o f man is w'hat it is,
therefore a man has such and such parts, since there
cannot be a man without them. I f we m ay not say
this, then the nearest to it must do, viz. that there
cannot be a man at all otherwise than with them, or,
that it is w ell that a man should have them. And
upon this these considerations follow ': Because man is
such and such, therefore the process o f his formation
must o f necessity be such and such and take place
in such a manner ; wiiich is why first this part is
formed, then that. A n d thus similarly with all the
things that are constructed by Nature.
Nowf those wiio wcre the first to study Nature in
63
ARISTOTLE
7Tpl
<f)VOQJS
a v r r js a t r i a ?
7Tpl
T r js
X l KTJS
gk6 7tovv, t l s
C L p x fjS
K0Ll
TV $
TOt~
K a l rrota t l s , K a l n cos
e/c r a v r r j s y lv e r a L t o o X o v , /cat rtv o ? k l v o v v t o s , o lo v

VALKOVS rj ^ tA ta ?
v7roKLfAvrjs
10 a va yK T js,
rj v o v
vXrjs
rj t o v
ro tav S e
a v r o f i d r o v , r r js
rtv a
<j)V<JLV e x o v o r js
rrjs
Se y f js
ifjv x p a v , K al r o v fie v Kovcfyrjv, r r js Se fia p e ta v .
oiircos
o lo v t o v
ji e v
rrvp os
OepfirjV,
ofiolcos Se /cat Trepl
y a p K al r o v K o o ji o v yevvcooL v.
TTJV TCOV u)COV K al
olov1
v rep
TCOV <f)VTCOV y lve O L V
ocjujJLari p e o v r o s p e v
rov
XeyOVOLV,
/cotAtav
vba ros
y e v e a O a i K a l T r a a a v v T r o S o y r j v r i j s r e r p o < f )f js K a l r o v
15 TTepLTTiOfJLaTOS,
Se
TOV
7 T V V fia T O S
rovs
fiV K T T jp a s a v a p p a y r jv a L .
vX rj
rcov
a c o jia r c o v
o
o c o fJ L a r c o v
(j v v l o
&o l r r j v
h ia rro p e v d e v ro s
S a r jp K a l
e/c r w v
e c r r lv
a vdpcvTTO S K a l r a
v 'S
to
< f)V O iv T r a v r e s .
ei
q > a < f)V o eL K a l r a
cop
yap
tolovtcov
S ecrrtv
f.LopLa a v r c o v ,
Ae/cre'ov a v i r e p l era p K o s e i r j K a l o a r o v K a l a i j i a r o s
20 K a l r w v
re
T o t o u ro v
S w a jJ i L V .
tTVp
os
rtvo s
olov
ov
aAAo v
to
ir p o o w r r o v ,
eK a a rov
yap
ra v
to
e/c
a v e i T repl
tolovtcov
Se /cat r w v
x LP $ >
a vrw v
otlv
t/cavov
fj y r j s , w a r r e p
25 Stoptetv
a7r a v r w v , o p o i w s
ofJLO iofjLepcov
a v o jJ L o io fjL e p c o v ,
Kal
tlvcov
k
ttoS o s
K a ra
e a r iv ,
olov
X l v t is e X e y o p e v
ir r e L p c o p L e B a
etSos* a v r r j s f j r r j v v X r j v ,
olov
fj
r r o ia v
fia X X o v
fj
av
r o v âA/cov
1 o n post olov vulg. : del. Ogle.
* As Empedocles and Anaxagoras, whose attempts to

discover the material and the efficient causes are
mentioned a few lines below. See also Met. 983 b 6 ff.
* Material cause : see Introduction, pp. 24 ff.
* Residue : lit. surplus ; see Introduction, pp. 32 ff.
6 Cf. Hippocrates* Ilcpi
i. 9.
r Parts : see Introduction, pp. 28 ff.
64
the early days a spent their time in trying to discover
what the material principle or the material Cause b
was, and what it was like ; they tried to find out
how the Universe is formed out o f i t ; what set
the process going (Strife, it might be, or Friendship,
Mind, or Spontaneity) ; assuming throughout that
the underlying material had, by necessity, some
definite nature : e.g. that the nature o f Fire was hot,
and lig h t ; o f Earth, cold, and heavy. A t any rate,
that is how they actually explain the formation o f
the world-order. In a like manner they describe the
formation o f animals and plants, saying (e.g.) that the
stomach and every kind o f receptacle for food and for
residue6 is formed by the water flowing in the body,
and the nostril openings are forcibly made by the
passage o f the breath.d A ir and water, o f course,
according to them, are the material o f which the body
is made : they all say that Nature is composed o f
substances o f this sort. Y e t i f man and the animals
and their partse are products o f Nature, then account
must be taken o f flesh, bone, blood, in fact o f all the
uniform parts, f and indeed o f the non-uniform
parts too, viz. face, hand, f o o t ; and it must be
explained how it comes to pass that each o f these is
characterized as it is, and by what force this is effected.
I t is not enough to state simply the substances out o f
which they are made, as Out o f fire, or Out o f
earth. I f we were describing a bed or any other
like article, we should endeavour to describe the form
o f it rather than the matter (bronze, or wood) or, at
1 Uniform and non-uniform : see Introduction, pp.
28 ff. The distinction between uniform andnon-uniform
parts is, historically, the predecessor of the distinction be
tween tissues and organs.*
65
A R IS T O T L E
640 b
,
fj
v X o v , e l S i f ir j,
to
roSc
ev
TcpSe
o x r iix a T o s
K a ra
T r jv
t o v
roSe rotorSc,
rj
e irj
r\v y e
X eK T eov,
fio p c /y r jv
Kal
g v vo
cbore
rroZov
< j> v o is
Xo
X lvtj y a p
Kav
T rep l
IS e a v
ttjv
K v p iw T e p a
r js
t o v
rj y a p
v X iK ijs
cfrvo eco s.
30
E i fiiv
eoT i
ovv tw
tc
t l) V
A r jfio K p iT o s
< /> rjol
yovv
g tlv
K ai
35
o y r jfJL a T L K a l tco
> to to v
X eyor
T ravrl
^pcu/Ltart
tw
ttjv
ov k
e o T iv
a v T r jv
o ttco g o v v
S r jX o v
cos
to
o fx o ic o s
TL
tpottov
v X L v r js .
Kal
yap
Tas
oi5Se
TCOV
6 < f> 0 a X fio s , X ^P*

avTov
ovtcos
^ av
yap
t o v
epeZ rre X e K W
red v ecbs
aAA
o fia js
e lv a i
X ^Pa
r j v X l v y } v , r r X r jv
to v
ov yap
aÂajs*
^ v
t
T e d v r jK O T O s
GTL,
XyO)
S*
e ip r jr a L , K a l
K a l o i (j> v o L o X o y o L
S vva fx eco v;
rj r p v - n a v o v , o
tcls
vrro
aAA*
lg o js
a epa
to v
po$
yeveoeLs
X eyovoLV
ftoO LOV
4k t c o v X e y o L rrep l
S ee D iels, F r a g m e n t e d , 68 b 165.
b i . e . the e a rly w riters on N a tu re .
66
jio p < f> r jv

o x tffta T L
o y e y p a fifie v o s la r p o s .
tcov
G x ^ jf J a r o s
e S jjf iL o v p y r jd ir jG a v
io t 4 k t c o v
K al
f io p < f> r jv ,
a S v v a to v
TO LO VT C O V
w oT rep a v e l
curias
tc
e a v r r js e p y o v , u io ir e p o v S y a v X o l
to
tovtols
5 pLCOV O v S i v
ttjv
y e y p a f j.jj.e v o v l a T p o v .
to v
ea vrcov ep yov, o vS
Si
tl
av
v r r o X a fie Z v .
tco
K a iT o i
âA K r j v
S e a K e ifie v r jv , o lo v
S v v r jo e T a i ir o ie iv
o lo v
eT L
opdw s
o v tco s
av tov
c rx rjiJL a T o s
a v d p (j)7 T 0 S '
eK aoT ov
fio p lo jv ,
e lv a i
o v to s
y v t o p lfio v .
to v
641 a ofJLiovvfJLCos, o iG T r e p
X lO l v o l
rcov
< j> a iv e T a L y a p
avdpcorros,
epêt
K al
tlvcov
fie v
K a l y r jv ,
any rate, the m atter, i f described, would be described
as belonging to the concrete whole. For example,
a bed is a certain form in certain m atter, or,
alternatively, certain m atter that has a certain form ;
so we should have to include its shape and the manner
o f its form in our description o f it because the
formal nature is o f more fundamental importance
than the 44 m aterial nature.
If, then, each animal and each o f its parts is what it
is in virtue o f its shape and its colour, what D em o
critus says will be correct, since that was apparently
his view, i f one understands him aright when he says
that it is evident to everyone what m an is like as
touching, his shape, for it is byt his- shape and his
colour that a man may be told,* {S o w a corpse has
the same shape and fashion as a living body ; and
y e t it is not a man. Again, a hand constituted in
any and every manner, e.g., a bronze or wooden
one, is not a hand except in n am e; and the same
applies to a physician dcpicted on canvas, or a flute
carved in stone. Ncrne o f these can perform the
functions appropriated the things that bear those
names. Likewise, the eye or the hand (or any other
part) o f a corpse is not really an eye or a hand.
Democrituss statement, therefore, needs to be quali
fied, or a carpenter m ight as well claim that a hand
made o f wood really was a hand. The physiologers,6
however, when they describe the formation and the
causes o f the shape o f animal bodies, talk in this
selfsame vein. Suppose we ask the carver By what
agency was this hand fashioned ? Perhaps his
answer will be B y m y axe or B y m y auger,
just as i f we ask the physiologer By what agency
was this body fashioned ? he will say 44 By air and
67
A R IS T O T L E
TrXrjv \SdXrtov o tc k tc o v ' o v ya p tKavov e o r a i a v ra )
TO
TOOOVTOV
to
L T T L V ,
fie v k o lX o v
t t jv
S c
<pov,
K a l Trepl
K a l TToZoV TL K a l T 0)V [lOpLOJV
Kal
Trepl r o v
E l
S rj
I p V X 'y jS
tc jv
p L opL cov
8 rj
X eyeL V
TOUTO
CTTL l / j V X ^
K a l
K a ff
t o
K aQ arrep
o v tc o s
t o v
ctS cV a t,
K a l
O TOLOVTO
TO
fj avTO t o v t o
to
fj
y o v v
o v h ev
jx o v o v ,
T a vT a
e v eK a ,
t t o t c t t jv
Kal
cV cctV ou
C K a C T T O t //
U)07Tp
Trjs k X lv tjs .
c t 'S o u ?
TOVTO
( a T T e X d o V G T jS
a x fjp a T L
S toT t
o t l ovk opOws XeyovoL, K a l OTL
X zktcov (l)s to lo v to v to
e l
O pyaV O V
a t.
A fjX ov T o ivvv
TL
TOV
errLTrehov, aXXa
a iT ia v , o tto js TOLOvhe rj t o lo v S c
jJLopcf)fjv y e v r j T
20
ifJ L T T e G O V T O S
t o
7rX7jyr]v eTTOLTjoaTO TOLavTTjv, K a l t l v o s
epel t t jv
15
OTL
cycV cT O
pO $
OVKCTL
a vT o
T a
<oV
jx r ]
fj
a v ev
O l5S c
A etV cT a t,
jjL v O e v o fie v a
< f> v o L K o O
ct
flT j
(T T L V ,
T repl
ip v x fjs
T r a o T js ,
< l> O V , K a l
TL
ttX t j v
t w
X id o v o O a L ),
K a t
o .v
cltj
a vto
G TLV f)
fxopLov, Kal irepl tu )V ovix/3ef3rj-
25 k o tc jv Kara ttjv TOLavrrjv a vrrjs o v o ia v , aXXws t c
Kal rrjs (f>vaeojs Slx& s Xeyofxevrjs Kal ovcrrjs, rrjs

[le v (x)S vXrjs, Trjs
8 * a
>s o v a la s Kal c g t lv a vrrj Kal
w s fj KLvovaa Kal <bs t o t c A o ? * t o l o v t o v
1it< d (jT O V
Peck :
eK a a rov
S c
t o u tAov
vulg.
Or, ** reason " ; see Introduction, p. 24.

b See above, 640 b 26.
Soul : see Introduction, pp. 34 ff.
< Or motive.
68
B y earth ." But o f the two the craftsman will give
a better answer, because he will not feel it is sufficient
to say m erely that a cavity was created here, or a
level surface there, by a blow from his tool. H e will
state the cause on account o f which, and the purpose
for the sake o f which, he made the strokes he did ;
and that will be, in order that the wood m ight finally
be formed into this or that shape.
I t must now be evident that the statements o f the
physiologers are unsatisfactory. W e have to state
how the animal is characterized, i.e., what is the
essence and character o f the animal itself, as well as
describing each o f its parts ; just as with the bed we
have to state its Form.b
Now it may be that the Form o f any living creature
is Soul,c or some part o f Soul, or something that in
volves Soul. A t any rate, when its Soul is gone, it
is no longer a living creature, and none o f its parts
remains the same, except only in shape, just like the
animals in the story that were turned into stone.
If, then, this is really so, it is the business o f the
student o f Natural science to inform himself con
cerning Soul, and to treat o f it in his exposition ;
not, perhaps, in its entirety, but o f that special part
o f it which causes the living creature to be such as it
is. H e must say what Soul, or that special part o f
Soul, is ; and when he has said what its essence is,
he must treat o f the attributes which are attached
to an essence o f that character. This is especially
necessary, because the term nature is used
rightly in two senses: (a) meaning m atter, and
(6) meaning essence (the latter including both
the Efficient d Cause and the E n d ). It is, o f
course, in this latter sense that the entire Soul or
69
A R IS T O T L E
a W
t ]t o l
7)
T ra oa
o vtco s
av
y v x 'r j
X eK Teov
1 >*
/repos t i
i]
e irj
tco
7Tpl
a v T T js .
<j>vcrecos
kcu
co o tc
O ec o p rjT L K C o
30 7Tpl t p v x f j s fJi& XXoV ^ 7Tpl T T]S v X t ]S , OCFCO jJL&XXoV f j

S1
vX rj
e K e iv r jv
<}>vcns
k X lV T ] K a l TpLTTOVS
ifJ T iv
fj
a v a T ra X iv
Kal
yap
TO v X O V e C T L V , OTL S W a f i e L T a V T (X
<JTLV.
*A7TOpr)CJL S
T T O T tp O V
TTpl
a v TLS LS
T rd < jr}$
35 L7TLV f j TTpL T L V O S .*
A e tV e T a t i r a p a
641 b o
yap
vovs
t o v
votjtov
avrrj
d e c o p la
v o tjtco v,
tcov
c j)v a L K r j y v c o G L S
av
Ae^flev errL^Xei/jas,
<f)V O L K fjS
T repl
T ra O T jS ,
eT T LO T rjfxrjv
c a a re
Ot I
T repl
TO
OV$fJLLa
<f>LXoao<j)La.
T ra vT C ov
rj
e fy * T r j s y a p a v T r j s T r e p l v o v K a l
O e c o p f ja a L ,
to
TTJS
L y a p
<j>v(JLK r]v
ttjv
vvv
to
lfjV X ? )S
>v
e in e p
K a l T re p l a l o O f j o e c o s
Kal
TTpos
aAAÂa
TTpos
tcov
aAAÂa,
T ra vT C ov,
a to Otjt c jv.
fj
Kal
rj
K a d a T rep
eorTL
o vk
5 T r a o a f j i p v x f j K L v f ja e c o s d p x t f , o v Se T a f i o p i a a ^ a r r a ,
aAA*
a v ^ f ja e c o s
X oLcoaecos
ov
to
tcov
jie v
O T rep
Kal
ev
tols
v t o
votjtlk ov
cocov,
vva p x
S ta ro ta
cl
yap
f j (f> o p a
ou S evt.
K al ev
S r jX o v
ovv
aA-
tl
Kal
ls
Se t o a l c r O r jT L K o v , <f>opas S e T e p o v
e T e p o is
cos
ov
1 tlvos (fiopiov} Rackham.

i.e . qualitative change, which is the motion proper
to this part of the Soul.
70
some part o f it is the nature
o f a living creature.
Hence on this score especially it should be the duty
o f the student o f Natural science to deal with Soul
in preference to matter, inasmuch as it is the Soul
that enables the m atter to be the nature o f an
animal (that is, potentially, in the same way as a piece
o f wood is a bed or a stool) rather than the matter
which enables the Soul to do so.
In view o f what we have just said, one may well ask
whether it is the business o f Natural science to treat
o f Soul in its entirety or o f some part o f it o n ly ;
since i f it must treat o f Soul in its entirety (i.e.
including intellect) there will be no room left
for any other study beside Natural science it will
include even the objects that the intellect appre
hends.
For con sider: wherever there is a pair
o f interrelated things, such as sensation and the
objects o f sensation, it is the business o f one
science, and one only, to study them both. N ow
intellect and the objects o f the intellect are
such a pair ; henee, the same science will study
both o f them, which means that there will be
nothing whatever left outside the purview o f
Natural science. A ll the same, it m ay be that
it is neither Soul in its entirety that is the
source o f motion, nor y e t all its parts taken
to g e th e r ; it may be that one part o f Soul, (a), viz.
that which plants have, is the source o f g ro w th ;
another part, (b), the sensory part, is the source
o f change0 ; and y e t another part, (c), the source
o f locomotion. That even this last cannot be the
intellectual part is proved, because animals other
than man have the power o f locomotion, although
none o f them has intellect. I take it, then, as evident
71
ARISTOTLE
lb
7Tpl
r r a o r js
10 (f> v c n s ,
aAAa r i
VE t i S i
'
Se
ov
fJ L o p io v a v r r j s
yap
ovS evos
Ts
it t t Iv
rj
aX X rj
t is
15 K a O a r r e p
S id
to
/x a X X o v
T O ia v T r js
T e x v r j,
ovtcos
a p x fj
Kal
O e p fio v
Kal
e lK o s
to v
ip v x ^
e lv a i
a i> T o is
i/jv x p o v
to
ovpavov
a t r t a v fx a X X o v fj r a
q > a r a
O v r jr d '
rroX v
o v p a v i o i s f j r r e p l r jf x a s , ~ o
t o is
<x)s
o jp ia jx e v o v
to
c t v x
a )c x )v
rrep l r a
eK a a rov
O v r jr a
t v x
a v a r r jv a i, e v
otto
< f> a lv e ra i.
cL
7 ra vra xov
t v
t i
f ir jS e v o s e j i r r o S l ^ o v r o s .
t o io v t o v
ro S e
erv\ev
o
e
e/c T o v S e ,
S aAAo t
S fj
Kal
ev
aXXcos K a l
Kal
y e v e a O a i,
to v
t o io v t o v
ot)8 o r t o w
d ra m a s
t o v
S e v e K a ,
r r p o s o fj K iv r ja is r r e p a iv e i
cucrre eti'at < f> a v e p d v o n

K a X o v jie v
eK a a rov
ovSi
re ra y -
ot Se rtOv f i e v
Se X e y o f x e v r o S e
25 07T0i> a r c f> a iv r jT a i T e X o s
t i
Kal
vrro
(f> a ir e r a t
a v r o fia r o v
t o v
^^S
yovv
to
[x a X A o v
jx a X X o v .
Kal
rra vT os
t o v
S ta T o i a v r r j v
e lv a i
cf)v cret (f r a a 'iv e l v a i
S o v p a v o v a rro
e x o jie v
y e y e v r )o d a i
Kal
Kal
rrpa y-
t o is
eK
t o v
re ^ v a -
t o is
T O i a v r r j, r jv
yeyove,
fie v o v
a lr la s ,
iv
a Ir ia
el
o lo v
<atVerat y a p , tb (J 7 re p e v
fia o iv
Ti
rra oa
e v f j K a l r r X e io ),
a c fia ip e o e w s
tcov
T ra v ra *
r ro ie i
20
XeK T eov
c fr v a iK r jv d e o j p r j T i K r j v , e r r e t S f j rj <f>va is e v e K a
ttjv
g t o
ip v x fjs
y lv e r a i
o rre p fx a
to
(f > v a i v
ov
yap
a rr e p ix a r o s ,
t v x o v
eK
eon
t o v
S rj
aAAa
tu -
a "With this passage cf. Plato, PhiUbus 29-30.

6 Cf. Samuel Butler, Life and Habit, p. 134, A hen is
only an eggs way of making another egg.
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, I. i.

that we need not concern ourselves with Soul in its
entirety ; because it is not Soul in its entirety that is
an animals nature, but some part or parts o f it.
Further, no abstraction can be studied by Natural
science, because whatever Nature makes she makes
to serve some purpose ; for it is evident that, even
as art is present in the objects produced by art, so in
things themselves there is some principle or cause o f
a like sort, which came to us from the universe around
us, just as our material constituents (the hot, the
cold, etc.) did.a W herefore there is better reason for
holding that the Heaven was brought into being by
some such cause i f we may assume that it came
into being at all and that through that cause it
continues to be, than for holding the same about the
mortal things it contains the animals ; at any rate,
there is much clearer evidence o f definite ordering
in the heavenly bodies than there is in us ; for what
is mortal bears the marks o f change and chance.
Nevertheless, there are those who affirm that, while
every living creature has been brought into being
by Nature and remains in being thereby, the heaven
in all its glory was constructed by mere chance
and came to be spontaneously, although there is no
evidence o f chance or disorder in it. And whenever
there is evidently an End towards which a motion
goes forward unless something stands in its way, then
we always assert that the motion has the End for its
purpose. From this it is evident that something o f
the kind really exists that, in fact, which we call
N ature, because in fact we do not find any chance
creature being formed from a particular seed, but A
comes from a, and B from 6; nor does any chance
seed come from any chance individual.6 Therefore
73
ARISTOTLE
641 b
Xovros otofiaros. ap\7j

Ka'L iroirjriKov ro v e
30 a vrov to { e f ov t o ) 1 Grripjia. <f>vGei yap r a v r a
<f>verat yovv eK ro v ro v. aAAa [Jifjv e n ro v ro v
7Tporepov to oS to GTrepjia' yeveois /xev yap to
OTrepjia, ovala Se to tcAo?.
dfjL<j>olv S eVt TipoTepov, a ^ ou e W l to GTrepjia.
eort yap to
GTrepixa Six&s> H v T Kai

Kai yap a< o5
orreppLa, otov ittttov, K a l ro v ro v
o ecrrai ei; a vrov, olov opews, rpoTrov 8 ou rov
avrov, aXX* eKarepov rov elprjjievov. ti Se Svvajiei
642 a to OTrepfia Svvafiis S co?
Trpo? eVreAeêtav
iG[lev.
t? \ v
&/99/
r
/ n t
%
H.toa' ap a ou a in a i avrai, to c/ ou eveKa Kai
to e avayKrjs 7roAAa yap yiverai, o n avayKrj.
tGios S av Ti? aTToprjoeie 7jolav Ae'youcrtv a vayKTjv
ot AeyovTes* e avay/c^s to>v jitev yap Suo rpoTTiov
ouSeVepov otov &* V7rapxiv ra>v Sia)piafxevwv ev rots
Kara <j)iXooo</>iav. e o n 8 ev ye rols côuo-t yeveoiv
rj rplrrj Xeyojxev yap rrjv rpo<f>rjV avayKalov n Kar
ovSerepov rovrajv rcov rpoTrwv, aXXJ o n ov\ olov r
avev ravrrjs elvai. to uto 8 earlv cXoTrep ei; vi toio Oeoecos* d)G7rep yap 7761 Set o\Ceu> ra> ireXeKei,
avayKrj oKXrjpov elvai, el Se GKXrjpov, âA k ovv fj
35 aTTTjXOe, r o v r o v
1 <e ov
to >
supplevi, 2 secutus.
a There is a reference here, which is not apparent in the

English version, to the etymological connexion between <f>vais
(nature) and <f>veodai (to grow). Cf. Met. 1014 b 16 ff.
b Viz. actuality is prior to potentiality.
e These treatises are referred to again in the Politics
(1282 b 19) and in the Eudemian Ethics (1217 b 23). The
two modes of necessity seem to be ( 1 ) absolute necessity
(mentioned here), and (2) coercive necessity (see Met.
74
the individual from which the seed comes is the
source and the efficient agent o f that which comes
out o f the seed. Th e reason is, that these things
are so arranged by Nature ; at any rate, the offspring
growsa out o f the seed.
Nevertheless, logically
prior to the seed stands that o f which it is the seed,
because the End is an actual thing, and the seed is
but a form ative process. But further, prior to both
o f them stands the creature out o f which the seed
comes. (N o te that a seed is the seed o f some
thing in two senses two quite distinct senses : it
is the seed o f that out o f which it came e.g. a
horse as w ell as 14o f that which will arise out o f
itself e.g. a mule). Again, the seed is something
by potentiality, and we know what is the relation o f
potentiality to actuality.6
W e have, then, these two causes before us, to wit,
the Final cause, and also Necessity, for many
things come into being owing to Necessity. P er
haps one m ight ask which Necessity is meant
W'hen it is specified as a causc, since here it can be
neither o f the twro modes which are defined in
the treatises WTitten in the philosophical manner.6
There is, however, a third mode o f Necessity : it
is seen in the things that pass through a process o f
formation ; as wrhen we say that nourishment is
necessary, w e mean necessary in neither o f
the former twro modes, but we mean that without
nourishment no animal can be. This is, practically,
conditional Necessity. Take an illustration : A
hatchet, in order to split wood, must, o f necessity, be
hard ; i f so, then it must, o f necessity, be made o f
1015 a 2 0 ff.). The third he has referred to already at
639 b 25, viz. conditional necessity, bee pp. 21 f.
75
ARISTOTLE
<7iSrjpovv, ovtco Kal eiret to owfia opyavov (eveKa
nvos yap eKaoTov twv fiopiwv, ofjioiws Se Kal t o
oAov), a v a y K r ) apa toiovSI elvai Kal eK TOttuvSt, el
eorat.
K lV O
"O ti
[l e v
is X e y o v r a s
T re ip a v O a i y e
fir )
t o v t o
o t o ix
Xoyov
rj
r jv ,
to
L r jv
aAA
fia X X o v
e lv a i K a l
jx e v
cf> v o e w s
v X r js .
T r js
T r e p n r iT T T e i,
r jv o v o i a v K a l
to v
Xoyov
ovTe
yap
v t w v
T p orrov
h r jX o v
ea r t , K a l
eK aoTov.
to
77avTes ot
e lv a i,
ev
Tl
otov
TW V
Sv o fj T p i a o v T e ir a v T a ,
ovT e
a
Set
Se f i r f ,
a iT io v
t o iv v v
Se
eV t t o v T p o r r o v
o p lo a o d a i
A r jjio K p iT o s
ttjv
t o v
fir }
t o v t o v
o v o ia v
7 rpw T os,
o t i
aXXw v
t w v
w s
o vk
o vk
Se T j j (f > v o iK r j O e w p i a , a A A e K c f r e p o f i e v o s
t o v
/zev r j v ^ r j d r j ,
1
vt o v
o t i
E p u r e S o K X f js
io T iv
fii^ e w s
a
fio p iw v
r ji/ja T O
ai)TOU
<f>vcris
<f>avai
Kal
t7retv 7 r e p l
cos
rrp oyeveoT ep ovs
to vs
a v a y K a lo v
V 7 r*
to v
t i
avTo
T r js
o a p l;
t o io v t w v
25 e X d e i v
o t i
X eyei
a iT ia s ,
a fu fio iv , e l
a v T r j s T r j s a X r )9 e i a s > K a l
oltto S i S o v s
îw
aAAa
t w v
a vT rj K a l
<f>vcTiv a v a y K a ^ e T a i
o g t o v v
Kal
ttov
T r js
fie v
StJAov,1 K a l
ovSev
Y&P V
vtt
a y o fx e vo s
ttjv
t o v t o
apxV
Se
(e v i a \ o v
r r o i e 't v
T p o ir o i
fia X iO T a
XeyovTes
X e y o v a iv
20
Suo
ovv
T v y \ a v e iv
r r p a y jia T O S '
to
Se
e m 'Z w K p a T o v s Se
t?ttv T a
nepl
(f > v o e w s
to vto
e X r jt je ,
sic Ogle: el 8 e ^77, SrjXov ye neipaaOai noteiv vulg.
a See Diels, Fragmente*, 31 a 78.

b " Element : this term is normally used to denote the
four substances, earth, water, air, fire.
c This is probably a reference to Democrituss opposition
to the theories of Protagoras, who held that what appears
70
PARTS OF A NIM ALS, I. i.

bronze or o f iron. N ow the body, like the hatchet,
is an instrum ent; as well the whole body as each
o f its parts has a purpose, for the sake o f which it
is ; the body must therefore, o f necessity, be such
and such, and made o f such and such materials,
i f that purpose is to be realized.
I t is, therefore, evident that o f Causation there are
two modes ; and that in our treatise both o f them
must be described, or at least an attem pt must be
made to describe them ; and that those who fail
herein tell us practically nothing o f any value about
Nature, for a things nature is much more a
first principle (or Cause ) than it is matter. (In
deed, in some places even Empedocles, being led
and guided by Truth herself, stumbles upon this,
and is forced to assert that it is the logos which is a
things essence or nature. For instance, when he is
explaining what Bone is, he says not that it is any one
o f the Elements,6 or any two, or three, or even all o f
them, but that it is the logos o f the mixture o f
the Elements. A nd it is clear that he would explain
in the same way what Flesh and each o f such parts is.
Now the reason why earlier thinkers did not arrive
at this method o f procedure was that in their tim e
there was no notion o f essence and no way o f
defining being. The first to touch upon it was
Democritus ; and he did so, not because lie thought
it necessary for the study o f Nature, but because he
was carried away by the subject in hand and could
not avoid it.c In Socrates time an advance was
made so far as the method was concerned ; but at
that tim e philosophers gave up the study o f Nature
to be to you, is for you. Protagoras had emphasized the
validity of sense-data ; Democritus denied it.
77
ARISTOTLE
a
\\
30 T T p o s
TTJV
a T T K \ iv a v
X P V (TLlJ' O V
I *
a p C T r jV
K d l
T J )V
T T O A L T L K T fV
< f> i\ o a o < j> o v v T S .)
oi
A LKTOV S OVTCOS, OLOV OTI OTl flV Tj OLVOiTTVOT]

t o v
Sl x ^ P lv >
to
oS
35 o r e
eveK a,
yap
ev
T jj
Kal
rrep l
T O ta vT a
II.
OVTCOS
aepa
cvtos
O vpaO ev
ovv
Set
cov
)(O V T a
to v
fie v
el
otl
Kal
T T tc fr v K O T a '
rr d X iv
ia p L V
TO
e lo ie v a i
17877
to vt o
Se O e p j i o v a v T L K o r r T O v r o s
aepos
T p orros
X a fie iv
earat
e K e iv o
{o u rc o s *)1 e ^ e i v ,
ia T iv
e^teV at K a l
t o v
to v
c g t iv
if/v e i
e o S o j.
avdyK T}
d v a y K a lo v
dvTLK povov,
642 b a v a y K a t o v
T avTa
<JTLV
OTI
d e p fio v
Se y iv t T O L i S ta T a S e e a v a y K r j s .
t o vt o
8 * a v d y K T ] o r e f i k v a rjfx a L V L
rj
Tas
etao S o ? 2 K a l
rj
o vto s
T r js
a iT ia s ,
rj
fie 9 6 8 o v ,
TavTa
Kal
ia T iv .
A a jJ L ^ a V O V G L
a t p 0V [ji V 0L t o
VLOL
y e v o s e ls S v o
r f j [l e v o v p a 8 io v , t f j
Se
TO
K a (f *
Staôpds*.
a h vva rov.
eK aCJTO V,
t o v t o
iv ic o v y a p
8 t-
S e<m
ecrTai
1 ovrois supplevi.
2 ij etaoSo? om. pr. E.
Goodness, or virtue, is one of the chief topics

discussed by Socrates in the Platonic dialogues. Cf.
Aristotle, Met. 9S7 b 1, Socrates busied himself about moral
matters, but did not concern himself at all with Nature as
a whole.
b I have not attempted, except by one insertion, to straigh
ten out the text of this confused account, which looks
like a displaced note intended for the paragraph above
(ending realized, p. 77). I f it is to remain in the text it
would follow at that place (after 64-2 a 13) least awkwardly.
For a more lucid account of the process of Respiration see
De resp. 480 a 16-b 5.
e This is usually held to include Plato, on the ground that
78
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I. i .- i i .
and turned to the practical subject o f goodness/ ' a
and to political science.)
& H ere is an example o f the method o f exposition.
W e point out that although Respiration takes place
for such and such a purpose, any one stage o f the
process follows upon the others by necessity. Neces
sity means sometimes (a) that i f this or that is to
be the final Cause and purpose, then such and such
things must be so ; but sometimes it means ( b) that
things are as they are owing to their very nature, as
the following show's: It is necessary that the hot
substance should go out and come in again as it
offers resistance, and that the air should flow in
that is obviously necessary. And the hot substance
within, as the cooling is produced, offers resistance,
and this brings about the entrance o f the air from
without and also its exit. This example shows how*
the method works and also illustrates the sort o f
things w hose causes we have to discover.
II.
Now some w ritersc endeavour to arrive at the
ultimate and particular species by the process o f
dividing the group (genus) into two differentiae *
This is a method w'hich is in some respects difficult
and in other respects impossible. For example :
the method of dichotomy is used in the Sophist and Politicus.
But the method can hardly be said to be seriously applied
to the classification of animals in the Politicus, and in the
Sophist it is introduced partly in a humorous way, partly
to lead up to the explanation of t o fir) ov (not-beiner). Either
Aristotle has mistaken the purpose of the method (as he
has at An. P r . 46 a 31 ff.) or (much more probably) he is
referring to some other writers detailed application of it.
See e.g. Stenzel in Pauly-Wissoica. s.v. Speusippus.
d Each stage of the division gives two differentiae, which
are treated as genera for the next stage of the division,
and so on.
79
ARISTOTLE
Jb
hia<f)Opa fj.ia povr/, r a 8* aAAa Trepiepya, olov

TTOVVf
10
et Se
Se
S lT T O V V ,
p r j,
7Tpocn*jKi
o p v iO a s
(7 X LC 7T0Vv1 '
ra vrov
to vs
K a d a rrep
r r o W a K is
fir )
8ta<77rav
pev
e v r f jS e
e x o v c r iv
at
aVTTJ
yap
eK a a rov
to vs
y e y p a fij
to vs
e v a X X c o y e 'v e t.
e n
o lo v
to vs
aAArj Statpe'cret,
ev
iteVat
K V p la .
Ae y e i v .
yevos,
e/cet
h ia ip e o e is '
y ap ro u j juev /iera raw eViJSpwv

r jp f ja O a i,
{JLOV7]
a v a y K a lo v
vtto-
o v p fia lv e i
(r a v r r j p e v
St-
o v v rfj
15 ofxoioTTjTi opvis ov op a Kelrai, ir e p a 8 tx&vs' aAAat

8 etatv avcovvpoi, olov
i<f>' eKarepco ya p
ovv firjSev
tcov
to
tovtcov
o v
evatfxov Kal
to
a v a ip o v
Ketrat ev ovofxa.)
em ep
op oyev w v Scaa7Taareov, rj els Svo
Statpecri? p a r a io s av etrj outoi yap Siaipovvras

avayKaiov â>ptetv #cat Staa7rav ra)v 7roAu7rd8a>v
yap eon r a
p ev ev
t o is
Treôls r a
8 er rot?
20 i v v S p o i s .
III. "E rt
h ia ip o v a iv
(jr e p r jo e
oi
t /uev avay/catov Statpetv
h ix o T o p .o v v r e s .
Kal
ov/c eart Se Sia<ôpa
1 anovv post ctxio7tow vulg., del. O gle; fortasse [a7rrpov]

scribenduin (cf.
Poa/. 92 a 1, Met. 1037 b 34).
Other groups will get broken up under several lines of
division, as Aristotle goes on to say, and he repeats this at
643 b 14, where he adds that contrary groups will get
lumped together under a single line (and contrariety is
maximum 4difference, see Met. 105.5 a 5 ff., c/. 1018 a 30).
b Aristotle holds that one is not enough ; see 643 b 9 ff.
and 29 ff.
80
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, I. ii.-m .

(a ) Some a groups will g e t only one differentia,6 the
rest o f the terms being superfluous extras,6 as in the
example : footed, two-footed, cloven-footed d since
this last one is the only independently valid differentia.
Otherwise the same thing must o f necessity be
repeated many times over.
(b) A gain, it is a mistake to break up a group, as
for instance the group Birds, by putting some birds
in one division and some in another, as has been done
in the divisions made by certain writers : in these
some birds are put in with the water-creatures, and
others in another class. (These two groups, each
possessing its own set o f characteristics, happen to
have regular names Birds, Fishes but there are
other groups which have not, e.g. the blooded
and " bloodless groups : there is no one regular
name for either o f these.) If, then, it is a mistake
to break up any group o f kindred creatures, the
m ethod o f division into two will be pointless, because
those who so divide are com pelled to separate them
and break them up, some o f the m any-footed animals
being among the land-animals and others among the
water-animals.
III.
(c) A gain , this m ethod o f twofold division
makes it necessary to introduce privative terms, and
those who adopt it aetually do this. But a privation, as
* i.e. all terms except the final one can be dispensed with,
because none of them constitutes an independent (Kvpta)
differentia ; one line of division yields one valid differentia
and no more (cf. 64-4 a 2-10).
d Cf. 644 a 5 and Met. 1038 a 32.
In this case, " -footed (cf. Met. 103S a 19 ff.). But
Aristotle does not explain how Binow is superfluous.
81
ARISTOTLE
O T e p 7 \ a e w s f j O T e p T ja t S ' a S v v a T O v y a p
fJLT) O V T O S ,
o lo v
7T T pC O O a )S
25 (f > o p a s
Kal
l S t)
S i a < j> o p w v
o lo v
at
a .7 T oS ia S
el
yap
ov
p ie v
K aOoXov
TO
7 T o \ v o x i 0 7 )s ,
7)
oe
rw v
jX e V
e a r i 7T T e p o v .
^ /
5 \ o
e ih r j e l v a i
a.77TpOV
KaO*
yap
Kal
Kal
c /
7)s
TO
ovv
e o T iv
fiT)
Kal
StaAaj8 e i v
etSry,
w a ff
7rAeiocri
ev
a7T T e p o v e o n
35 X a / i 7 r v p l s
rj
KaO*
rw v
643 a
yap
e ls
e K a a T 7 )v ,
w a re
t o is
T T js
o v a ia s
2( o l o v
o p v is
Sta (f > o p o s '

5 T ijs
tcls
eK aaTOv
evS ex^T a t
Kal
etSet
a T o p io v
T O ia v T a s
w o v
raurov
T i v a ),
to
tt) v
Kal
TT T epw rov
to
aAA
S e xa X e7 ra >T a T ov
t w v
ael
O e T e o v ) e l
el
S X X t)
Sta (f > o p o v ,
S
o v t w s
jxt]
Se
e lS o s
Sta <f>opa v
yap
yap
8 ia c f> o p w v
vT ra p x ^ tv
S n r o S ia
a l/ia
Kal
ix vp fx rK a l
a v T iK e if ie v T jv .
ev,
w v
V T ra p x etv
a v a y K a io v
t iv
S i a < f )o p a s
o lo v
ttolvtw v
S ia < f> e p o v a tv
e l e v a ifx a ,
a lfx a
(otov
a v T iK e ijx e v a s }
V T r a p x ^ iv
7)
x a ^ 7T v
raurats*
ev
T avT ov,
a v d p w 7 T O V 7)
Kav
o v a ia s
e ls
a[jL<f>w
erepa
Kal
aSvvaTO V
Kal
o t io v v
eo ^t"
r) f i e v
r a otâAa,
30 a o x LS v )S K a i a S t a i p e T O s , o t o v rot f j t w v v x a .
p ie v
e iS T ),
w aavTW S
T
o to v
o i a x i o 7 )s ,
e iT )
t w v
e ^ o v o iv
a a \ IO T O V
ttoS 6 t
S ta-
av
t i
eK a a rov;
e la l
t o v
UMJTTCp
KaOoXoV
e o r a t , S ta
fir )
Kal
7T T p O T 7 )S '
a fie v o v
7) T O V
t Se T 7 )S
TToSw V'
e lv a i
K adoXov
t w v
T 7 )S
rj
t i
eet
Kal
ovSev
e a T iv ,
7)
1 tas avriKLfivas Peck: ra dvrtKelfieva Titze: ra avaifia

vulg.: ra evavrCa Ogle : Ta aro/xa Prantl.
2 11. 3-6 interpunctionem correxi.
a I have not attempted to keep a consistent translation for
KTcpov, as Aristotle applies this term to feathers and to
wings (of insects).
82
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I.
h i.
privation, can admit no differentiation ; there cannot

be species o f what is not there at all, e.g. o f foot
less or featherless, a as there can be o f footed
and feathered ; and a generic differentia must
contain species, else it is specific not generic. H ow
ever, some o f the differentiae are truly generic and
contain species, for instance feathered (some
feathers are barbed, some unbarbed); and likewise
footed (some fe e t are m any-cloven, some
twy-cloven, as in the animals with bifid hoofs,
and some uncloven or " undivided, as in the
animals with solid hoofs). Now" it is difficult enough
to arrange the various animals under such lines o f
differentiation as these, which after all do contain
species, in such a w'ay that every animal is included in
them, but not the same animal in more than one o f
them (e.g. when an animal is both winged and wing
less, as ants, glow-w'orms, and some other creatures
are) ; but it is excessively difficult and in fact im
possible to arrange them under the opposite lines o f
differentiation. Every" differentia must, o f course, be
long to some species ; and this statement will apply
to the negative differentiae as well as to the positive.
N ow it is impossible for any essential characteristic
to belong to animals that are specifically different and
at the same tim e to be itself one and indivisible b : it
will always admit o f differentiation. (F or example,
Man and Bird are both twro-footed, but this essential
characteristic is not the same in both : it is differenti
ated.0 A n d i f they are both blooded, the blood
must be different, or else it cannot be reckoned as
part o f their essence.) I f that is so, then, the one
* As the privative characteristic would have to be.
* See below, 693 b 2 ff.
83
ARISTOTLE
3a
fjL ia
otl
B r jX o v
S at Sta < f> op a l tcrat rot? aro/uot?
c o o ig ,
8 ia (f> o p a
aS v v a T O v
" J Z g o v t c ll
e iT r e p
K o iv f)
a T O fx a
Se ft?; ecrrtr.
a vT co
io T iv
a v a y K a io v ,
el
Se',
to
erepa
tStot
auro /cat
16 l e v a i Si a ( j ) o p a v
/cat at Staôpat aro/xot,
(et S evSeêrat
o v ra
at
a v T to v
a T o p io v
Svo
h ia ip o v v T e g
e lv a i
r a fa>a
TTpcoTai
yap
ei?
ttjv
a v T T jv
(f> a v e p o v t o I v v v
o tl
/cat aAAo d rto w yeVo?.
c u o ig
roCSe*
yevovg,
T iv o g
r a (Aev/ca /cat r a /x^
Tag
rot?
tto lg l
)8
e/carepou aAAat, /cat ourcu? ei?

a T O fic o v ,
Set
a T O fx a e i S r j c o g h i a i p o v v T a i o i e l g
etvat Sta c j)o p d g rot?

ovTog
k o lv tjv
ei? erepav /cat erepav
/cat yap K ar e/cetVou? avay/catov taa?

20 etSet.
a ior
anavTa
jSaSietrat.)
t c o v h ir jp r jiie v c o v , o v t
AajSetv r a
/cat
k o lv tjv ev
et? a?
t t j v c lv ttjv
erepa, /cat a 7ravra ei? raura?.

ovk eoTi
v n a p x e iv 2
etSet a>a.
tc o
Staôpat
f iT jh e jiia v
Se ^ 77, erepa ovra et?
S otfre
to v to
S fjX o v o t i K a T a y e t t j v
ejLtTTtTrret r a aro/za,
el
Se
el
e l v a i h ia < f> o p a v .
rau ra
10 K O iv r jv , a T o jjL o v
tto
v t t aperl
S v o lv
G T e p r ja iv
ecrâra?
a T o jio ig
o5
tc o
$ ia c f> o p a i
Aeu/ca, toutojv S
to
irp o a c o
ecog t c o v
at reAetmxtat rerrape? eoovrat ?} aAAo rt

*
vrrdpxeiv vulg.: corr. Titze.
8 supplevit Cornford.
a Because it cannot fulfil the condition of admitting

differentiation. At whatever stage of the division it comes
(unless at the very end), the privative term will cover at least
two species, and therefore at the next stage the dichotomists
will have to divide it illegitimately, as Aristotle maintains.
84
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, I.
iii.
differentia will belong to two species. And i f so,

it is clear that a privative cannot be a valid
differentia.a
(d)
N ow assuming that each species is indivisible : if
each differentia also is indivisible, and none is common
to more species than one, then the number o f differ
entiae will be equal to the number o f species. (Suppos
ing it were possible to have a differentia which though
indivisible was common ; clearly, in that ease, animals
which differed in species would be in the same division
in virtue o f that common differentia. Therefore, i f the
differentiae under which the indivisible and ultimate
species fall are to be proper and private to each
one, it is necessary that no differentia be common ;
otherwise, species which are actually different will
come under one and the selfsame differentia.) And
we may not place one and the same indivisible
species under two or three o f the lines o f differentia
tion given by the divisions ; nor may we include
different species under one and the same line o f
differentiation. Y e t each species must be placed
under the lines o f differentiation available.
It is
evident from this that it is impossible to arrive at the
indivisible species either o f animals or o f any other
group by the method o f twofold division as these
people practise it, for even on their showing the
number o f ultimate differentiae must o f necessity be
equal to the total number o f indivisible species o f
animals. Thus, suppose we have some particular
group o f creatures whose prime differentiae are
pale and not pale ; bv that method these
two will each g ive two other differentiae, and so
forth, until in the end the indivisible differentiae are
reached : these last ones will be either four in
85
ARISTOTLE
643
ft
T rX rjO o s t c o v
Kal
Ta
a<f>
evos
h n r X a G ia ^ o fie v c o v
ro o a vr
a Se
e i S r ),
(" E o t i S* rj Staôpa i v t t ) vXtj t o etSo?.1 o v re
25 ya p
vXrjs oz)Sev cpov fiopiov, o v r e
avev
vXrj oi5 yap Trai'TOJ?
fiovrj r)
GWfia ecrrat <pov3 o v Se
ra jr fiopicov o v SeV, covTrep TroXXaKis eiprjTai.)

vE r t
S ta ip e lv
S iaip ot'17,
30 y c o v l a s ,
T p iy c o v c o
Se
Sv
to
vE rt rot?
yap
ra
o t i
ra
/xev
S ia c p c p a
Z fiifs v x a
fj,
t o
tco
to
Is
TT T 7)va e o n
7 7 T 7 ]va K a l
fir )
\ p c o fia r i.
eêt
iG a s
yap
ra?
t i
ofov
X e v K o r r js
e p y o is
Kal
eav o w
t o
Statp e r e o v ,
fie -
d a rep a
Kal
fir)
to
Trpo? Se rourot?, r a y*
t o v
G c o fia r o s
Kal
rat? p r ) d e i G a i s v v v r r o p e v r i K d
r tra y e v r ) o l s a fi(j> c o v r r a p x ^ i
arrrepa,
t o is
G ^ r ^ ia r a
^ e iv Ta? y c o v i a s .
Statpetv {S et)/ S id c f> o p a
K a l K a f i 7 r v X 6 r r )s .
K o i i 'o i s
yap
o p d a is
Kal
ra
t is
io a s
a v T iK e ifie v c o
Se
o v a la
ei
o v f i f i e f i -q K o s
T a v riK e ifie v a ,
643 b i f j v x f j s , o t o v K a l e v
eon
S u a ir
o p d a is
g iv
rfj
o to v
T r X e io G iv
K a l e v d v r r js
35 f i e v v e v G e i
ev
t o is
a im > ,
a v r iK e ifie v o is
a X X r )X o i s
X a v ia
x p f)
KaO*
G V f if ie p r jK o a i
K a d a rrep
to
tcov
r r js
Kal
Kal
f iv p fir jK c o v
1 sic Y : to ?8os ev r# vAg vulg.
2 (Set) supplevi.
a His point is that it is nonsensical to suppose that this
numerical correspondence is bound to occur.
6 As at 641 a IS ff.
e See Met. 102o a 30.
d These are enumerated in De sensu, 436 a 7 ff., and Aris
totle seems here to be thinking of them as grouped together
under the several faculties nutritive, appetitive, sensory,
86
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, I.
iii.
number, or some higher value o f 2n : and there will

be an identical number o f species.0
(Th e species is the differentia in the M atter. There
is no animal part which exists without matter ; nor
on the other hand is there any which is matter only,
for body in any and every condition cannot make an
animal or any part o f an animal, as I have often
pointed out.5)
(e) A gain, the division ought to be made according
to points that belonsr to the Essence o f a thinff and
not according to its essential (inseparable) attributes.
For instance, in making divisions o f geom etrical
figures, it would be wrong to divide them into those
whose angles are together equal to two right angles
and those whose angles are together greater than two
right angles ; because it is only an attribute o f the
triangle that its angles are together equal to two
right angles.6
(f ) A gain, division should be by opposites,
opposites being mutually different. e.g. pale and
dark, straight and curved. Therefore, provided the
two terms are truly different. division should be
by means o f opposites, and should not characterize
one side by ability to swim and the other side by
some colour. And besides this, division o f living
creatures, at any rate, by the functions which are
common functions o f body and soul.d such as we
actually find done in the divisions mentioned above,
where animals are divided into walkers and
fliers for there are some groups, such as that o f
the Ants, which have both attributes, being both
locomotive, and thought (see De an. 414 a ?$ ff.). His point
is that the correct way to divide and classify animals is rather
bv bodilv characteristics, which is what he himself does.
87
ARISTOTLE
(ou Set) 2 StatpetSofete r a u r a etSr j Statpetv*
5 m tvra y a p , o j s e l r r e i v , ocra r j / i e p a K a l a y p i a r v y X a v e i dvr a , o t o v a v d p o j i r o i , l t t t t o i , jSoe?, K v v e s i v r f j
IvSt/c$, v e s , a t y e s , T t p o f i a r a c Sv e K a a r o v , et f i e v
o f i C L i v v f i o v , o v S c f j p r j r a i ^copts, et Se ra u ra ev etSet,
oux
T* etvat Sta < f > o p a v t o a y p i o v K a l t o r j f J L e p o v .
* O A u > s S o t t o k x o v v Staôpa 3 juta Statpouvrt rotfro
10 G V f jL ^ a iv e iv avay/catov. aAAa Set i r e i p d a O a i Aaû/Javetv /card yeVq r a ^wa, ai? v (/ )r )y r )v Q ot 7roAAot
Stoptaavre? o p v i O o s y e v o s K a l t^fluo?. roirrtov S
e/caarov r r o X X a ls toptarat S ia c f y o p a is , o v K a r a t t j v
Stôro/xtav. ovrco f i e v y a p r j T o i t o T r a p a T r a v o v k
eart AajSetv (to auro yap et? TrAetou? e/x7U77ret
is h i a i p e a e i s /cat r a evavrta e l s t t j v a v t y j v ) , f j ( d a
f j i o v o v Staôpa ecrrat, /cat a v T r j 7 ] t o l a i r X f j f j e/c
a v fjL T rX o K rjs t o reAei/ratov c arat etSos*.
eav Se /xt^
Sta ( j ) o p a s X a n / S a v r ] t l s h ia < j> o p a v , 4 avay/catov, a > o 7 rep
y e v o s K a l
a 9 a t
to j
d )G a v r c o s
a v i'S e a / ja p
to v
a y p itp
y a p
Xoyov
K a l 1 fjfx e p c p
a v
eva
n o io v v T a s , o v t o j
K a l ttjv
. Aeyto S otov a v f i f i a i v e i
20 rots Statpoiz/xeVots* ro /xev a 7T T e p o v t o Se 7rrepa>rdv,
T T T e p w T o v Se ro /xev y jfjc e p o v t o S a y p i o v , f j t o f i e v
S ia ip e a iv
avvex^j
ir o ie iv
1 /cat E Y : Kal rw vulg;.

2 supplevi.
3 07rotarovv 8ia<f>opdv a lii; o7rotaou' \ : Sta<f>opa vel StaSopa
ESY.
4 Staôpa A. E S : &ia<f)opav A.
Sta<f>opas P : Staôpaff A.
Sta<f>opav Y ; rts Peck : ttjv vulg.
C /. Plato, Politicus , 264- a 1.
*
On this see Platt, C.Q., 1909, iii. 241.
c For Sta(f)opa in the sense of bifurcation cf. Met.
1048 b 4, where he speaks of the two parts * of a hiafopd.
d i.e. with the preceding terms. See below, 644 a 5.
88
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, I.
h i.
w inged and 41 wingless and by 44 wild and

44tam e, is not permissible, for this similarly would
appear to divide up species that are the same, since
practically all the tame animals are also found as
wild ones : e.g. M an, the horse, the ox, the dog (in
India 6), swine, the goat, the sheep ; and if, in each
o f these groups, the wild and the tame bear the same
name, as they do, there is no division betw een them,
while i f each group is specifically a unit, then it
follows that 44 wild and 44 tame cannot make a
valid differentiation.6
And generally, the same thing inevitably happens
whatever one single line o f differentiation is taken for
the division. The proper course is to endeavour to
take the animals according to their groups, fol
lowing the lead o f the bulk o f mankind, who have
marked off the group o f Birds and the group o f Fishes.
Each o f these groups is marked off by many differentiae,
not by means o f dichotomy. By dichotomy ( ) either
these groups cannot be arrived at at all (because the
same group falls under several divisions and contrary
groups under the same division) or else there will be
one differentia only, and this either singly or in
combination d will constitute the ultimate species.6
But (6) i f they do not take the differentia o f the differ
entia, th ey are forced to follow' the example o f
those people w ho try to give unity to their prose by a
free use o f conjunctions : there is as little con
tinuity about their division. H ere is an example
to show what happens.
Suppose they make the
division into 44 wingless and w inged, and then
divide 44 winged into 44 tame and 44 wild or into
And this will never completely represent any actual

group or species. See below, 614 a 6 ff.
89
ARISTOTLE
643 b
AevKov to Se fie X a v o v yap Sia<f>opa t o v 7TTep(OTOV

a - P X V Sia<j>opasm e/cet Se K a ra ovfiPeftrjKos.
Sto 7roXAals t o
ev evBecos StatpeTeov, wcfttep Aeyofiev,
/cat yap
25 outcos* jucv at oTeprjcreis Troirjcroviji Stacf>opdv, i v Se
Tjj StÔTOjUta OV TTOtÔOUOtV.
"O t i S ou/c evSeêTat tcuv /ca0 e/caorov etSa)v
Aa/z/3aveiv ouSev Statpouct Stâ to ye'vo?, oxjtt ep
Ttve? coTrjdrjcrav, Kal e/c TaivSe <âvepov.
t o rjfiepov o v Se t o AevKov, aAA eVepa?
A S u v a ro v
yap
fila v
v n d p x e iv
S ta (f > o p a v
so /ca0 e/caorov Statperaiv, eav 0 a?rAa

Te
ia v
(jv f n r e T r X e y f i e v a 9
Sta <f> o p a v,
k 'x r)
fie v a
Se,
ia v
o lo v
ttjv
e x j),
olov
a ^ t o 7ro u v ] 3 t o v t o
tls1
[Aeyou Se cUrAa
f ie v , i a v fir ]
a ;(t o 7roStav,
crv fn re T T X e y -
yap
a 7ro tow yeVou? /ca ra
tcov
X a fifia v r)
ttjv
to
17
ir o X v a x iS e s
7 T p os
to 2
o w e ^ e ta /Jot;Aerat tcDv
S ia ip e a iv
Sta<j> o p a > v
cos
iv
35 Tt t o 7rav ov, aAAa 7rapa tt^v X e i v a v f i p a i v e i So/cetv

tt) v
644 a
T e X e v T a la v
fio v r jv e lv a i
Sta ^ o p a v [otov t o
ttoX v
S r jX o v
d el
y a p
fia S l^ c o v
in i
ttjv
ia x d rr^ v
S ia < f)o p d v
[aAA o v k i r r l t t j v T e X e v T a l a v K a l t o
etSo?]*5 a v T r j S i o r l v f f t o o x ^ o t t o v v f i o v o v , f f
7raaa r ) c r v f i T r X e t j i s , i a v S i a i p r j T a i a v O p c o i r o s ,6 o l o v
e l TLS O w d e i T ]
V T T O T T O V V , St7T O V V , O X ^ O T T O V V .
t S
r j v o a v d p c o n o s ( J x i ^ o t t o v v f x o v o v , o v t c o s i y l y v e T av
avT T j (r jy 7 fila
S ia < f> o p a .
v v v S eTretS^ oi)/c eortv,
a < f> iK V L T a i
0^tSes* ^ t o StTTOW, t o S uttottouv /cat 7roAu7roi;v

7reptepya].4 o ti S aSuvaTov n X e i o v s e l v a i T o i a v T a s ,
1 ti? Y : om. vulg.

2
ra) Platt.
8 seclusi. codices varia, ut videtur; sic Bekker.
4 olov . . . TTtpUpya seclusi.

8 aAA* . . . elBos seclusi.
dv6pco7Tov vulg.
90
( 17) Ogle.
PARTS OF A N IM ALS. I.
h i.
pale and dark : neither tam e nor pale

is a differentiation o f " w inged, but the beginning
o f another line o f differentiation, and can come in
here only by accident. Therefore, as I say, in dividing
we must distinguish the one original group forthwith
by numerous differentiae ; and then too the privative
terms will make valid differentiae, which they will
never do in the system o f dichotomy.
H ere are further considerations to show that it is
impossible to come at any o f the particular species by
the method o f dividing the group into two. as some
people have imagined.
Obviously it is impossible that one single differentia
is adequate for each o f the particular species covered
by the division, whether you adopt as your differentia
the isolated term or the combination o f terms a (for
this is intended by the continuity o f the series o f
differentiae throughout the division from the original
group, to indicate that the whole is a unity ; but, in
consequence o f the form o f the expression, the last
one comes to be considered as the sole differentia).
And it is evident that there cannot be more than one
such differentia; for the division proceeds steadily until
it reaches the ultimate differentia, and supposing the
division is aiming at Man this is either cloven
footed alone, or else the whole combination, e.g.
i f one combined " footed , tw o-footed. cloven
footed. b I f M an were m erely a cloven-footed
animal, then this would be the one differentia, arrived
at by the right method. But as he is not m erely
i.e. the last term of any series, or all its terms together,
as he goes on to say. Cf. 64-3 b 15 f.
6 This definition appears also in Met. 1037-103S.
D
91
ARISTOTLE
avdyK T)
jjLTjv
noXXas
n X e io v s
10 h i \ O T O f i i a v
e lv a i
ye
fir )
e lv a i,
aAAa
St'â S i a i p o v f i e v o v s .
o t io v v
9A t T o p r j a e i e
S a v
o v o f J ia T i i{i T T p i A a f 3 6 v T e s
r jy o p e v a a v
15 K a l
K o iv a
aAA*
ova
oi
Kal
opO w s
ojjlw s
oaa
S e \ e i
20 o p v i O o s
f jie v
8 9 o p v id o s
Tepw
t w
d[JL<f)W T T p o o -
to
avaX oyov
X e m s ).
t o vto
ce
re
Ta
yap
a X X o is
evvS pa
e v ta
w o is
t o vt o v
yevw v
jx a X X o v
t w
fia K p o T T T e p o v
e/ca aro v
S ta r t ov/c a v w Q e v
tt a 9 r j
d V a t r t v ].1
T p oT rov.
to v
K a d 9 v v e p o x r jv
vneêvK T a i
avaAoyov, \ w p i s ' X e y w
t o
re A e v ra v .
KaO9
yevos
e o rt
ra u ra
f jT T O V y 2
h ia < f> e p e i
yap
t o is
t w v
fiia v
vtto
/itav
T r e p ie x e i
StdJptcrrat
S taêpet
[l e v y a p
jJ ia X X o v K a l
t w
[/cat
t o v t o is
ev
X^w w v
t w v
aAAa
eo rtv
t w v
t is
a/Jia
a v O p W T r o i,
7T T T jv a
Ta
h ia lp e o iv .
K a ra
AajSetv
aSvva
w w v
IV .
o vk
/xi a v
w g t c
to v
fx la v
vtto
a vrov
t o v
f i p a x v T T T e p o v ),
e K e iv w
t,
S* otov o p v i s
77 K a d 9 V T r e p o \ r j v
(o y a p
Kal
evl y e v e
(t o
l^ O v e s
TTTepov, 9 a -
Se 7rotetv eV t 7raatv o v p a S t o v
r a y a p 7roAAa <pa a v a A o y o v r a v r o T r e T r o v O e v .
* E 7Tt S*
25 Se r a v r a
o vo
tat { l e v
r a 3 ro
K o p i a K O s ),
etcrt r a
ecr^ a ra
etSos* a S t d (f > o p a
a v ay / ca to v
77
ra
e tS ^ ,
/card
(o to v
2 W K p a T r js ,
KaOoXov
V T ra p xp V T a
1 seclusi Ogle docente.

2 sic Rackham: ro fiahXov Kal to (to 0111. Y ) ^r tov vulg.
3 icard Se ravra ra Peck: ravra Se /cara vulg.
0
This paragraph has been corrupted by confusing inter
polations, which I have bracketed in the Greek text and
omitted in the translation.
With this passage cf. Met.
1037 b 27 1038 a 30.
b On this point see D Arcy \V. Thompson, Growth and
Form , esp. ch. 17, and the same authors paper Excess
and Defect ; or The Little More and the Little Less, in
M ind , xxxviii. (N .S .) 149, pp. 43-55. See also infra,
661 b 28 ff., 692 b 3 f f.; and Introduction, p. 39.
92
evl
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I.
i i i . - iv .
that, it is necessary that there should be many

differentiae, not under one line o f division. And y e t
there cannot be more than one differentia for the same
thing under one line o f dichotomy : one line must end
in one differentia. So it is impossible for those who
follow the method o f twofold division to arrive at any
o f the particular animals.0
IV .
Some may find it puzzling that general usage
has not combined the water-animals and the feathered
animals into one higher group, and adopted one name
to cover both, seeing that in fact these two groups
have certain features in common. The answer is that
in spite o f this the present grouping is the right one ;
because while groups that differ only by excess
(that is, by the more and less 6) are placed
together in one group, those which differ so much
that their characteristics can m erely be callcd ana
logous are placed in separate groups. As an illus
tration : (a) one bird differs from another bird by
the m ore, or by excess : one bird s feathers
are long, another's are sh o rt; whereas (6) the
difference between a Bird and a Fish is greater,
and their correspondence is only by analogy : a fish
has no feathers at all, but scales, which correspond
to them. I t is not easy to do this in all cases, for
the corresponding analogous parts o f most groups o f
animals are identical.
N ow since the ultimate species are real things, c Method*
while within them are individuals which do not differ
in species (as e.g. Socrates and Coriscus)/* we shall
have to choose (as I have pointed o u t)e between
*
Lit. substances.
d i.e. within the species man.

* Above, at 639 a, b, etc.
93
ARISTOTLE
644 a
7 T p O T p O V 17TLV ff 7 T oX X a K L S TGLVTOV X e y C L V , K a O d n e p
(to,
e ip r jr a i.
Se
KaOoXov
K o iv a
V T r a p x p v r a K a O o X o v X e y o fx e v .)
Set
T T orep a
ttp
a y fia re v e e rQ a i.
fj
80 r q > etSet d r o f i o v , K p d r i a r o v , et
KaOy eK a a rov
Kal
a r o jic o v
fir f
T repl
t o vt o
orovovv
yepavos
rj
tl
644 b fJL a K p d v t o
X eyera c
K aXcos
fila v
(f > v a i v
S ie a r d tr a j
e a r lv
a v c o v v f jio v
ev
a vra >b
eK a a rov,
erep ov
o fo v
ovaca
to
etSet O e c u p e c v x c o p i s ,
K a l 1 T re p l o p v i O o s , ( t < a l
e i8 r j
ro
yevos
fie v
X e y e iv
K a ra
kolvtjv
fx e v,
Kal
Kal
ro>
S ta
ecrTtv
d ip ia fx e v c o v
e iS rj*
a v f ip r ja e r a i
TTaOoVS
ra vrrj
o p v is
7rept
Se
fj
aVTOV
yevei
oaa
Se
a vO p coT rov
K O L V jj
V T id ro rro v
% t jjp ls .
yevrj
Kal
la c o s
K o iv fj
P -e v
X e y e iv ,
avO pcovcov,
tojv
e id r ]
I\ 0 v s ,
X e y e iv
TO
ev
Kal
a v r o is *
et
Kal
ti
jir j
aAAo
S o jx o l a 4 T r e p ie x ^ i
firj
ro ia v ra
Kal
et
Tt
KaOy
t o io v t o v
ea n v.
SêSov
a c o fJ L a r o s
y e v r j,
yap
S v v a i r o , T re p l r c o v
(c x t y a p
eK a a rov
eêt T a
opO cos
oaa
ra
TOV
T re p l
ovv
e êt r e
to lo vto v
TTpl
V T rd pêLV,
T r X e io a iv
tto X v
T r X e io a iv
S e ^ e t T re p l
, a A A a T re p l r c o v a r o f j i c o v * o l o v rj a r p o v O o s f j
35 TT oX X a K LS
o p v iO o s }
yap
p .e v
tls
ra t
w o T r e p T re p l a v O p c o T r o v , o v r c o
* ra
a T r o p ia v
Se
to I?
oX ov,
o to v
to
ia v
tcov
a x T ji x a a i
tcov
o f io io r r jr a
o p v iO c o v
fio p ic o v
e x ^ a iv ,
yevos
T T p os
Kal
o jp io r a i
ro v
ra
a v t o 6 7re'-
1 *at] /xi7 Bonitz.

2 huiic locum correxi, 2 secutus; *et yap 1877 t o ycVos
Touro* aAAa 7rcpt orovovv opviOos rutv aroficov, olov ktA. vulg.
3 aurot? vu lg .: correxi.
4 ofxolajs vu lg .: correxi.
* avru> vulg. : correxi.

6 avro Platt, fortasse Z1 : auTO Y : aCra Z2, vulg.
9*
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I. iv.

describing first o f all the general attributes o f many
species, and repeating the same thing many times
over.
(B y general attributes 1 intend the
common ones. That which belongs to many we
call general. ) One may well hesitate whether o f
the two courses to follow. For. in so far as it is the
specifically indivisible which is the real thing, it
would be best, i f one could do it. to study separ
ately the particular and specifically indivisible sorts,
in the same way as one studies M an , to do this
with Bird too, that is. to study not just Bird
in the mass, but since Bird is a group which
contains species the indivisible species o f it. e.g.
Ostrich, Crane, and so on. Y e t, on the other hand,
this course is somewhat unreasonable and longwinded, because it makes us describe the same attri
butes time and again, as they happen to be common
attributes o f many specics. So perhaps after all the
right procedure is this : ( a) So far as concerns the
attributes o f those groups which have been correctly
marked off by popular usage groups which possess
one common nature apiece and contain in themselves
species not far removed from one another, I mean
Birds and Fishes and any other such group which
though it may lack a popular name yet contains
species generically similar to describe the common
attributes o f each group all together : and (6) with
regard to those animals which are not covered by
this, to describe the attributes o f each o f these by
itselfe.g. those o f Man, and o f any other such species
there may be.
Now it is practically by resemblance o f the shapes
o f their parts, or o f their whole body, that the groups
are marked off from each other : as e.g. the groups
95
ARISTOTLE
10
ttov0
Ta
t
to
Kal
fj
avaA oyov
Trerrov0 ev
Ix O v c o v
tcov
o a rp e ia ,
ra
yap
^
o j io l o t
tl,
Trpos
oa rovv
Kal
//aAa/cta r e
S ta < f> ep o vo i
fx o p ia
o lo v
iv
a v O p c o T T to K a l
aK avO av,
G K A r jp O T T jT l ,
r o io v r o is ,
n o )?
fie v
Iie 0 o 8 o v ,
avTcbv
oAcos
ovv
Se
A e i O T T jr i
tco
jLU/C/)OT^Tt, f i a A a -
a T roS exâ O a i
K al r lv a
Tpa^VTYJTl
fi& X A o v
rpoT rov
ov
t^fWt
a A A a f x a A A o v TOt?
GCOjJLaTlKOLS 7 T a 0 G L V , o t o v fJLy0L
15 K O T T jT L
Kal
tovtcov
Kal
Set
Kal
T O t?
r jr r o v .
T repl
ttjv
y lv o c r9 a v
rj
c f> v a e o js
O e c o p la
T re p l
o S co K a l p a a r a , eVt Se T r e p l S t a i p e a e c o s , r l v a
eV S eêT at f i e n o v a i A a n f i d v e t v ^p^crt/xta?, K a l
Tponov
20 StoTt t o
S ix o T O fie iv
e ip r jr a i.
fj
S ic o p io fie v c o v
A e y c o fie v ,
ap x fy
V.
t t j v Se
fie v
a y e v r jr o v s
fj
Se K e v o v ,
T r o ir ja d f ie v o i.
T aw ovatcDv oaat
(A e y o f x e v y 1
aSv v a ro v
Se t o u t o j v 7rept to )*' ecfreijfjs
Kal
< j> v o e i
a v v e a rd a i,
a (f > 0 d p r o v s
e lv a i
Taj
fie v
to v
Se f i e r e x ^ i v y e v e a e c o s K a l
Se 7repi /xev e/cetVa ? r i f i l a s
ovaa? /cat 0eta? eAaTTOu? r j f i i v v T r d p x ^ i v O e c o p i a s
(/cat y a p e c o v a v Tt? O K e t f j a i r o T r e p l a v r c o v , K a l
T re p l < L v etSeVat r r o O o v f i e v , T r a v r e A c o s e a r l v o A l y a T a
< f> a vep d K a r a r r j v a l a 0 r ) a i v ) f T r e p l Se t c o v (f > 0 a p r c b v
aT ra vra
a lc o v a
25 < f )0 o p a s .
<f>VTU)V
Ta?
o v f jL ^ e ^ r jK e
Kal
80 y v c o a i v Sta to
CpCOV
Aa/Jot Tt?
Sta 7r o v e i v t/cavaj?.
yevos
yap
el Kal
V 1T O p O V f ie V
a vvrp o < f> o vm
K a ra
av
tc o v
eêt S
fiiK p o v
7roAAa
fJLaA A oV
yap
V T ra p xovrcov
eK a rep a
T T p os
tte p l
fio v A o fie v o s
X ^ P LV-
e ^ a T r r o fie O a ,
TTJV
eK a a rov
T& v p iv
o fic o s
Sta
r r jv
1 <Ae'yo/iv) Peck.
Lit., softies. The group

cephalopod mollusca.
b Lit., oysters (bivalves).
96
includes,
roughly,
the
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, I. iv.-v.

Birds, Fishes, Cephalopods, Testacea.6 W ithin each
o f these groups, the parts do not differ so far that they
correspond only by analogy (as a m ans bone and a
fish's spine) ; that is, they differ not structurally, but
only in respect o f bodily qualities, e.g. by being
larger or smaller, softer or harder, smoother or
rougher, and so forth, or, to put it generally, they
differ by the more and less.
W e have now shown :
(1) how to test a method o f Natural science ;
(2) what is the most systematic and easiest way o f
studying Natural science ;
(3) what is the most useful mode o f Division for
our present purpose ;
(4) why dichotomy is in one respect impossible and in
another futile.
N ow that we have made this beginning, and clearly
distinguished these points, we may proceed.
V.
O f the works o f Nature there are, we hold, two Aprotreptic
kinds : those which are brought into being and perish, of iS ?n S y
and those which are free from these processes through
out all ages. The latter are o f the highest worth and
are divine, but our opportunities for the study o f
them are somewhat scanty, since there is but little
evidence available to our senses to enable us to con
sider them and all the things that we long to know
about. W e have better means o f information, however,
concerning the things that perish, that is to say, plants
and animals, because w*e live among them ; and any
one wTho will but take enough trouble can learn
much concerning every one o f their kinds. Y e t
each o f the twO groups has its attractiveness. For
although our grasp o f the eternal things is but
slight, nevertheless the jo y which it brings is, b y
97
ARISTOTLE
r if iio r r jr a
a n a vra ,
ro v
y v c o p l^ e iv
a x jn e p
Kal
rco v
35 fJLLKpOV fJLOpiOV K a T l S e Z v
r jh io v
fj
ra
ip c o f ie v c o v
nap9
to
r jp u v
tl ^ ov
r j8 lO V ic J T L V f j n o X X a
Kal
e re p a
645 a K a'L jLteyaAa St* aKpifielas tSetv* r a Sc Sta t o fiaXXov

Kal nXelco yvcoplêiv avrcov Xafifiavei rrjv rrjs i n i fjrrjfirjs V7r e p o ^ i ', ert Se Sta t o nX rja ialrepa fjfjLcov
etvat
Kal
rrjs
(f>vaecos
olK eiorepa
d v riK a ra X X d reVet
r e r a l T t n p o s rrjv nepl r a 9eTa (fyiXocjoîav.

5
Se n epl efceiVouv hirjXOof-Lev X eyovres t o <atvo jievov

rjjiZv, X oinov nepl Trjs ojiKrjs cfrvaeo j s elneZv, jxrjhev
n a p a X tn o vra s
rifiLcorepov.
els
Svvapuv firjre
Kal
yap
iv
roZs
drifxorepov firjre
f t rj
Kex<*pi(7f.ievois
avrcov n p o s rrjv a'loBrjaiv K ara rrjv Oecopiav ofjuos1

rj SrjfXLOVpyrjaacra <f>vcns afirj^dvovs rjhovas napexî
io toZs
Svvafievois
rd s
a lrla s
yvcoplêiv
Kal
<$>vcjet
Kal y a p av e'lrj n a p a X o y o v Kal a r o n o v ,
<f>iXoa6<f)Ois.
et r d s fiev elKovas avrcov 9ecopovvres
on
rrjv 8rjfj.iovpyrjoaGav rexvrjv avvBecopovfiev, otov rrjv

rrjv n X a o riK ijv, avrcov Se rcov (frvaei
ypacf>LKrjv
(jvveGTcbrcov
15
hvvd fievol
ye
firj
fiaXXov
ra s
8vGxepo.lvLV naihiKcos
^cocov in loK eifjiv'
ayancofiev
a lrla s
rrjv
rrjv
KaOopdv.
nepl
Sto
Oecopiav,
Set
firj
rcov an fio rep cov
i v n a o i yap roZs <f>vaiKoZs evecrrl
1 ofuos Bekker: ofiolws codd.
a This passage, 645 a 6-15, is quoted by R. Boyle (O f the

Usefulnesse of Xaturctll Philosophy, 1663) both in Gaza's
Latin version and in an English translation, and he intro
duces it thus : ki And, methinks, Aristotle discourses very
Philosophically in that place, where passing from the con
sideration of the sublimist productions of Nature, to justifie
his diligence in recording the more homely Circumstances of
the History of Animals, he thus discourses.** He also quotes
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, I. v.
reason o f their excellence and worth, greater than
that o f knowing all things that are here below ; just
as the jo y o f a fleeting and partial glimpse o f those
whom we love is greater than that o f an accurate
view o f other things, no m atter how numerous or how
great they are. But inasmuch as it is possible for us
to obtain more and better information about things
here on the earth, our knowledge o f them has the
advantage over the other ; and moreover, because
they are nearer to us and more akin to our Nature,
they are able to make up some o f their leeway as
against the philosophy which contemplates the things
that are divine. O f things divine we have al
ready treated and have set down our views concerning
them ; so it now remains to speak o f animals and
their Nature. a So far as in us lies, we will not leave
out any one o f them, be it never so mean ; for though
there are animals which have no attractiveness for
the senses, y e t for the eye o f science, for the student
who is naturally o f a philosophic spirit and can dis
cern the causes o f things. Nature which fashioned
them provides joys which cannot be measured. I f we
study mere likenesses o f these things and take pleasure
in so doing, beeause then we are contemplating the
painters or the carvers A rt which fashioned them, and
yet fail to delight much more in studying the works
o f Nature themselves, though wTe have the ability to
discern the actual causes that would be a strange
absurdity indeed.
W herefore we must not betake
ourselves to the consideration o f the meaner animals
with a bad grace, as though we were children ; since
in all natural things there is somewhat o f the marthe following passage, a 15-23, describing it as l that J udicious
reasoning of Aristotle.
u2
99
ARISTOTLE
t i
O a v fio L G T o v
20 T T p o s T O V S
a v T to ,
n p o s
o i
tco
K a l
vO V S
in e iS f)
I ttvco
O a p p ov v T a s*
K aO a rrep
eln e iV
T T p o c r io v T S
y a p
H/xz/cX e i T O S Aeyerai
fio v x o fjie v o v s
tS o v
(e/cAeue
e o T r ja a v
eivai
TOVS
K a l
a v T o v
y a p
iv r a v d a
V T V X tV
O ep o fiev o v
a v T o is
O e o v s ),
e la ie v a i
o vtco
K al
TTpos TTJV TfTrjaLV 7Tpl eKOLGTOV TCOV cpCOV TTpOaiivai

Set fJLTj SvaCO7TOVfJLV0Vt COS V aTTaOlV OVTOS TIVOS
<f)vaiKov Kal KaXov.
T o y a p fxrj tv x o v tc o s aAA eveKa tlv o s i v t o l s rrjs

25
cf>vaecos
ep yois
ea rl
Kal
/xaAtcrra*
ov
eveKa
GvveGTrjKev rj y e y o ve TeXovs, rrjv t o v KaXov xcopav

eiXr)(f>ev.
el
Se
tls
t tjv
Trepl tcov
aXXcov
Oecopiav aTifJiov elvai vevop.iKe, t o v

oieoO ai
XPV
Ka'L Kepi a v T o v o vk
cocov
avT ov Tporrov
ea rt
ya p
TToXXrjs SvGx^pelas ISeiv i cov avveaTrjKe t o
a vev
tcov
so avOpcoTTCOV y e v o s , o lo v alfia, aapKes, ocrra, cf>Xefies

Kal Ta TOiavTa fxopia.
ofioicos r e Set vofiieiv t o v
Trepl o v tiv o g o v v tcov fiopicov fj tcov GKevcbv SiaAeyofievov fir) Trepl Trjs vXrjs TroieiaOai t tjv fxvrjfjirjv,
frrjSe TavTrjs X ^ P LV* &XAa rrjs oXrjs fiopcfrrjs, olov Kal
Trepl olK ia s, aA A a firj ttXivOcov Kal TrrjXov Kal ijvXcov
85
Kal t o v nepl <j>vaecos nep l Trjs avvOeaecos Kal Trjs

oXrjs o v a ia s , aAAa firj rrepl to v t c o v a fir) avfifiaivei
Xojpiôfxeva TroTe Trjs o va ia s avTcov.
Or, with reference to another use of ovota> which gives

them their being. Independent approaches to the position
that components are non-significant in isolation had been
made, e.g. by Anaxagoras, as a physical philosopher (see
my article in C.Q. xxv. 27 ff., 112 ff.), who held that the
things (i.e. the constituent elements) in this world are not
separate one from another (frag. 8, Diels, Fragmented,
100
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, L v.
vellous. There is a story which tells how some
visitors once wished to m eet Heracleitus, and when
they entered and saw him in the kitchen, warming
himself at the stove, they h esitated; but Heracleitus
said, Come in ; dont be afraid ; there are gods
even here. In like manner, we ought not to hesi
tate nor to be abashed, but boldly to enter upon our
researches concerning animals o f every sort and kind,
knowing that in not one o f them is Nature or Beauty
lacking.
I add Beauty, beeause in the works o f Nature
purpose and not accident is predominant ; and the
purpose or end for the sake o f which those works have
been constructed or formed has its place among what
is beautiful. If, however, there is anyone who holds
that the study o f the animals is an unworthy pursuit,
he ought to go further and hold the same opinion
about the study o f himself, for it is not possible
without considerable disgust to look upon the blood,
flesh, bones, blood-vessels, and suchlike parts o f
which the human body is constructed. In the same
way, when the discussion turns upon any one o f the
parts or structures, we must not suppose that the
lecturer is speaking o f the material o f them in itself
and for its own sake ; he is speaking o f the whole
conformation. Just as in discussing a house, it is the
whole figure and form o f the house which concerns us,
not m erely the bricks and mortar and tim ber ; so in
Natural science, it is the composite thing, the thing
as a whole, which primarily concerns us, not the
materials o f it, which are not found apart from the
thing itself whose materials they are.
59 b 8 ) ; also from the logical point of view, as seen in
Plato, Theaetetus, 201 e ff.
101
ARISTOTLE
645 b
Avay/catov Se
nepl
e K a a ro v
ra o v fiP e f ir jK o r a
/ca0 aura n a a i v
n p w ro v
yevos,
oaa
S ie X e tv
v rra p x e i
rot? a>ot?, f i e r a Se r a v r a r a s a l r l a s a v r c o v n e i p a a d a i SteAetv.

e ip r jr a i fie v o v v
/cat n p o r e p o v ort
n o X X a /cotva 7roAAot? v i r a p x e i r c o v t , w w v , r a f i e v
a n X w s ( o l o v n o S e s , r c r e p a , Aem'Se?, /cat 7rad r j S r j
r o v a v r o v r p o n o v r o v r o i s ) , r a S avaAoyov (X e 'y w S
avaAoyov, ort rot? jLtev v n a p x ^ i n X e v f i w v , r o t s Se
r r X e v f i w v f i e v o v , o Se rot? e x o v a c n X e v f i o v a , e K e l vot? e r e p o v avrt r o v r o v /cat rot? f i e v a l f i a , rot? Se
10 ro avaAoyov r r j v a v r r j v eôv S v v a fj.L V r j v n e p r o l s
e v a lfx o L S t o a l f i a ) ' r o Se X e y e i v x ^ p l s i r e p l e K a a r c o v
rw v
Kad
e/caara, /cat e f i n p o a d e v e i n o f i e v o r i
ir o X X a K is a v f i f i r j a e r a i r a v r a
X e y e i v , eVetSav Ae'y c o f i e v n e p l r r a v r w v r c o v v n a p x o v r c o v v n a p x e i Se
tto X X o ls r a v r a .
rau ra f i e v o v v r a v r r j S i w p l a O w .
13 E-Tret Se ro f i e v o p y a v o v i r a v e v e K a r o v , r c o v Se
r o v a c o f i a r o s f i o p l c o v e K a a r o v e v e K a r o v , r o S o v
e v e K a r r p a ^ l s rt?, cf> a v e p o v o n K a l ro crvvoAov a c b j i a
a v v e a r r jK e
yap
rj
n p lc o v r r js
w a re
20 f i o p i a
n p a ije c b s
n p la is
rw v
nvos
eveK a
n p lo v o s
o u tfia
epyw v
apa
r r js
ttcos
npos
rrp w rov
n o X v fie p o v s .1
X ^ P lv
T r p l a e c o s * X P V GLS 7 ^ P
Kal ro
Ae/creov
ro v
ov
aAA o
TLS V 77p l a i s
ia r lv .
eve/cev,
e K a a rov.
Kal ra
* f t v x f js
7re<j>VKev
ra?
yeyovev,
n p a ^ e is
ra s
1 no\vfj.povs P : irXqpovs vulg.: fortasse

646 b io.
2 waiTcov post #cotraj vulg.: delevi.
re
/cotva?2
cf.
Almost always used in the singular by Aristotle.

b By blood Aristotle means red blood only. Blooded *'
and bloodless animals do not quite coincide with verte
brates and invertebrates; for there are some invertebrates
which have red blood, e.g. molluscs ( Planorbis), insect
102
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, I. v.
First o f all, our business must be to describe the F
attributes found in each g ro u p ; I mean those of
essential attributes which belong to all t h e Methodanimals, and after that to endeavour to describe the
causes o f them. It will be remembered that I have
said already that there are many attributes which
are common to many animals, either identically the
same (e.g. organs like feet, feathers, and scales, and
affections similarly), or else common by analogy
only (i.e. some animals have a lung,a others have no
lung but something else to correspond instead o f
i t ; again, some animals have blood, while others have
its counterpart,6 which in them has the same value
as blood in the form er). And I have pointed out
above that to treat separately o f all the particular
species would mean continual repetition o f the
same things, i f we are going to deal with all their
attributes, as the same attributes are common to
many animals. Such, then, are m y views on this
matter.
[ N o w , as each o f the parts o f the body, like every
other instrument, is for the sake o f some purpose,
viz. some action, it is evident that the body as a
whole must exist for the sake o f some complex
action. Just as the saw is there for the sake o f
sawing and not sawing for the sake o f the saw,
because sawing is the using o f the instrument, so in
some way the body exists for the sake o f the soul,
and the parts o f the body for the sake o f those
functions to which they are naturally adapted.
So first o f all we must describe the actions (a)
larvae ( Chironomus), worms (Arenicohi).
In other in
vertebrates the blood may be blue (Crustacea) or green
(Sabellid worms), or there may be no respiratory pigment
at all (most insects).
103
ARISTOTLE
645 b
/cat
ra g
K o tva s
yevos
K a ra
juev at
Sc o a c o v
yevos
Kal
n a a iv
ra s
K a r9
vnapxovai
n a p 9 a X X r jX a
ra s
etSo?.
r o ls
Se
X eyco
R ep o ts,
Sta< /)O p d s
K a ra
o p c o fie v
25 K a O 9 v n e p o x ^ v o v a a s , o t o v o p v i O a X e y c o K a r a y e v o s ,
Se
avQ pconov
KaO oXov
yap
Xoyov
exova
yevos
t to
Kar
etSo s ,
Kal
ndv
K a ra
to v
eêt Sta < j> o p a v .

ra fie v
/car* a v a X o y i a v , r a Se K a r a
[i r j 8 e [i l a v
kolvov
, r a Se K a r
e lS o s .
"O a a t fxev ovv npdeis aXXcov eveKa, 8rjXov o t l

Kal J j v at npdêis t o v av rov rp on ov 8iearaaiv
30 ovnep at n paeis. ofioicos Se Kav et rives n porepai
Kal reX os erepcov npaecov r v y x a v o v a iv ov a a i, rov

av rov eet rp on ov Kal rcov fiopicov eKaarov cov at
npanels at r o ia v r a i Kal r p iro v , a n vcov1 ovrcov
avay/catov vnapxîv.
(Xeyco Se ndOrj Kal npatjeis
yevea iv , av^rjaiv, oêt'av, eyprjyopaiv, vnvov, n o 35 pelav, Kal o n o a 9 aXXa r o ia v r a r o ls >cpois vnapxî*
fiopia Se Xeyoj plva, 6<f>0aXpi6v Kal r o avvoXov
646 a n p o a c u n o v , c o v e K a a r o v K a X e l r a i f x e X o s .
o fx o ic o s
Se /cat 7rept rcuv aXXcov.)
K a t nep l fiev r o v r p o n o v rrjs fieOoSov r o a a vO 9
rjfilv elp rjaO w r d s 89 a ir [a s neipaOcofiev elnetv n ep l
re rcov koivcov Kal rcov 18lcov, ap^dfxevoi, KaOdnep
Sicopiaafiev, npcorov and rcov npcorcov.
1 a nvajv Peck, cf. 677 a 18: uiv vulg.: a tovtwv Ogle.
a See above, note on 644 a 17.

* Examples will occur during the course of the treatise.
104
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, I. v.
which are common, and those which belong (6) to a
group, or (c) to a species. By common I mean
those that are present in all animals ; by those
which belong to a group I mean those o f animals
whose differences we see to be differences o f
excess a in relation to one another : an example o f
this is the group Birds. Man is an example o f a
species ; so is every class which admits no differ
entiation o f its general definition. These three sorts
o f common attributes are, respectively. (1) analogous,
(2) generic, (3) specific.
N ow it is evident that when one action is for the
sake o f another action, then the instruments which
perform the two actions differ exactly as the two
actions differ : and i f one action is prior to another
and is the end o f that other action, then the part
o f the body to which it belongs will be prior to
the part to which the other action belongs. There
is also a third possibility, viz. that the action and its
organ are there simply because the presence o f others
jiccessarily involves them .6 (B y affections and actions
I mean Generation, Growth, Copulation, W aking,
Sleep, Locomotion, and the other similar ones that
are found in animals. Examples o f parts are : Nose,
E ye, Face ; each o f these is named a limb or
m em ber. A n d the same holds for the rest too.)
L e t this suffice concerning the method o f our
inquiry, and let us now endeavour to describe-the
causes o f all these things, particular as well as
common ; and, according to the principles laid down,
we wi 11 begin with the first ones first.
105
B
*E k
fiev
t l v w v
earrjKev eK a a rov
ovv
tcov
fiop iw v
Kal
noaw v
<jvv-
tocov, ev r a t? lo r o plats ra ts
10 nep l avrcov hehi]Xw rai aa<f>earepov' 8 C as S c u ria ?

eK a a rov r o v r o v e\ei r o v r p o n o v , im a K e n r e o v vvv ,
Xcoploavras Ka0* a u r a rcov ev r a t ? ia ro p ia is elprjfievcov.
T p ito v
tls
y e iw v ,
15 f i e X r i o v
o v k
8 *
O e lr ]
a X X a i
K a l
eK
o lo v
a n a a w v ,
K o v < J > o r T js
20 xur*7?
K a l
a w fia r w v .
t w v
o a r o v
a e p o s ,
v S a r o s ,
aAA
w a n e p
e r e p o is
y a p
K a l
a v v Q erw v
r a v r a is
K a l
X e io r r js
r )p d v
K a l
Sc
< f> v a is
K a l
K a l
r a
a v o r a a is
e ip r jr a i
K a l
K al
ia r iv ,
ev
t w v
t o is
o lo v
fia v o r r js
rotau ra
iK
r w v
w o is
aX X w v
r o v r w v
d e p fio v
a K o X o v O o v a iv ,
raAAa
r w v
a v
a r o i-
ert Se
K a l
K a l
a w fia r w v
n v K v o r r js
8 e v r e p a
aapK O S
iv
fie v
t l v w v
n v p o s .
X ey eiv ,
o fio io fie p w v
K a l
n p w r r fv
v n o
S v v a fie w v
r w v
S ia < f> o p a l
a v v d ea ew v
K a X o v fie v w v
t w v
v y p o v
vX rj
rco v
r w v
y r js ,
l o w s
n p o r e p o v
tp v x p o v
o v a w v
r y v
a l
fia p o s
K a l
n a d r]
r p a r w v
n p w r w v
ia r iv ,
rj
o lo v
r o io v r w v .
0 For the threefold series cf. De gen. an. 714 a 9 ff.

This
first composition seems to be intended to cover non
organ ic compounds.
b Dynamis here is clearly the pre-Aristotelian technical
term. See Introduction, p. 30. e See De gen. et corr. chh. 2,8.
d In some contexts, fluid and solid seem more
106
BOOK II
I h a v e already described with considerable detail Purposed
in m y Researches upon Atiimals what and how many the treatise,
are the parts o f which the various animals are
composed. W e must now leave on one side what
was said there, as our present task is to consider
what are the causes through which each animal is as
I there described it.
Three sorts o f composition can be distinguished.
(1) First o f a lla we may put composition out o f the
Elements (as some call them), viz. Earth, Air, W ater,
Fire ; or perhaps it is better to say dynameis b instead
o f Elements some o f the dynameis, that is, not all,
as I have stated previously elsewhere. It is just
these four, the fluid substance, the s o lid ,th e hot, and
the cold, which are the m atter o f composite bodies ;
and the other differences and qualities such as
heaviness lightness, firmness looseness, roughness
smoothness, etc. which composite bodies present
are subsequent upon these. (2) The seeond sort o f
composition is the composition o f the uniform *
substances found in animals (such as bone, flesh,
etc.). These also are composed out o f the primary
appropriate ; in others, moist and dry (the traditional
renderings). Aristotle defines them at De gen. and corr.
399 b 30. See also below, 649 b 9. I have normally trans
lated them fluid and solid throughout.
e Uniform, non-uniform ; see Introduction, p. 28.
107
ARISTOTLE
rpirrj Se /cat re X e vra ia
ofioiofxepcov,
K a r
apidjiov rj tcov a v -
o lov irpoacorrov Kal x LP $
K a * T&v
to lo v tc o v jiopicov.
25
E êt S evavricos errl rrjs yeveaecos eêt Kal rrjs

o va ia s r a
yap
va rep a
r fj
y evea ei
rrporepa
rrjv
cfyvaiv l a r i , Kal rrpcorov r o rfj yeveaeL re X e vra to v

(o v ya p oi/cta ttXlvOcov eVe/ceV e o n Kal XiQcov, aAAa
r a v r a rrjs o i/a a ?- ojioicos Se r o v r
eêt Kal rrepl rrjv
aXXrjv v X r jv o v jjlovov Se (f>avepov o n r o v r o v eêt r o v
so rporrov k rrjs e7raycoyrjs, aAAa /cat K a ra r o v X o y o v *

n a v ya p r o y iv o jiev o v eK r iv o s Kal eis r i Troieirai
rrjv y e ve a iv,
Kal a n '
apx^js err
apxrjv, aito rrjs
rrpcorrjs Kivovarjs Kal exovarjs rjSrj r iv a <f>vaiv en i

n v a jjLop<f>rjv rj t o l o v t o v aAAo r e X o s ' avdpconos yap
avdpconov
35 eK a arov
Kal
<f>vrov
VTTOKeijievrjs
yew a
(j>vrdv
vXrjs) rep
e/c rrjs
fiev
oSv
nepl
Xpova>
646 b rrporepav rrjv vXrjv ava yK a lov elvai /cat rrjv yevea iv,
ra> Xoyco Se rrjv o v o ia v Kal rrjv e K a a ro v jio p ^rjv.
hrjXov S a v Xeyrj t l s t o v Aoyov rrjs yeveaecos* o fiev
ya p rrjs oiKohojirjaecos Aoyos e^t r o v rrjs oiK ia s,
o Se rrjs ot/cta? o vk
5 ojxoiws
Se t o v t o
eêt r o v rrjs o'lKohofirjaecos.
avjJLpefirjKe
Kal
IttI tcov aXXcov.
coare rrjv /le v rcov aroixîcov vXrjv avayK a lov elvai

rcov ofioiojiepcov e v e K e v va rep a y a p eKeivcov r a v r a
0 Or, efficient.
6 Or, in thought, in conception.
* Almost represented here by definition.**
108
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. i.

substances. (3) The third and last is the composition
o f the non-uniform parts o f the body, such as
face, hand, and the like.
N ow the order o f things in the process o f formation
is the reverse o f their real and essential order ; I
mean that the later a thing comes in the formative
process the earlier it comes in the order o f Nature,
and that which comes at the end o f the process is at
the beginning in the order o f Nature. Just so bricks
and stone come chronologically before the house,
although the house Is tne purpose which they sub
serve, and not vice versa. A n a tne same applies to
materials o f every kind. Thus the truth o f my state
ment can be shown by induction ; but it can also
be demonstrated logically, as follows. E verything
which is in process o f formation is in passage from
one thing towards another thing, i.e. from one Cause
towards another Cause ; in other words7 it proceeds
from a primary motive Cause which to begin with
possesses a definite nature, towards a Form or an
other such End. For example, a man begets a man
and a plant begets a plant.
These new indi
viduals are made out o f the substrate m atter appro
priate in each case. Thus, m atter and the process
o f formation must come first in time, but lo g ica lly 6
the real essence and the Form o f the thing comes
first. This is clear i f we state the logosc o f such a
process. For example, the logos o f the process o f
building includes the logos o f a house, but that o f a
house does not include that o f the process o f building.
A n d this holds good in all such cases. Hence we
see that the m atter, viz. the Elements, must exist
for the sake o f the uniform substances, because
these come later in the process o f formation than
109
ARISTOTLE
/
r f j y evea eL t
yj&r]
tovtcov
reA o?
to
X ap ovT a
ttjv
eêt
o \ \
oe r a a v o i i o io i ie p j).
KCLL T
Trepas,
eirl
/*
tclvtcl
'
yap
tov
T p iro v
o v v r a o i v d p iO fio v , K a O a n ep e V t
ttoXX cov
10 (TVjJLpaLvei T eX eiova d a L r a ? y e v e o e t s .
E f
a)a oweVrrj/ce tc o v
d(i<f)OTepcov fie v o v v T a
fiop icov t o v t c o v , aAAa r a

fiepcov eveK ev i a r t v
6jJLOLO[jLepfj tc o v
a v o fio io -
klvcov y a p e p y a K a l TTpdgeis
e l a i v , o l o v 6(f>9aXiAov K a l fiv K T rjp o s K al t o v

co7rov TravTos K al S a K T vX o v K al x lP S
rrpoo-
KaL vravTOS
7ToXv[.i6p(/)cov Se t c o v 7Tpaecov K al
15 t o v fip a x to v o s *
cpois oX ols re K al
t c o v KLvr/Gecov v ira p x o vG c o v t o i s
t o i s fJioptoLs t o i s t o l o v t o l s ,
a v a y K a lo v cov G V y -
KetVTat r a ? S w a / i e i s a v o f io ia s eêt^* TTpos fx iv y a p

T iv a fiaXaK OTrjs XPVGLllos ^P^s Se T iv a GKXr)poT7)s ,
K al T a fie v tcxg iv eêiy Set r a
20
T a
8vvap,eis
Tas
fiaXaKov t o
T O ia vras
fiev
(t o
GKXrjpov, Kal t o
Se
rjp6vy Kal t o
Se K afu/jiv.
fiev o v v ofioiofieprj K a r a fiepos S t e t A ^ e r a ?
fiev1 y X ia x pov t o
avofioiofiepyj
K a ra
TroXXas
yap
avtcov
gtl
fiev vy p o v t o
Se
Se
K p a vp ov), T a
Kal
a vyK eijieva s
aXXrfXais' e r e p a y a p TTpos t o TTieaai Trj XLPL XPV~

25 GLfios
Svvafiis
Kal
np os
to
Xafielv.
St07rep
ogtcov Kal vevpcov Kal aapKos Kal tcov aXXcov tcov

TOLOVTCOV
GVV GTTJKaGL
T<X OpyaVLKG,
TCOV flOpLCOVy
aAA o v k e/ceiv a e/c t o v t c o v .

fie v
ovv
ev eK a
eêt Trepl t o v t c o v
to v
tlv o s
Sta T a vT rjv t t j v atrtay

TpoTrov, eirel Se
elpr)f.ievov
^ r e t r a t /cat ttcos a v a y K a lo v eêtv o v r c o , </>avepov o t l

30 TTpovTTTjpx^v o v t c o TTpos aXXrjXa e x o v T a eg d va y K rjs
1 ro fiev PZ : om. vulg.
110
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, II. i.

the E lem en ts; just so the non-uniform parts eome
later than the uniform.
The non-uniform parts,
indeed, whose manner o f composition is that o f the
third sort, have reached the goal and End o f the
whole proeess ; and we often find that processes o f
formation reach their completion at this point.
Now animals are composed out o f both o f these two
sorts o f parts, uniform and non-uniform ; the former,
however, are for the sake o f the latter, as it is to the
latter that actions and operations belong (e.g. eye,
nose, the face as a whole, finger, hand, the arm as a
whole). And inasmuch as the actions and movements
both o f an animal as a whole and o f its parts are mani
fold, the substanees out o f which these are composed
must o f necessity possess divers dynameis. Softness is
is useful for some purposes, hardness for others :
some parts must be able to stretch, some to bend.
In the uniform parts, then, such dynameis are
found apportioned out separately : one o f the parts,
for instanee, will be soft, another hard, while one is
fluid, another solid ; one viscous, another brittle.
In the non-uniform parts, on the other hand, these
dynameis are found in combination, not singly. For
example, the hand needs one dynamis for the action
o f compressing and another for that o f grasping.
H ence it is that the instrumental parts o f the body
are composed o f bones, sinews, flesh, and the rest o f
them, and not the other way round.
The Cause which I have just stated as controlling
the relation between them is, o f course, a Final
Cause ; but when we go on to inquire in what sense
it is necessary that they should be related as they are,
it becomes clear that they must o f necessity have
been thus related to each other from the beginning.
Ill
ARISTOTLE
646 b
>
r a fiev yap avofioiopieprj e/c
>
opLoiofxepcov e v
tcov
SeêTat avvearavai, /cat e/c TrXeiovcov /cat ivos, otov

evia rcov o7rXayyycov' 7roAu//op<a yap rots ^XV'
f ia V W ,
6l7tXcos.
OfXO LO fJipO V S
OVTa
Ta S ofioiopLeprj e/c
C C O f ia T O S
t7TtV
COS
aSvva t o
tovtcov
to
35 yap opLoiofiepes 7roAA av eirj avofioiopeprj,

647
A ta f i e v o v v ravras ras a lrlas r a f i e v arrAa /cat
ra
o f io io p ie p r j,
fXO plCO V i v
"O
Se o v v O e r a
T O IS
Se
vtcov
tcov
c p O lS ic T T L V .
tcov
ala0r)rrjpicov
/cat a v o f io i o f J ie p f j
iv
fiev
t o is
opyavLKcov
Repots,
p.epcov
fiev
tcov
tcov
opyaviKcov
5 e K a a r o v avojAOiofJiepes i a n v , coorrep e ln o v 7Tporepov,

r) S aio0rjois iy y iv e r a i n a a iv i v
Sta ro
tcov
t o is
ofioiofiepeoiv
alaOrjaecov o n o ia vo v v iv o s n v o s
elvai
y e v o v s , /cat t o aloOrjrrjpiov eK a a ro v SezcTt/cdr etmt

7TaOXi Se TO SwdfXei OV V I TO T O V
TCOV aiO07)TCOV.
iv ep y e ia
ovto s
eon
co o t
io {e t )1 e/cetvo ev, /cat
tovto
fjlev rj 7Tp6arc07T0V rj rcov

iyX îpei Xeyeiv
to o
vo co p ,
a vro
tco
to lo vtco v
t i
y e ve i, /cat
tovto
XW a
fioplcov ovSeis
(f>vaioXoycov t o fxev elvai yrjv,
tcov
* \
to
to
ev, /cat Sta
oe n v p '
tcov
a t a t f r j r r jp i c o v e K a a r o v
1 <> Ogle.
a The translation sense-organ ** must not be taken to
imply that the part through which the sense functions is an
112

I t is possible for the non-uniform parts to be con
structed out o f the uniform substances, either out o f
many o f them, or out o f one only. (Examples o f the
latter are furnished by certain o f the viscera, which,
although they are o f manifold shapes and forms,
ye t for all practical purposes may be said to consist
o f one only o f the uniform substances.)
But it is
impossible for the uniform substances to be con
structed out o f the non-uniform parts : for then
we should have an uniform substance consisting o f
several non-uniform parts, which is absurd.
These, then, are the Causes owing to which some o f
the parts o f animals are simple and uniform ; while
others are composite and non-uniform.
N ow the parts can also be divided up into (a)
instrumental parts and (6) sense-organs. A n d we
may say that each o f the instrumental parts o f the
body, as I have stated earlier, is always non-uniform,
while sensation in all cases takes place in parts that
are uniform. The reasons why this is so are the
following : The function o f each o f the senses is
concerned with a single kind o f sensible objects ; and
the sense-organ in each case must be such as can
apprehend those objects.
Now' when one thing
affects another, the thing which is affected must be
potentially what the other is actually; so both are the
same in kind, and therefore i f the affecting thing is
single, the affected one is single too. Hence we
find that while with regard to the parts o f the
body such as hand, or face, none o f the physiologers
attempts to sny that one o f them is earth, and
another w'ater, and another fire ; y e t they do conjoin
organ in the stricter meaning of the word. Organs
are normally non-uniform, sense-organs are uniform.
113
ARISTOTLE
ra
rrp os
e K a a ro v
h r iX ^ e v y v v o v a i
tc o v
a r o ix e ic o v ,
(jx ia K o v r e s
e lv a i, t o
Se r r v p .
0 v a r j s Se r r j s a l a d r j a e c o s e v t o i s a n X
15 euAo y c o s f i a X i a r a a v f i f i a i v e i t t j v a c j j r j v e v
fie v
r jK ia r a
S o l t t X w t o j v a l a O r j r r j p i c o v
fia X ia r a y a p
a v r r j So/cet r r X e i o v c o v e l v a i
t o
p ep
a e p a
rn X X a s
e x e iv
O e p fio v
*20 K a l
e v a v n c o a e is
i/ jv x p o v , g r jp o v
t o
to v tc o v
t o
v tto
v y p o v
K a l
a la O r jr r jp io v ,
rj
o is
e y y iv e o O a r
y ev co v ,
r a v r r jv
et
K al
a la O r jr o v ,
aAAo
t i
a a p g
fie p e a iv
o fio io p e p e i
K a l
t o io v t o v '
t o
r a v r r j
avaAoyov, a a j f i a r o j B e a r a r o v i a n r c o v a l o O r j r r j p i c o v ,
e v e l
S aSuvarov etvat a) o v a v e v a l a d i j a e c o s , K a l
Sta t o v t o a v etr j avay/catov eêtv rot? c o o i s e v i a
fio p ia
6 fA o io fJ L e p 7 )t
at Se
T T p a g e is
rj
Sta
fie v
rco v
y a p
a ia d r ja is
a v o fio io fie p c o v
ev
t o v t o i s ,
v r r a p x o v a iv
a v r o is .
25
T r js
r o
a>ov
a c o fia r o s
r e p o v ,
rj
K a O a n ep
d p x d s ,
tco v
K a p h ia
o fio io fie p r j
fj
rco v
c o o is
t o io v t o v
K aO d rrep
Sta Se
ttjv
e a n v .
r a v r r j
t o v
0 See
in
ev
ev
K a l
r r js
r a v r c o
e r e p o is
K iv o v a r js
fio p ic o
e ip r jr a i
r o d
T T po-
t o
% ov
rrp corov
fio p io v
r a s
fie v
e a n
Se/crt/cov
rra vrcov
rcov
aTrAaiv etvat
T T p a K T iK o v ,
a v a lfio is
Sv v a f i e c o s
O p e T r r iK r js
avay/catov
a la O r jr c o v ,
t o is
r r js
o v a r js ,
r o ia v r a s
30 /cat
a la d r jr iK r js
K a l
fio p ic o v ,
t o
Se
fj
a v o fio io fie p c o v .
avaAoyov, ev Se
e a n v
rco v
t o i s
h ia ip e lr a i
fie v
a X X cov a T rX a yx^ cov
a x tfp a r o s
r jK o X o v O r jK e
fio p < f> r jv

K a l
k iv tjtik o v
S io n e p
fie v
y a p
e ls
e K a a r o v ,
a v o p o io jie p e s
to jv
De somno, 455 b 34 ff.
ev
e v a lfio is
a X X cov
rcov

eaeh o f the sense-organs with one o f the elementary
substanees, and they assert that this sense-organ is
air, this one fire.
Sensation thus takes place in the simple parts o f
the body. The organ in which touch takes place is,
however, as we should expect, the least simple o f all
the sense-organs, though o f course like the others it
is uniform. This is evidently because the sense o f
touch deals with more kinds o f sense-objects than
one : and these objects may have several sorts o f
oppositions in them. e.g. hot and cold, solid and fluid,
and the like. So the sense-organ which deals with
these viz. the flesh, or its counterpart is the most
coi'poreal o f all the sense-organs. Another reason
we m ight adduce why animals must o f necessity
possess some uniform parts at any rate, is that there
cannot be such a thing as an animal with no power
o f sensation, and the seat o f sensation is the uniform
parts. (Th e non-uniform parts supply the means for
the various activities, not for sensation.)
Further, since the faculties o f sensation and o f
motion and o f nutrition are situated in one and the
same part o f the body, as I stated in an earlier work,
that part, which is the primary seat o f these principles,
must o f necessity be included not only among the
simple parts but also among the non-uniform parts
the former in virtue o f receiving all that is perceived
through the senses, the latter because it has to do
with motion and action. In blooded animals this
part is the heart, in bloodless animals the counterpart
o f the heart, for the heart, like every one o f the other
viscera, can be divided up into uniform pieces ; but
on the other hand it is non-uniform owing to its
shape and formation. E very one o f the other so-
115
ARISTOTLE
647 a
,
/
c/
>
~
*
35 KaXovfievwv OTrAayxv w v e K a a r o v
eK rrjs avrrjs
647 b ya p vXrjs a v v e a r a a iv alfiariKrj yap rj <f>vais ttovtw v
a vrw v Sta r o rrjv deaiv exeiv eVt rropois (f>Xef3iKoTs
Kal StaXrji/jeoiv. Kadarrep ovv peovros vSaros IXvs,
raXXa arrXayxva rrjs Sta rcov cf>Xefiwv pvaecos r o v
a ifia ro s olov rrpoxevfiara e a n v rj Se KapSia, Sta
5 ro rcov cf)Xef3wv a p x v elvai Kal exeiv ev avrfj rrjv
S vvayuv rrjv Srjfiiovpyovaav r o alfia npcorrjv, ev-
Aoyov e otas* a p x e ra i1 rpo<j>rjs k roiavrrjs avvearavai Kal avrrjv.

AioTt fiev oSv alfiariKa rrjv fiopcf>rjv ra anXayxva
earlv eiprjrai, Kal S io n rfj fiev ofioiofieprj rfj S

avofioiofieprj.
io II. Tw v S ofioiofiepcbv fiopiwv ev rots >wois earl
ra fiev fiaXaKa Kal vypa, ra Se OK.Xrjpa /cat arepea,
t
\
\

^
J
O
/ /
f
vypa fiev rj oAcos rj ecos av rj ev rfj cpvaei, oiov
alfia, Ixa>P> mfieXrj, areap, fiveXos, yovrj, x 0^7?*
yaA a ev t o i s exovai, aapg, Kal ra rovrois avaXoyov
15 ov yap arravra ra <pa rovrcov rwv fiopiwv rerevxev, aAA evia rwv avaXoyov rovrwv n a lv . ra
Se tjrjpa Kal arepea rwv ofioiofiepcbv eariv, olov
oar ovv, aKavd a, vevpov, <f>Xeifj. /cat yap rwv ofioiofiepwv rj Siaipeais exei Siacf>opdv e o n yap cos eviwv
to fiepos ofiwvvfiov tw oXw , otov (f>Xefios cfaXeifj, e o n
20 S ws ovx ofiwvvfiov, aAAa npoawTrov Trpoawmv
ovSafiws.
1 oTas corr. in loco plurium litterarum Y : ot as Z (as* Z2 in
rasura). apx^rat (vel apxfj cori) Peck, cf. 666 a 7, b 1, etc. :
Several vulg.
116
PARTS OF A NIM ALS, II.
i .- i i .
called viscera follows suit. Th ey are all composed

o f the same material, as they all have a sanguineous
character, and this is because they are situated
upon the channels o f the blood-vessels and on the
points o f ramification. A ll these viscera (excluding
the heart) m ay be compared to the mud which
a running stream deposits ; they are as it were
deposits left by the current o f blood in the blood
vessels. As for the heart itself, since it is the startingpoint o f the blood-vessels and contains the substance
(dynamis) by which the blood is first fashioned,
it is only to be expected that it will itself be com
posed out o f that form o f nutriment which it
originates.
W e have now stated why the viscera are san
guineous in formation, and why in one aspect they are
uniform and in another non-uniform.
II .
O f the uniform parts in animals, some are The uniform
soft and fluid, some hard and firm.
Some a r e parts*
permanently fluid, some are fluid only so long as they
are in the living organism e.g. blood, serum, lard,
suet, marrow, semen, bile, milk (in the lactiferous
species), flesh. (A s these parts are o f course not to
be found in all animals, add to this list their counter
parts.) Other o f the uniform parts are solid and
firm : examples are bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood
vessel. This division o f the uniform parts admits a
further distinction : There are some o f them o f which
a portion has, in one sense, the same name as the
whole (e.g. a portion o f a blood-vessel has the name
blood-vessel), and in another sense has not the
same name. (In no sense is this the case with a
non-uniform p a r t ; for instance, a portion o f a face
cannot be called face at all.)
117
ARISTOTLE
Y lp c b ro v
fie v
ovv
Tots
Kal
v y p o is
cbs
vX rj
rcov
to vtc o v
fie p c b v
yap
t o jv
fio p io is
etatV.
g r j p o i s t t o X X o I t p o t t o l T r js a i T i a s
a v o fio io fie p c o v
a v v e a T r jK e v
eK aaTov
K al r o ls
Ta
to jv
fie v y a p
(k
Ig tlv
o p y a v iK c o v
fie p c o v , e g o g t c o v K a l v e v p c o v K a l a a p K c o v K a l a X X cov
25 t o l o v t c o v
a v fifia X A o fie v c o v
S et?
r r jv
e p y a a i a v ),
vypcbv
eaTL
TOVTCOV,
Kal
ttjv
Se
OLOV
T T jV
Se
A v t o jv
rra xyT ep ov
to ls
avco
to
fie v
to ls
TavTat? Tat?
T T p os
S taôpat? )
a if ia T O S e x e i e T e p o v
Ecrrt S ta x v o s
T T p os
t o jv
to v
Kal
to jv
tl
VTTOGTaCJLV
a X X r ]X a
to v
aXXcov
Kal
Te
X errT O T ep ov
g tl
ifsvx p o T e p o v
Ta
evos
k c itc o
cpov
f io p io v
Se
Se
9ep-
(t o
yap
S ia (f > e p e i
T T pos
tl
Se
to
to
to
fio p ia
eT epco
co co v
t t jv
etvat
K a d a pcorepov
fio p io is
f ie v e v a if ia
TpO(j>TjS
Ta
t o jv
X a fifia v e i
k v g tlv
yap
fie i
o v G ia v
to v to ls
G V fi/ie fir fK e v
g rfp & S
o lo v
to
t t jv
vypov
S ia < f> o p a l
fie v
fie p e a i
648 a K a l oXcos Ta
to v
at
ert Se t o
fio T e p o v , e v Te
e ls
Tpo<j>r)
exovai
etatv,
a t f -i a '
Kal
eg
T T )$
t o is
to vtc o v
O oX epcoT epov,
35 v
yap
eveK ev
npos
fie v
Se
T T e p iT T c o f ia T a
f js v y p a s
30 f i e X r i o v o s
a X fia T o s
(n a v r a
Ta
a v g r ja i v ),
Ta
Ta
eTepov.
Ta S avrt
to lo vto v
f i e v T r o ir f T iK c o T e p o v
to
rraxvT ep o v
a l f i a K a l O e p f iO T e p o v , a i G O r j r i K c o r e p o v
Se
K a l voepco-
epov
5exei
to
X eT T T O T ep o v K a l ip v x p o T e p o v .
S ia < f> o p a v
1t o
Kal
to
avaX
oyov
ttjv
vrra p xov1
vTrdp\ov P : t w v . . . vnapxoin-cov
vttjv
TTpos
S*
to
vulg.
a Or, reason.
h See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.
e See Introduction, pp. 28 ff.
d With this passage compare Hippocrates, Tlepl StaiVqs,
i. 35. See also below, 650 b 24 ff., and Introduction, pp.
37-39.
118
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, II. n.

N ow first o f all there are many sorts o f Cause a to
which the existence o f these uniform parts, both the
fluid and the solid ones, is to be ascribed. Some o f
them act as the material for the non-uniform parts
(e.g. each o f the instrumental parts is composed o f
these uniform parts bones, sinews, fleshes, and the
like, which contribute either to its essence, or else
towards the discharge o f its proper function). A n
other group o f the uniform parts fluid ones act as
nutriment for the ones just mentioned, since every
thing that grows gets the material for its growth
from what is fluid ; and yet a third group are residues6
produced from the second group : examples, the
excrement deposited from the solid nutriment and
(in those animals which have a bladder) from the fluid
nutriment.
Further, variations are found among different
specimens o f these uniform parts, and this is to sub
serve a good purpose. Blood is an excellent illustra
tion. Blood can be thin or thick, clear or muddy,
cold or warm ; and it can be different in different
parts o f the same animal : instances are known o f
animals in which the blood in the upper parts differs
from that in the lower parts in respect o f the char
acteristics just enumerated. And o f course the
blood o f one animal differs from that o f another.
And there is the general division between the
animals that have blood and those which instead o f it
have a p artc which is similar to it though not actually
blood.
The thicker and warmer the blood is. the more it
makes for strength ; i f it tends to be thin and cold,
it is conducive to sensation and intelligence.4 The
same difference holds good with the counterpart o f
119
ARISTOTLE
8a
a lf ia * 8 to K a l fieX iTTai K al aAAa rotaura <pa <f>povificoTepa ttjv <f>vaiv e a n v evalficov ttoXXcov, K a l tcov
evalficov r a iftvxpov eôvra /cat Agtttov a lfia </>povificoTepa tcov evavncov ia T iv . aptcrra Se r a Oepfiov
10 eôvra K a l XeTTTOV K a l KaO apov a/xa yap 77po? r
avSpetav r a rotaura /cat wpo? </)p6vrjaiv eêt /caAco?.
Sto /cat r a ava> fio p ia TTpos ra /cara> TavTrjv eêt
ttjv Stacf)opdv, K a l TTpos ro flrjAu a v to appev, Kal
r a Seta 7rpo? r a aptcrrepa rou acofiaTOs.
fOfioicos Se /cat ?rept ra>v aXXcov Kal tcov to io v tc o v
15 fioplcov
Kal tcov
avofioiofiepcov
VTroXrjTTTeov eêtv
t i jv Siacf)opdv, r a /xev 7rpo? r a epya /cat ttjv o va ia v

eKaaTco tcov cocov, r a Se 7rpo? ro jSeArtov *>} êtpov,
otov exovTCOV ocj)6aXfiovs afi<f)OTepcov ra
fiev eart
aK.Xrjpo<j)9aXfia ra S vypo(j)0aXfia, Kal ra fiev ovk

e\ei ftXe<f>apa r a 8 eêt, 77po? ro ttjv oiftiv a/cpt-
/Jeorepav etrat.
20
e'O rt S avay/catov e^ctv 7} atjua t) ro to v tc o ttjv

avTTjv e \ o v
cj)vaiv,
/cat rt?
<f)vais, TTpcoTov SieXofievois
eanv
Trepl
rj t o v
oura> /cat 7rept rourov OecoprjTeov ra ? a tria?.

yap 77 <f)vais avayerat
7rpo?
at fiaTos
depfiov Kal i/jvxpov,

7roAAd>v
rau ra? r a ? apâ?, /cat
25 t to A A o i Siafi<j>iaprjTOvai Troia Qepfia Kal Troia ipvxpa
tcov cocov fj tcov fiopicov.
evioi y a p r a evi/Spa tcov
ne^cov depfioTepa cf>aaiv etvat, Ae'yovre? cos eTraviaol

TTJV ifjVXpOTTJTa TOV TOTTOV fj T7JS (f>VaCOS aVTCOV
This sentiment, which at first sight appears to go against

the Aristotelian teleology, is supported by actual instances,
e.g. the horns of the backward-grazing oxen (659 a 19) and
of the deer (663 a l l ) and the talons of certain birds (694- a 20).
120
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, II. n.

blood in other creatures : and thus we can explain
why bees and other similar creatures are o f a more
intelligent nature than many animals that have
blood in them ; and among the latter class, why
some (viz. those whose blood is cold and thin) are
more intelligent than others. Best o f all are those
animals whose blood is hot and also thin and clear ;
they stand well both for courage and for intelligence.
Consequently, too, the upper parts o f the body have
this pre-eminence over the lower parts ; the male over
the fem ale ; and the right side o f the body over the
left.
W hat applies to the blood applies as well to the
other uniform parts and also to the non-uniform
parts ; similar variations occur. And it must be
supposed that these variations either have some re
ference to the activities o f the creatures and to their
essential nature, or else bring them some advantage
or disadvantage. For example, the eyes o f some
creatures are hard in substance, o f others, fluid ;
some have eyelids, others have not. In both cases
the difference is for the sake o f greater accuracy o f
vision.
Before we can go on to consider the reasons why all
animals must o f necessity have blood in them or some
thing which possesses the same nature, and also what
the nature o f blood itself is, we must first conic to
some deeision about hot and cold. The nature o f many
things is to be referred back to these two principles,
and there is much dispute about which animals and
which parts o f animals are hot and which are cold.
Some assert that water-animals are hotter than landanimals, and they allege that the creatures natural
heat makes up for the coldness o f their habitat.
121
A R IS T O T L E
648 a
%
O e p f i o T T j s , /cat T a a v a c / i a
t o >v
appevcov,
o lo v
^
K al ra
iv a i/ic o v
tcov
O r/X e a
ras* y v v a c K a s
Y la p f ie v ih r js
tcov
30 a v S p c o v O e p f i O T e p a s e l v a i <f)7]ai K a l e T e p o i T c v e s c o s
S ta
t t jv
tco v
y v v a i K e i c o v , 'E / n r e S o K X f j s
at/za
O epfJLO T rjT a
/cat x o X r j v
cf>aGCV
avT cov,
O e p /io v
to
35 n e p l
Kal
apyeG TaTa
Se
T avT a
X eyecv
Set
tco v
a lr c a
' <*
/le v
oêSov
T avT a
/cat
a K /ifjs
y ijp c o s
T p a x v T T jT e s
c j> o T T jT e s
K al
K al
eT epocs
e ip r y r a c
a f)T a l
g r jp o v K a l
vypov.
II
oT epov
Set
ovv
ra
fir j
/le v
Ta
O e p fia
r
O avaT O v
K al
^ c o ijs
o tc
v y c e la s ,
to c o x jtc o v
7r p o T e p o v ,
a7 rX cos
X eyeT ac
ep y ov
tco v
K al
to
tov
K al
aAA
ov
K al kov -
cos
K aO an ep
dpx& l
O e p /io v
hr/ X a f i e c v tI
o x jS e v
eot/cer
K al
ot)Se / 5a p V T T y r e s
e ir e c
I'o a o v
G V /i^ e ^ r jK e v '
tc
ttc o s
X eyecv
v y p a,
e ln e c v .
y ap
ev
c /)v g c k c o v
ip v x p o v
O e p fio v
fj
K al
7 rX eo-
O e p fio T e p o v ,
a See above, 646 a 15, and note.

122
ev-
Q e p fio -
e y p r jy o p G e c o s
e lc r c ,
XPV
So/cet
X av O av ecv
to
y ap
K al
tcov
evX oycos
r jf ilv
v ttv o v
K a l X ec o T T jT e s
io G T O c x e i c o v
v ax & s;
K al
oi5S aAAo
to v t
'
g r jp a
5 etvat < /> a v e p 6 v , eVt S
yap
X eyeoO ac
eK aaT os
Sto Set
X eycov.
/cat Ta
ifjv x p a
Taxna
e lv a i
T o a a v T r jv
d fi(f)C G ^ r jT 7 jG C V s
n oX X ax cos
<f>xjaec G v v e G T c o T c o v
O ' /
oe
S e x ec
a c G 0 7 ]G c v .
a v /ip a lv e c v
T avavT ca
oT roT ep ovovv
el
V T ro X a fie iv ;
7 re p l t t jv
tcov
y c v o /ie v c o v
Se T o v v a v T l o v * e r e S
O e p fio v
ip v x p o v .
x f jv x p o v
to
*.Eot/ce Se Sta t o
648 b T e p o v
T T o X v a ifio v u a is
ot f i e v
ol
aX X cov
tco v
Kal
fj
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. n.

Further, it is asserted that bloodless animals are
hotter than those that have blood ; and that females
are hotter than males. Parmenides and others, for
instance, assert that women are hotter than men on
the ground o f the menstrual flow, which they say is
due to their heat and the abundance o f their blood.
Empedocles, however,
maintains the opposite
opinion. Again, some say that blood is hot and bile
cold, others that bile is hot and blood eold. And i f
there is so much dispute about the hot and the cold,
which after all are the most distinct o f the things
which affeet our senses, what line are we to take
about the rest o f them ?
N ow it looks as i f the difficulty is due to the term The primary
hotter being used in more senses than one, as there (a)b hot :
seems to be something in what each o f these writers and cold .
says, though their statements are contradictory.
Henee we must perm it no ambiguity in our application
o f the descriptions hot and eold," solid and
fluid to the substances that are found produced by
nature. I t is surely sufficiently established that these
four principles (and not to any appreciable extent
roughness, smoothness, heaviness, lightness, or any
sueh things) are practically the causes controlling life
and death, not to mention sleep and waking, prime
and age, disease and health. And this, after all, is
but reasonable, because (as I have said previously in
another work) these four hot, cold, solid, fluid are
the principles o f the physical Elements.
L e t us consider, then, whether the term hot
has one sense or several. T o decide this point, we
must find out what is the particular cffect which a
body has in virtue o f being hotter than another, or,
i f there are several sueh effects, how many there are.
123
ARISTOTLE
18 b
7T o a a , e l n X e l c o .
O e p fio v
v<f>'
15 a X X c o s
Se
e v a f i e v S rj r p o n o v X e y e r a i fia X X o v
ov
ro
fia X X o v
O e p fia lv e r a i
fia X X o v
a ia O r ja iv
O iy y d v e iv , K a l r o v r *, l a v
ro v r
S oK ei
rov
etv a i
ip e v S o s '
T t]K ro v
K al
rov
K avarov
fj to fie v n X eo v to
fir j
e v lo r e
r a % e a js
K al
ro
fie v
o n
fj
e g is
K avan K corepov.
Se
aX X a
a i r La
e n
etv a i
n oppco,
to u to is
eav
rov
r r jv
ro
O e p fia iv o fie v o v
c f> v a iv < f> a fi e v , c o s r o
ro
S v o iv
O e p fio r e p o v ,
fip a b e c o s
O e p fio r e p o v
e v a v rlo v
y ap
rep
S o r e
e ri to r r jK n K c o r e p o v r o v
n pos
if* V ) ( 6 fie v o v
O arrov
fjp a S e c o s
ev
e o n
8 e'X a rro v r o a v r o , r o n X eo v r o v
O e p fio r e p o v .
20 e X a r r o v o s
a n r o fie v o v ,
X v n rjs .
fie r a
a X y etv a la O a v o fie v o is .
ro
ifin o io v v
o fio io v
iy y v s
o n
X e y e r a i f ie v o v v e l fir j n X e o v a x & s , a X X a r o a a v r a x & s

25 e r e p o v
erep ov
aS vvarov
y ap
O e p fio r e p o v ' r o v r o v s
v n a p ^ eiv
fia X X o v t o
r r jK e t
ro
ovS ev.
eov
K avarov
e n
rep
avrco
vS cop
K al
r r js
r r jK r o v
O e p fio r e p o v
f .ie v
Se rov s
rp on ov s
n d v r a s * O e p fia lv e i fie v
< f> X o y o s , K a l e i S e
rj
ro
c f> X o , r o
t ,e o v
v S cop
o X i y o v , i f t v x e r a i S e K a l O a r r o v K a l fia X X o v r o
30 # S c o p
fiiK p o v
n v p os* ov
vS cop S e y lv e r a i n a v .
a<f> rjv t o
ro v
Se
ro
K al
a lS r jp o s
35 f i p a S v r e p o v
n pos
e n
vS aros
X lO o i K a l
y lv er a i
fj
i/jv x p o v
O e p fio r e p o v fie v
n vp3
K a r a r r jv
a lfia
K al
v S aros,
r o v r o is
K a r a f i e v r r jv a (f)rjv O e p f i o -
e X a io v , n r jy v v r a i
r a
K a le i
rcov
r o ia v r a
Se
O arrov.
e n
O e p fia lv e r a i
fie v
Se
O e p fia v O e v r a
X e y o fie v c o v
O e p fiw v
fia X X o v .
r a
a Alluding, perhaps, to the expansion due to heat.

124
nvp
O e p fio v
e o v iiS c o p , i p v x e r a i S e O a r r o v K a l n r j y v v r a i
e X a io v .
rep ov
y ap
e n
K al
iiS c o p
fie v
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. n.

A is said to be hotter than B (1) i f that which
comes into contact with it is heated more by it than
by B . (2) I f it produces a more violent sensation
when touched, and especially i f the sensation is
accompanied by pain. (Th e latter is not always a
true indication, since sometimes the pain is due to the
condition o f the percipient.) (3) I f it is a better
m elting or burning agent. (4) I f it is o f the same
composition as B , but greater in bulk. it is said to be
hotter than B , and in addition (5) i f it cools
more slowly than B , or warms up more q u ick ly: in
both these cases we call the thing hotter in its
nature as we call one thing contrary to another
when it is far rem oved from it, and like it when
it is near it.
But although the senses in which
one thing is said to be h o t t e r than another
are certainly as many as this, i f not more, y e t
no one thing can be hotter in all o f these
ways at once. For instance, boiling water can im
part heat more effectively than flame ; but flame
is able to cause burning and m elting, whereas
water is not. Again, boiling water is hotter than
a small fire, but the hot water will cool off more
quickly and more thoroughly than the small fire,
since fire does not become cold, but all water
does. A gain, boiling water is hotter to the touch
than oil, y e t it cools and solidifies more quickly. And
again, blood is warmer to the touch than either water
or oil, y e t it congeals more quickly. Again, stone
and iron and such substances g e t hot more slowly
than water, but once they are hot they burn other
things more than water can. In addition to all this
there is another distinction to be made among the
things that are called hot : in some o f them the
125
ARISTOTLE
649 a a X X o r p i a v
eêi t tjv
<epet S e t o
O e p fio r r jr a
e y y u ? y a p t o v
K ara
o v fifie fir fK o s
to v
fio v o iK o v
e ir j
rco
e lv a i
Se
a v fip e p r jK o s ,
ica 0 *
/ ca rd
10 f i a X X o v
fia X X o v ,
( j> a v e p o v o n
t
ro
ro
a iT A o v v c o o i f ie v
15 O
arepov.
e ln e iv
o n
T vy\ dvei
fie v o v
O e p fio v
20 r o
is o n
y ap
ro
fip a S v r e p o v
to
r r a X iv
o lo v
a v fifie fir jK d s
rcov
O e p fio v
fj
ro
O e p fio v ,
ea n v .
e a ra i
fj
o to v
et
rov rov
K al
n o iei
n s
y ap
Se
i f j v x p o v < f) v a is n s
<f>Xd
rod
r fjv
a< f> fjv r o

coare
O e p fio r e p o v o v \
/
ov
f 5\
ea n v
fie v
rov
rrore
G vvhva^ o-
o v o fia
rpon ov
< j> a v e p 6 v e v
an X cos
y ap
O e p fio v ,
O eir o
aAA
a ifie v
O e p fio v .
/)
O e p fio v
ov
r r jv
K a le i
o e p fio r e p o v , cooi o e
r o io v r c o v
fifj
v n o K e lfie v o v
O e p fic u *
ro
O e p fio v ,
rod e
v y ie ia s
O e p fio v
n o X X a K is
K al
SvoTv norepov
evta Se
ov
Se
c r iS r jp c o
K ara
K p iv a i
fio v a iK c p ,
fie O
e o v r o s , O e p f i a i v e i Se K a r a
v S aros rov
eov
fie v
Se fia X X o v
auTo
e lv a i
rov
f i e v /<a0 a u r o
o v fip e fir jK o s '
K aO
ro
fj
i / j v ^ e r c it
a v r o y O e p fia iv e i
to
T fv p e rr o v n
S' c V ti to
err e l
a O r ja iv
c o a r r e p a v et r i s X e y o i ,
O e p fio r e p o v
O e p fio v .
/caTa
S ta -
o iK e ia v ,
e t v a i O e p fio v aAA a
a v fifie fir jK o s
f i r ) K a O auTO O a r e p o v a v r & v
6 et
r a
O e p f i o v e l v a i o v t c o s f j e/cetvcos* 77AetcrTOv,
uSaTt
ro
r o ls
o v a r e p r ja ls
fj
a lfia
toioueVrtv,
to v n o K e l f i e v o v K a r a n a O o s O e p fio v e a n v .
Se K a l f j r o v n v p o s ( f r v a i s , et eViê, r o i a v r r j
n s e a r tv* l a c o s y a p r o v n o K e i f i e v o v e a n v f j K a n v o s
f j a v O p a g , < Lv t o f i e v d e l O e p f i o v ( a v a O v f i l a a i s y a p o
K a n v o s ) , o S a v O p a g a n o a ^ e a O e l s i p v x p o s .
eAaiov
Se K a l r r e v K t j y e v o i r a v i f j v x p a . e x e i Se O e p f i o r r j r a
ev
o a o is
ra \ a
a That is, blood is really hot

and the a; is no
more hot of its own nature than the water in hot water.
Cf. 649 b 21 ff., and Torstrik, JRh. Mus. xii. 161 ff.
6 Perhaps a reference to the resin which is in firwood or is
obtained from it.
126
PARTS OF A NIM ALS, II. n.

heat is their own ; in others it has been derived from
without. A n d there is a very great difference be
tween these two ways o f being hot, because one o f
them comes near to being hot by accident and
not hot o f it s e lf ; as is obvious, supposing anyone
were to assert, i f a fever-patient were by accident
a man o f culture, that the man o f culture is hotter
than a man whose heat is due to his perfect health.
Thus some things are hot o f themselves and
some hot b y accident, and though the former cool
more slowly, the latter are in many cases hotter in
their effect upon the senses. Again, the former have
a greater power o f burning : e.g. a flame burns you
more than boiling water, y e t the boiling water,
which is hot only by accident, causes a stronger
sensation o f heat i f you touch it. From this it is
plain that it is no simple matter to decide which o f
two things is the hotter. The first will be hotter in
one way, and the second in another. In some cases
o f this sort it is actually impossible to say simply that
a thing is hot or is not hot. I mean cases in which
the substratum in its permanent nature is not hot,
but when coupled (w ith h eat) is h o t ; as i f we were
to give a special name to hot water or hot iron : that
is the mode in which blood is hot. These cases, in
which the substratum is hot m erely through some
external influence, make it clear that cold is not just a
privation but a real thing in itself. Perhaps even fire
may be an instance o f this kind. I t may be that its
substratum is smoke or charcoal: and, though smoke
is always hot because it is an exhalation, charcoal
when it goes out is cold. In the same way oil
and firwood 6 become cold. Further, practically all
127
ARISTOTLE
64925a Kal
,
nvpwOevra
ra
n d vra axeSov, otov Kovta Kai
T(/>pa, Kal r a vnoa rrjfiara t o j v w w v , Kal rcov
r r e p L T r w fia r w v
rj
X ^ V >
T<?
efL n errv p ev a O a i
iyKaraXeXelÔal t l v avrols Oepôv.
K al
aXXov Se
rp on ov Oepfid1 n e v K T f K a l rd n lova , t w r a x v fie r a fiaXXeiv els evepyecav 7rvpos.

30
Ao/ccI Se rd Oepfiov ical nrjyvvvaL Kal tijk clv . oaa
fiev ovv vSaros fiovov, r a v r a m jy w a i r o i/jvxpov,
oa a Se yrjs, t o n vp' Kal t c o v Oepfiwv nrjyvvrai v tto
ifjvxpov r a x v fiev oa a yrjs /xaAAov Kal aXvrcos,
Aura)? S oaa vSaros.
aAAa nepl [ le v t o v t c o v ev
erepOLS SubpiaraL aa(j>earepov, n ola r a nrjKra, Kal
nrjyvvrai Sea rlvas a lr la s .

35
T o Sc t l
Oepfiov Kal ttolov
Oepfiorepov eneiSrj
649 b Xeyerai ttXeovaxws, ov rov avrov rponov vnapgei

n aaiv, aAAa n poaSiopiareov o t l KaOy av t o fiev roSe,
Kara avfiftefirjKos Sc noXXaKis Oarepov,2 e n Se
Svvafiet fiev roS l, roSt Sc Kar* evepyeiav, Kal rovSe
fiev rov rp on ov roSl, t w ftaAAov rrjv dejjr^v Oep5 fialveiv, roSl Se t w
<f>Xoya noieiv Kal nvpovv.
Xeyofievov Sc r o v Oepfiov noXXaxw s, aKoXovOrjaei
SrjXov o t l Kal t o xjjvxpdv Kara rov av rov Aoyov.
K a i n epl fiev Oepfiov Kal i/jvxpov Kal rrjs
v n ep oxfjs avrw v SiwplaOw rov rp on ov r o v r o v .
I I I . Exo/ucvov Sc Kal nepl grjpov Kal vypov SicA10 Oeiv aKoXovOws t o l s eiprjfievois.
Acycrai Sc r a v ra
1 depfia Peck : Qepfiov vulg.
2 7roAAa#ft? Barepov] num -raAAo depfiorcpov ?
See Meteor. 382 b 31 if., 388 b 10 ff.

6 Probably the text should be altered to read : B hotter
by accident
s See note on 616 a 16, and Introd. p. 32.
128
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, II. ii.-m.

things that have passed through a process o f com
bustion have heat in them, such as cinder, ash, the
excrem ent o f animals, and bile (an instance o f a
residue). These have passed through fire and some
heat is le ft behind in them. Firwood and fa tty
substances are hot in another way : they can quickly
change into the actuality o f fire.
W e must recognize that the hot can cause both
congealing and melting. Things that consist o f
water only are solidified by the cold, those that con
sist o f earth, by fire. Again, hot things are solidified
by cold : those that consist chiefly o f earth solidify
quickly, and the product cannot be dissolved again ;
those that consist chiefly o f water can be dissolved
after solidification. I have dealt more particularly
with these matters in another work, where I have
stated what things can be solidified, and the causes
that are responsible for it.
So, in view o f the fact that there are numerous
senses in which a thing is said to be hot or hotter/'
the same meaning will not apply to all instances, but
we must specify further, and say that A is hotter
o f itself, B perhaps by accident b ; and again
that C is hotter potentially, D actually ; and we
must also say in what way the things heat manifests
its e lf: e.g. E causes a greater sensation o f heat when
touched; F causes flame and sets things on fire.
And o f course, i f the hot is used in all these
senses, there will be an equal variety o f senses
attaching to the cold.
This will suffice for our examination o f the terms
hot and cold, hotter and colder.
solid"
III.
I t follows on naturally after this to discuss (to
'
fluid.
the s o lid and the fluid c on similar lin es.an
129
ARISTOTLE
>b
nXeova\cos, otov r a fiev Svvdfiet r a S evepye ta.
KpvaraXXos yap Kal n av r o n en rjyos vypov Xe'yerai
grjpa1 fiev evepye la
Kal Kara avfiPefirjKos, ovra
Svvafiei Kal KaO a v ra v y p a , y>J Se /cat recj>pa Kal
15 r a
r o ia v r a fiixO evra vypco evepyeia fiev vypa Kal
Kara avfifieprjKos, /ca0 a v ra Se /cat Svvafiei r)pa'

SiaKpiOevra Se ra v ra rd fiev vSaros avanXrjariKa
Kal evepyeia Kal Svvafiei v y p a , r a Se yrjs a n a v ra
grfpa,
Kal
arrXcos grfpov r o v r o v
fiaX iara X eyerai rov rp on ov .
ofioicos Se /cat Oarepa
20r a
Kal rd
Kvpicos
vypa Kara ro v avrov Xoyov e%ei rd Kvpicos Kal
anXcos, Kal en l Oepficbv Kal ipvxptov.

Sicopiafievcov <f>avepov o n
rovrcov Se
rd alfia (LSI fiev e a n
Oepfiov [otov Tt2 rfv avrco rd a tfia n etvat;]* KaOanep

yap3 et ovofia ri n v c 4 arjfiatvoifiev rd e'ov iiScop,
ovrco Xeyerai* rd S' vnoKeifievov Kal 6 n o re ov
25 alfia e a n v , ov Oepfiov * /cat KaO a v ro e a n fiev cos
Oepfiov e a n v ,
ean
S cos
ou*
ev
fiev
ya p
Xoycp vnapgei a v rov rj Oepfiorrfs, w anep
rco
ev rco
r o v XevKov avOpconov rd Xeu/cov fj Se /card naOos,

t o alfia ov KaO a v ro Oepfiov.6
'O fioicos Se /cat 7rept grjpov Kal v y p o v .
Sto /cat
1 rjpa Peck : $r)pov vulg.

8 otov n Bekker. haec, signo interrog. adscr., seclusi.
3 yap Z : om. vulg.
4 ovofiari t iv i PSUZ2: ovofiari t i E Y : ovoâri vulg.
a i.e. they assume the shape of the receptacle into which
they are put.
ISO
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, II.
h i.
These terms are used in several senses.

E .g.
solid and fluid may mean either potentially
solid and fluid or actually solid and fluid.
Ice
and other congealed fluids are said to be solid
actually and by accident, though in themselves and
potentially they are fluid. On the other hand, earth
and ash and the like, when they have been m ixed
with a fluid, are fluid actually and by accident, but
potentially and in themselves they are solid. When
these mixtures have been resolved again into their
components, we have on the one hand the watery
constituents, which are anaplestic, and fluid actually
as w ell as potentially, and on the other hand the
earthy components which are all solid : and these
are the cases where the term solid is applicable
most properly and absolutely. In the same way,
only those things which are actually as well as poten
tially fluid, or hot, or cold, are such in the proper
and absolute sense o f the terms. Bearing this dis
tinction in mind, we see it is plain that in one way
blood is hot [e.g. what is the essential definition o f
blood ?], for the term blood is used just as the
term for " boiling w ater w ould be, i f we had a
special name to denote that ; but in another way,
i.e. in respect o f its permanent substratum, blood is
not hot. This means that in one respect blood is
essentially hot, and in another respect is not. H eat
will be included in the logos o f blood, just as fair
ness is included in the logos o f a fair man, and in
this way blood is essentially hot ; but in so far as
it is hot owing to external influence, blood is not
essentially hot.
A similar argument would hold with regard to the
solid and the fluid. A nd that is wrhy some o f these
131
ARISTOTLE
# /
TJj
(p V G L
30 x O /0 t d / x e v a
to
a lfia ,
X o X fj,
T a
y a p
ga vO rj
S e
T rr\ yvvT a i
S e
O e p fia
II
t o jv
x ^ V *
a i?
/c a t
K a l
'
fie v
cos*
(f)V G is
v y p a ,
o to v
K a d d ir e p
to jv
/c a t
K a l
t o v
v y p a iv e r a t
t jt to v
n w s
rcov
T O V T O IS -
v y p o v ,
a t fia T O s
t o
fie T e x e tv
T iO e v a i
fj
I x o v tw v
/c a ^ v y p a l v e T a r
fia X X o v ,
fia X X o v
\ *
K a i
(fra t v e r a t ,
e ^ o v r a
tt J? ( f > v a e w s
e / c
O e p fio v
fj
'
u e p fia
ifjv \ p a
v n a p x o v 1 Set
o v v
13
fie v
7r a ^ o ?
g r jp a lv e T a i
e v a m iw v
e ip r y ra i
T a
T ra cr/ * 1' tffv x e T a t,
a lfia
35 a v T L K c i f i e v c u v
650 a
'
TOLOVTW V
x a jp i^ o fie v a
T ovvavT L ov
fie v
TW V
/c a t
7ra> ?
/c e /c o t v c o v r /z c e v ,
o x e S o v .
E 7Tt
77a v
avayK Y)
S*
to
a i5 a v o fie v o v
X a fifia v e iv
Se T p o (f )r j n a a i v e g v y p o v K a l g r j p o v t K a l
T p O (j> Y jv , f j
5 T o t m o v 17 n e i j j i s y l v e T a t /cat 77 f i e T a f i o X f j S ta ttJ? t o
/cat T a to a 7ra v T a /cat T a (f r v r a ,
S v v d fie w s ,
O e p fio v
Kav
e l fir j
S t a X X r j v a tT ta v , a A A a S ta T a v T r j v a v a y -
/catov e ^ etv a p x t y
w anep
fio p iw v *
97
10 X e i T o v p y i a
aAA
a vT rj
n e ifr ia s
fie v
yap
to u
o g w v
[/cat T a v T r j v
(f j v v i K r j v .
n p w T rj
(f > a v e p a
c jT O f ia T O S
ovaa
fj
o v S e fiia s
fia X X o v '
T p o (f> r js p a w
ava>
fie v
S ta
fio p iw v ,
t o v t w
O e p fio v
] a t { S ) 2 e p y a a i a i T r js T p o c frfjs n X e c o v w v e l a l
n o ie i
fj
t w
yap
T p o (f> fj
a lr ia
e ls
O e p fiw
/cat t>J? /cara> K o c X l a s
SetT at
tt) v
f jh r ]
t w v
aAA
h ia lp e a is
e p y a o ia v
fitr a
ev
h ia ip e o e w s .
n e ifte w s ,
fiiK p a
R ep o ts
tols
Kal
euT r js
* f j Se
O e p fio r r jT O s
1 vnapxov Peck : vwapxoi'ra vulg.

* K a l r a v r r j v a>oTTp seclusi, (*) supplevi:
(irXeioot fiopiois evvnapôvaav) Camus.
Kal
r a v r r )v
a See above, note on 644- a 17.

b See Introduction, p. 34.
e Lit. the dynamte of the hot substance, perhaps here
something more than a mere periphrasis for the hot sub-
132
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II.
h i.
substances while in the living organism are hot and

fluid, but when separated from it congeal and are
observed to be cold, as blood does ; others, like
yellow bile, are hot and o f a thick consistency while
in the organism, but when separated from it undergo
a change in the opposite direction and become cool
and fluid. Blood becomes more solid, yellow bile
becomes fluid. A nd we must assume that more
and less a participation in opposite characteristics
is a property o f these substances.
W e have now pretty well explained in what way
blood is hot, in what way it is fluid, and in what
w ay it participates in opposite characteristics.
Everything that grows must o f necessity take food.
This food is always supplied by fluid and solid matter,
and the concoction 6 and transformation o f these is
effected by the agency o f heat.c Hence, apart from
other reasons, this would be a sufficient one for
holding that o f necessity all animals and plants
must have in them a natural source o f heat ; though
there are several parts which exert action upon the
food. In the case o f those animals whose food needs
to be broken up, the first duty clearly belongs to
the mouth and the parts in the mouth. But this
operation does nothing whatever towards causing
concoction : it m erely enables the concoction to
turn out successfully ; because when the food has
been broken up into small pieccs the action o f the
heat upon it is rendered easier. The natural heat
comes into play in the upper and in the lower gut,
stance, as emphasizing its proper and specific natural
character, which makes it a particularly good agent for
effecting concoction. See Introduction, pp. 30-32.
133
ARISTOTLE
15 < /> v a iK r js
O T O fia
to
ir o ie T r a i
T r jg
at>V% S
oaa
r r jv
to jv
a vT co
cLoov
Kal
A^t/ferat
a rra v
c f> v a e t o s .
Ta
fie v
K a r e ip y a a f ie v r jv
T r e p iT T O O fia
rfj
ev
ov
yap
y lv e r a i
y r js
to is
r js ,
y r jv
ev
T p o c frrjv
X a f ir f
a v r o ls
exei
e/cetva r a i s
X a fifia v e iv ,
re'Aos.
ecos
ra ts
coarrep
evrep cov
r r jv
p lta is
yap
T p o<j>r]V
(S to
/cat
y fj
Kal
K o i X l a ),
ra
8e
to
T r js
p l& is ,
to
K o iX la s
ra vra
T r js
k vto s,
Set t i v I
e x o fie v r js
eg
t r jv
rrei/jecjos
rf f i e v y a p t o v a r o f i a r o s e p y a a t a T r a p a -
S lS c o a i t f j K o iX la , rr a p a
Sta
e ls
Se 7 r o p e v r i K a c fr a v e p c o s ,
Se
ra v r r js
X a fifia v e iv , o rrep a v f iP e f ir jK e v
30 T e l v o v r a i
ecus
tco v
X a fifia v e i
a v T r j B e p f i o r r f r t X P V T0LL & G7Te p
d oa rrep
o ia o c fra y o v ,
r p o c fy tfv ,
r r js
< f> v r o ls m r f j
a>a r r a v T a f i e v a ^ e S o v , r a
25 o l o v
r r jv
Kal
c f> vra
to
Kal
Set 7 r o p o v s l e t v a i , S i
a c b fia
e/c T r j s
/cat
la ri,
fio p io v ,
to
a X X ovs
K o iX la s
rrop os
K a X o v a iv
to vto
to
20 e/c < f> a T vrjs, e/c T r j s
8c
c o a ire p
r p o < f> rjs
fio p io v
e\i
T T )V K o i X l a v , o v t o j
cLv
ir e i/jiv .
a K a T ep ya a rov
to v
at
fie a e v T e p lo v
a p g a f ie v a i fie x p ^ r i )s
K o iX la s .
eT ep o v a v a y K a lo v
yap
cf>Xefies K a r a -
n a p a T ra v,
Set Se
T a vra
K a rto O ev
O e c o p e lv
e/c r e t c o v a v a r o f i o o v K a l r r j s < f> v a iK rjs l a r o p l a s .

'E n e l Se rraarfs rpocfrrjs earl rt Se/crt/cov /cat t c o v
yivofievcov TTepirrajfidrcov, at Se cf>Xef$es olov ayyelov
atfiaros elai, cf>avepov o t i t o alfia rj reXevrala
35 rpocfrrj rots a>ots rols evalfiois earl, rols 8* avaifiois
1 aXXovs Bet nopovs P eck: aAAas apxas Bet nXeiovs vulg.
Cf. Shakespeare, Coriolanus r. i. 133-152.

6 The membrane to which the intestines are attached.
e Dissections (or Anatomy) is a treatise which has not
survived.
1S4
PARTS OF A NIM ALS, II.
h i.
which effect the concoction o f the food by its aid.

And, just as the mouth (and in some animals the
so-called oesophagus too which is continuous with
it) is the passage for the as yet untreated food, and
conveys it to the stomach ; so there must be other
passages through which as from a manger the body
as a whole may receive its food from the stomach and
from the system o f the intestines. Plants g e t their
food from the earth by their roots ; and since it
is already treated and prepared no residue is pro
duced by plants they use the earth and the heat
in it instead o f a stomach, whereas practically all
animals, and unmistakably those that move about
from place to place, have a stomach, or bag, as it
were an earth inside them and in order to get the
food out o f this, so that finally after the successive
stages o f concoction it may reach its completion, they
must have some instrument corresponding to the
roots o f a plant. The mouth, then, having done its
duty by the food, passes it on to the stomach, and
there must o f necessity be another part to receive it
in its turn from the stomach. This duty is under
taken by the blood-vessels, which begin at the bottom
o f the mesentery,6 and extend throughout the length
o f it right up to the stomach. These matters should
be studied in the Dissectionsc and m y treatise on
Natural H istory*
W e see then that there is a receptacle for the food
at each o f its stages, and also for the residues that
are produced; and as the blood-vessels are a sort o f
container for the blood, it is plain that the blood (or
its counterpart) is the final form o f that food in living
d The Natural History, otherwise History of Animals or
Researches upon Animals. See 495 b 19 If., 514 b 10 ff.
135
ARISTOTLE
ro avaAoyov.
650 b
K al
TpO(j>rjv v7To\i7Ti
Sta
tovto
tovto
jitj
Xaf-ifZdvoval T
K al X a ji^ a v o v G L V
a u fa v c T a t,
/xcv o v o r js v y i e i v o v , <f>avXrjs 8c cf>avXov.

ort /xcv ouv to at/xa Tpo<f)fjs cvc/ccv VTrapx^L t o l s
I va ifioL s, <f>avcp6v k t o v t c o v K al t c o v t o l o v t c o v . /cat
y a p Sta touto 0tyyavo/xcvov aLcrdrjoiv o v ttolcl
5 (aJO7TCp Ol3S aAAo Ta)v 7TpLTTCJJJLaTC0V o v Scv, ouS
K al x p y a T r j ?
Tpo(/>rj) KaOairep o a p g 'x a v r r j y a p O L y y a vo jie vrj
ttolcl
oi) yap awc^c? cart to at/xa T a v r r j ouSc

avfJureffrvKos, aAA o lo v i v a y y t i t p T v y x a v e L /cct/xcvov
cv tc t$ /capSta /cat Tat? (j)Xei/jLV. o v Sc r p o n o v
Aa/x/Javct c airrou Ta /xopta ttjv avgrjGLV, ct l Sc
10 7Tpt TpO(f>rjs oX(x)S, CV TOLS TTpl yVGCOS K al CV
ercpot? ot/cctorcpdv cart StcAflctv.
vvv S cm
toooutov elprjcdco (r o o o v r o v y a p ^pijat/xov), oTt to
af/xa rpocfcfjs cvc/ca Kat t poifrijs t c o v jio p ico v I g t l v .
I V . T a ? Sc K a X o v ji iv a s tva? to fie v c^ct af/xa
15 t o S OUK C^Ct, OtOV TO TOJV iXd(f)COV K al TTpOKCOV.
Sto7rcp ov TTTjyvvTaL t o t o l o v t o v af/xa tou yap
at/xaro? t o /xcv vSaTtuSc? /xaAAov2 cart, Sto /cat ou
TTTjyvvTat, t o Sc yca>Sc? TrrjyvvTaL G w ega TfJclôvT os
t o v v y p o v ' at S tvc? y^? eta tv.
2u/x/?atvct S cvta yc K al yXa<f>vpcoTpav c^ctv
:o r^ v Stavotav tojv TotovTa>v, ov Sta ttjv ifrvxp orrjra
t o v at/xato?, aAAa Sta ttjv X e n r o r T jr a /xaAAov Kat
aLoOrjoLv.
1 11. 4 f., interpunctionem correxit Cornford.

2 /naAAov Z : /idAAov iftvxpov vulg.
In the Second Book. Also in De gen . ^ eorr.

6 With the sentiments of the following passage and its
terminology ( more intelligent, soul, biend, etc.)
compare the very interesting passage in Hippocrates, IIcpl
StatViyy, i. 35. C/*. 648 a 3,
136
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, II.
iii.-iv .
creatures. This explains why the blood diminishes

in quantity when no food is taken and increases
when it is ; and why, when the food is good, the
blood is healthy, when bad, poor.
These and
similar considerations make it clear that the purpose
o f the blood in living ereatures is to provide them
with nourishm ent; and also why it is that when the
blood is touched it yields no sensation, as flesh does
when it is touehed. Indeed, none o f the residues
yields any sensation either, nor does the nourishment.
This difference o f behaviour is because the blood is
not continuous with the flesh nor conjoined to it
organically : it just stands in the heart and in the
blood-vessels like water in a jar. A description o f
the w ay in which the parts o f the body derive their
growth from the blood, and the discussion o f nourish
m ent in general, comes more appropriately in the
treatise on Generationa and elsewhere.
For the
present it is enough to have said that the purpose
o f the blood is to provide nourishment, that is to
say, nourishment for the parts o f the body. So
mueh and no more is pertinent to our present
inquiry.
IV .
T h e blood o f some animals contains what are
called fibres ; the blood o f others (e.g. the deer and
the gazelle) does not. Blood which lacks fibres does
not eongeal, for the following reason. Part o f the
blood is o f a more watery nature, and therefore
does not congeal ; while the other part, which is
earthy, congeals as the fluid part evaporates off.
The fibres are this earthy part.
N ow some o f the animals whose blood is watery
have a specially subtle intelligence.6 This is due not
to the coldness o f their blood, but to its greater thin-
137
The uniform
ARISTOTLE
660 b Sta t o
Ka9apov etvat* t o y a p yew S es ouSeVepov eêt
tovtcov.
evKLvrjrorepav y a p e x o v a l rrjv ata9rjaLV T a
ttjv v y p o r r jr a Kal K a9apw repav.

tovto Kal tcovavalficov evta a v v e r w r e p a v e x * 1
A c 7 t t o t epav e x o v r a
Sta y a p
25 t rjv ifjvxrjv evlw v ivaificov, KaOanep elprjraL 7Tp6repov,
o lo v rj fieXvrra Kal t o y e vo s t o t o j v jivpfirjK w v /cav
et Tt e rep o v
vSarcoSrj.
tolovtov
ean v.
SeiAorepa Se Ta Atav
o y a p <f>ofios Karaifjvxei* TrpocohoTroirjrai
o v v rco TraOei r a ro ia v r r jv e x o v r a
so K p a cn v t o yap iiScop t w
ttjv
ev rfj KapSta
ipvxpeo i ttjktov e o n v .
Sto
Kal TaAAa Ta avat/xa SetAoTepa r w v evat/xcov e a rlv

w s czttAo)? elneLV, Kal aKivrjriêi r e cfrofiovfieva Kal
TTpoteraL
TTepiTTcojxara
Xpoas a v r w v .
Kal
jxer a/JaAAet
evta
ra s
r a Se 7roAAas e x o v r a Atav tvas Kal
n a x e la s yew S ea rep a rrjv cf>vaLv e a rl Kal 9vjxwSrj r o

85 fjQos
yap
Kal eK a rariK a
ttolyjtlkov
Sta t o v
9vjjlov.
OepjiorrjTos
6 9v/ios, r a Se a rep ea 9epjxav9evra
65la /xaAAov 9epfiaivei r w v v y p w v mat S* tve? a rep eov Kal

yew S es,
w are
ytvovrat otov 7rvpiaL ev r w
Kal <iacv 7Tot>ovaLV ev
tols 9vjiols.
a i ji a n
Sto ot ravpoL Kal
ot KciTTpOL BvjJicoSeLS Kal eK a rarLK or t o yap af/xa

r o v r w v Ivw S e a ra ro v, Kal r o y e r o v r a v p o v rdX Lara
6 TTrjywraL 7rdvrwv.
eatp o vjie vw v Se r o v r w v r w v
iv w v o v TTrjywraL r o at/xa* KaOarrep y a p k irrjAov
et
tls
egeXoL
Kal t o
to
yew S es o v n rjyvvra L r o iiSwp, o v r w
at/xa* at yap Ives y r js
firj egaLpovfievwv
A t 648 a 2 ff.
b For the connexion between fear and cold cf. 667 a 16,
692 a 22 ff., and Rhetoric, 1389 b 30.
138
PARTS OF A NIM ALS, II. iv.

ness and clarity, neither o f which characteristics
belongs to the earthy substance ; and an animal
which has the thinner and clearer sort o f fluid in it
has also a more mobile faculty o f sensation. This
is why, as I said before, some o f the bloodless
creatures have a more intelligent Soul than some
o f the blooded o n es; e.g. the bee and the ants
and such insects. Those, however, that have ex
cessively watery blood are somewhat timorous.
This is because water is congealed by c o ld ; and
coldness also accompanies fear ; therefore in those
creatures whose heart contains a predominantly
w atery blend, the way is already prepared for
a timorous disposition.6 This, too, is why, gener
ally speaking, the bloodless creatures are more
timorous than the blooded ones and why they
stand motionless when they are frightened and
discharge their residues and (in some cases) change
their colour. On the other side, there are the
animals that have specially plentiful and thick
fibres in their b lo o d ; these are o f an earthier
nature, and are o f a passionate temperament and
liable to outbursts o f passion. Passion produces h e a t;
and solids, when they have been heated, give off
more heat than fluids. So the fibres, which are solid
and earthy, become as it were embers inside the
blood and cause it to boil up when the fits o f passion
come on. Th at is why bulls and boars are so liable
to these fits o f passion. Their blood is very fibrous ;
indeed, that o f the bull is the quickest o f all to congeal.
But just as when the earthy m atter is taken out
o f mud, the water which remains does not con geal;
so when the fibres, which consist o f earth, are taken
out o f the blood, it no longer congeals. I f they are
139
ARISTOTLE
1a
\
/
-
\
Se rrrjyvvrat, otov vypa yfj
9ep/xov
10
ro
vtto t o v
v y p o v
oi5x
^770
\
v tto
/
%
ijjvxovs* row yap
i/jvxpov iKOAifiofxevov Gvvegar/xiêi
K aO a rrep
e ip r jr a i
, /cat 7n7yvt>Tat
rrp o rep o v
9ep/xov aAA vtto ifivxpov gr/paivo/xevov.
Se rot? ow/xaoiv vypov eort Sta

v
tols
9ep/xorrjTa
eV
ttjv
dSot?.
IIoAAaiv S eortv atVta
17
tou ai/xaros <f>vois /cat
/card to yjôs1 tois* a>ot? /cat /caTa t^ v aiadrjaiv,

evAo y w
uAr^ yap e a n rravros
15 Tpo(j)Tj vAr/,
to
tov
ow/xaros* rj yap
S af^ta rj eoxarr/ rpo<f)r/.
rroAArjv
oSv 7rotet $ia<f)opav 9ep/iov ov /cat ipvxpov /cat Ae7TTOv

/cat 7rax*l Kal 9oAepov Kal Kadapov.
t o uSaTajSes1tou al/xaros Sta to
tX6^0
fir j7 T W
CrT*
rreTre<f)8ai
fj
Sie<f>9ap9ai, coare o [xev eg avayKr/s Ix ^ p , o S

so
aijxaros X^PLV eoTtv.

V . YlL/xeArj Se /cat oreap Staêpouat /xev aAAr/Awv
Kara rr/v
tov
al/xaros Staôpav.
e a n yap e/ca-
t epov avrw v at/xa Trerreinxevov St evrpo<f>iav, Kal

[x rj
Y /
K a r a v a A iG K o / x e v o v
/
O'
et? to
a a p K w & e s / x o p io v
/ /
5
\ /*
i<OWV, V7T7TTOV 0 Kai VTpa(peS.
25 Amapov a v T w v
tw v
yap vypwv
a epos Kal rrvpos ea n v.
Sta
to
t o vto
avai/xwv ovre TTi/xeArjv ovre oreap,

tw v
OTjAOt Oe TO
Anrapov
kocvov
ovSev exet
otl ov S
S ivai/xwv Ta /xev Gw/iarwSes exovra
oreap exet /xaAAov.
to
tw v
<
to
tw v
at/xa.
at/xa
to yap oreap yewSes I g t i , Sto
a As it were, the raw material.

b I have used the terms lard and suet rather than
soft fat and hard fat because they represent more
closely the distinction made by Aristotle. The difference
between them is now known to be less fundamental, and is
140
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. iv.-v.

not taken out, it does congeal, as moist earth does
under the influence o f cold : the cold expels the heat
and makes the fluid evaporate, as has been said
b e fo re ; so it is due to the solidifying effect o f
the cold, and not o f the hot, that what remains
becomes congealed. And while it is in the body the
blood is fluid on account o f the heat which is there.
There are many points both in regard to the tem
perament o f animals and their power o f sensation
which are controlled by the character o f the blood.
This is what we should expect : for the blood is the
m ateriala o f which the whole body consists material
in the case o f living creatures being nourishment, and
blood is the final form which the nourishment assumes.
For this reason a great deal depends upon whether
the blood be hot, cold, thin, thick, muddy, or clear.
Serum is the watery part o f blood ; and it is watery
either because it has not yet undergone concoction or
because it has been already corrupted ; consequently
some o f the serum is the result o f a necessary process,
and some is there for the purpose o f producing blood.
V.
The difference between lard and su et6 is parallel Lard and
to a difference in the blood. Th ey both consist o f ue *
blood that has been concocted as the result o f plentiful
nourishment; that is, the surplus blood that is not
used up to nourish the fleshy parts o f the animal, but
is well concocted and well nourished.
(This point
is proved by their rreasiness, for grease in fluids is
a combination o f A ir and Fire.)
This explains
why there is no lard or suet in any o f the bloodless
animals. And among the others, those whose blood
is denser tend to contain suet rather than lard. Suet
due to varying proportions of unsaturated triglycerides and
the lengths of the carbon chains.
141
ARISTOTLE
T n j y i v r a i
30 t o
/cat
K aO aT rep
ot
a jfio l
8e
tto X v
K al
oi
e x e i.
to
a lfia
Sto
y r js .
oreap
K e p a r o jh r )
to
r o io v r o i'
Iv w h es
o X iy o v
r a
y ap
fir ]
< f> a v e p a
K al av ro
exei
v b aros,
aAAa
a fiffr c L h o v r a
8* 77
( f> v c n s
avrcov
T O V TO LO V TO V G T O L X eiO V T i X l J p f f S O V G a TCO K e p a T C o h f f S
elv a i K a l a o r p a y a X o v s e \ e i v t a n a v r a y a p r]pa K a l
y e rjp a
35
t t jv
a/cepara
<f>voiv
Ig tIv .
ra
afi<f>cobovra
Kal
K a l TroXvGXiSrj nifieX rfV e x e i a v r l a r e a r o s ,
rf o v TTrfyvvrai o v b k d p v n r e r a i g rjp a iv o fie v r] Sta t o

fir] e lv a i yecohr] r r jv cjjvaiv a v r r j s
MeVpia fiev o v v r a v r a o v r a ev r o ls fiopiois t o j v

651 b cocov cbcfreXei (rrpos fiev y a p aioBrfoiv o v k ifiTTohlêi,
np o s 8* xr/leiav Kal hvvafiiv exei fioijd eia v), uTrepfiaXAovra Se ra ; ttXrjBei cjjBelpei Kal jSAarrrei.
ya p Trav y e v o ir o t o
Aocr av.
el
ocofia TTifieXr] Kal o r e a p , arro -
ojov fiev y a p e o n
K a ra r d alaBrfriKOv
5 fiopiov, rj Se oapg Kal t o avaX o y o v a lo d r jr iK o v r o

8
alfia,
ojGTiep
eipryrai
Kal
Trporepov,
ovk
exei
at oBrjaiv, Sto ovSe TTifieXr] ot58 e o r e a p alfia yap

TTeTrefifievov e o r iv .
to io v to v , ovk
cogt
el Trav y e v o ir o rd Gcofia
av e x L ovSefiiav aiGBrjaiv.
8to Kal
yrjpaoKei raxe'cos r a Xlav rrlova oX iyaifia y a p a re els
io rrjv TTiorrjra avaXiGKOfievov r o v a ifia ro s, r a 8* oAtyaifia rjhr] ttpocohoTToiqr ai TTpos rrjv cfrBopav r] yap
<f>Bopa oXiyaifiia n s e a rl, /cat t o oXlyaifxov 1 t raOr]t i k o v Kal v tto i/wxpov r o v r v x o v r o s Kal v tto Bepfiov.
1 sic Th. : animal pauci sanguinis Z : oXiyov vulg.
142
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. v.

is o f an earthy character ; it contains but little
water against a large proportion o f earth ; so it
congeals just as fibrous blood and broths do. So
too the animals which have horns but have teeth
in one jaw only contain suet. And it is clear that
their natural constitution is full o f this element
(earth) from the fact that they have horns and hucklebones, for they are all o f them solid and earthy in
constitution. On the other hand, the animals which
have incisor teeth in both jaws and have toes (not
uncloven hoofs), but no horns, contain lard instead
o f suet. Lard neither congeals nor splits up into
small pieces when it dries, owing to the fact that
it is not earthy.
Lard and suet when present in the parts o f animals
in moderate quantities are beneficial : they do not
hinder the action o f the senses, and they contribute
towards the health and strength o f the body. But
when the amount o f them is excessive they are
destructive and injurious. This is shown by the
consideration that if the whole body were to become
lard and suet, it would perish. The sine qua non o f a
living creature is its sensory part, which is flesh or its
counterpart : and since, as I have said before, blood
is not sensitive, neither lard nor suet, which are just
concocted blood, is sensitive. Therefore, i f the whole
body were to become either o f these, it would have
no sensation whatever. For this reason, too, unduly
fat animals age quickly : their blood gets used up to
produce fat, so there is very little o f it left ; and
anything that has but little blood is well on the road
to decay. In fact, decay is just a form o f blooddeficiencv ; and an animal deficient in blood is
easily susceptible to the effects o f accidental cold and
143
ARISTOTLE
lb /cat
ayovcorepa
a i r Lav'
S rj
ra
15 te'vat /cat t o O T r e p f i a ,
X l o K e r a i /cat t o
a rea
y lv e r a i r a v r a ,
a v r o is
w a re
7}
ovS ev
r r lo v d
eSet e/c
y ap
rov
ro v r
p '
e a n
Sta
r r jv
a v r rjv
e ls
r r jv
y o v r jv
a ifia r o s
et?
r r jv
T r ifie X r jv
r r e r r o fie v o v
rj o X c o s
ov
y ap
y lv er a i
ro
av aa lfia
r r e p lr r o jj.ia
o X iy o v .
K a t rrepl f.cev a i p a r o s K al Ix & p o s /cat m fie X r js

r e e a n v e K a a r o v a v r c o v K a l Sta
TtVa? a l r l a s , e lp r jr a i.
20 V I. " E o n Se K a l o f i v e X o s a i f i a r o s n s ( f > v o i s , K a l
Kal a rea ro s , r i
ov x
< x> on ep
h v v a fiis .
at/xa to ?
eg
o v a rjs
e jJ L p p v o is
a lfia r c o b r js
r o fie v c o v , K aO arrep
an X ayxva
rcov
r a s
K al
Kat
rcov
o fio io s ,
T o t?
a ifia r o s , K al
e a r ly
K al r a
fie v
eK aarov
a re
y ap
roT s
o a ro is
to is
a lfia r c o h e s
e n
vecov
X ir r a p o s
o fio io v 1
fj
(r jK ia r a
r r js
Se
avrov
paxecos
Se
r o v r o is
K al
a fic fr c o S o v a i
o f i o i c o s r jv a v v e x ^ S , aAA
K al
o v rco v ),
fir j
e lv a i
n o X v a x iS e a i
p a x lr r js
av v ex rj
h ir jp r jfie v r js
w v
" n
fj
a r e a r c o S r js .
d fic fr c o S o v a i
K al
to io v to s
/cat r r i f x e X f j
aAAa a r e a p
K ara
a r ea r c o h rjs
1 f
rj u p a v a r o s
e a n
Sl e x e i v
K al
rovs
ov k
/ \
r j v y p o s .)
1 ofiotov Z1: ofioios alii.

0
144
Se /cat 77e r -
fie r a fia X X e i K a l r d
ea n v
K e p a r o (f)o p o is
35 a c f > o v 8 v X o v s X i r r a p o s
fio p ia
m fie X c jh c o v
Sta t o Setv
r r a a r js
ev
a v g a v o fie v c o v
Se f i r j r r i f i e X
at/xa 7r e r r o f i e v o v ,
n ifie X c o S r js .
Sta
a T r e p fia r iK r /
r r d fir r a v '
fiv e X o s .
fie v
a r e a r c o S r js ,
fiv e X o s
y o in js
v e o is
o a o is
30 y l v e r a i r o
S to
r r js
to is
X P a $ [ v r r e p fio X fj y a p
a rrX a y x y c jv
ov rco
r iv e s ,
ev
a v v e a r c o r c o v r c o v f i o p l c o v K a l r r j s r p o < f> r js
to is
25 f i v e X o s
o io v r a l
S r jX o i
e.g. secretion of semen. See above, on 647 b 27.

b Plato, Timaeus, 73 c.
av
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, II. v.-vi.

heat. The same eause is responsible for the com
parative sterility o f fat animals : that part o f the
blood which ought to go to form semen and seed gets
used up in forming lard and suet, which are formed
by the coneoetion o f blood. Henee in fat animals
there is either no residue a at all, or else very little.
I have now spoken o f blood, serum, lard and suet,
describing the nature and the Causes o f each o f them.
V I.
M arrow, again, is really a form o f blood, and not.
as som e6 think, the same as the seminal substance0
o f the seed. This is proved by the ease o f very young
animals. In the embryo, the parts are composed out
o f blood and its nourishment is blood ; so it is not
surprising that the marrow in the bones has a blood
like appearance. As they grow and beeome mature,rf
the marrow ehanges its colour just like the other partse
o f the body and the viscera, which while the creature
is young all have a blood-like appearance owing to the
large quantity o f blood in them.
Animals which contain lard have greasy marrow,
like lard ; those whose concocted blood produces not
a substanee like lard but suet have suety marrow.
Henee, in the horned animals which have teeth in
one ja w only the marrow is suety. and in the animals
that have teeth in both jaws and are polydactylous it
is like lard. (Th e spinal marrow cannot possibly be
o f this nature because it has to be continuous and
to pass without a break right through the whole
spine which is divided into separate vertebrae ; and i f
it were fa tty or suety it eould not hold together as
well as it does, but it would be either brittle or fluid.)
See Introduction, pp. 30 ff. and note on 616 a 14.
d Lit. are concocted."
A good instance of Aristotles usage of the term part.
145
c Dynam is.
Marrow
A R IS T O T L E
51b
>
vEvta S
fiv e X o v ,
652 a t o v
ovk
oow v
e\i
Ta
tw v
o ara
X OVTO$ t o v t o v
a o r jf io v
Sc
TTJV f l V T W V
w o t s fj
w s
Kal
>
a g lw s
ttv k v o l,
e irre iv
o to v
to l
r a dor a , Sta t o 7T a fiT r a v

eêtv oAoo?
ovk
eVet
fiv e X o v .
O O T W V O LVa yK Y] (f)V O L V VTTOLpXeiV T O IS
avaAoyov
to
la x v p a
yap
eêtv, So/cet
w w v
tols
o o t o is
, o to v
tols
e v v S p o is
5 t t j v a K a v O a V y a v a y K a l o v e v l o i s V T r a p x e iv K a l f i v e X o v ,
ifn r e p iX a fi^ a v o fie v r js
oor a .
o n
repov.
evX oyw s
m/xeAciSet?
in to
to v
io f j Se
rj
e ia lv
r p o (f> r js
r r js
Se
Kal
Sta
avT o
ev
T re i/jis
ea n v.
Kal
to ls
S rj
la x v p a
evX oyw s
ev
oAtyo?1
evea n v'
e ls
r js
ra
y lv e r a i
ot
a r e a T w h e is
yap
7repieê aflat t o l s
Ka9
eg
7ra<rtv at/xa, ctp^rat t t p o -
Tpo<f>r]
t t jv
aXeav
o o ra
ra
to ls
fie v
yap
ttv k v o l
ovk
ra
/cat
orea p
o o t
at/xa,
T T ifieX r]
e\ovoi
evea n ,
/cat
y iv o f ie v r jv
7reTTerat t o
o o to is
a ifia r o s
fiv e X o l
t t jv
Kal
to ls
avaAta/cerat
rj
r p o c fr r j.
E v Se
is
to ls
p a x lr r js
fio v o s
vT ra pxei
ovra ,
X *cos
exei
ea n v.
fir j
e a r l fiv e X o s '
Kal
e ip r jT a i,
K o iX rj
o o ta
aAA
o X l y at/xa
aK avO a
re
fio v o v
Sto ev r a v r r j ey ytverar
xaJpav, /cat
h ia X r ji/je is .
e x o v a iv
Sto
Setrat
fio v r j
/cat
a X X o io r e p o s
fio v r j
Sta
fiv e X o s ,
to
avTt
1 oAiyotff per errorem Bekker.
146
yap
rj
o v v S e o fio v
evraufla
ecrrtv
a/cavflav
c fr v o e i
T r js
Te
pa
yap
Sta Ta?
w o7 rep
r r e p o v r js
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vi.

Some animals have no marrow worth m en tion in g:
these are th ey whose bones are strong and closetextured : for instance, the Lion, whose bones con
tain so insignificant an amount o f marrow that they
look as i f they contained none at all. N ow in view o f
the fact that the bodies o f animals must have in them
either bones or the counterpart o f bones (e.g. the
spines in water-animals), it follows o f necessity that
some o f them must contain marrow as well, due to the
enclosing o f the nourishment out o f which the bones
are formed. N ow we have stated already that the
nourishment o f all the parts o f the body is blood.
And it is quite reasonable that the various sorts o f
marrow should be suetv and lardy ; because the
blood undergoes concoction owing to the heat pro
duced by its being surrounded by bone, and the
product o f blood when it undergoes concoction by
itself is suet and lard. A n d also, o f the animals that
have strong, elose-textured bones, some have no
marrow, others have but little, and this is reasonable
too, because the nourishment gets used up to supply
the substance o f the bones themselves.
In those animals that have no bones but spine
instead, the backbone contains the only marrow they
possess. I t is the nature o f these creatures to have
but a small amount o f blood, and their only hollow
spine is that o f the backbone. Therefore the marrow
is formed in it indeed, it is the only bone where
there is room for the marrow, and the only one
which requires something to connect it together,
owing to its being divided up into segments.
This also explains why the marrow' here is (as
I have already said) somewhat different from the
marrow elsewhere. I t has to serve as a fastening,
147
ARISTOTLE
6523
yap
*X V
20 A i a
y l v e c r d at
y X io x p o s ,
/cat
eortv tv*
v e v p c o S r js
T a o tv.
TL
fiv e X o v ,
(f r a v e p o v ,
jJLV
OVV
/J L V tX o V
L p r )T a i K a l
o tl
Kat a K a v O a v
T r js
tl
a i jx a T L K r js
jit p i^ o jiiv r js
fJLVOV TTepLT T C O fia
% l
Io tlv
TCt <pa TOL \ O V T a
/xueAos*,
T p o c fjr js
e V rt t o
T r js
to vtc o v
e ls
oara
e/X7reptAa/xj8avo-
77<f)Q4v.
V II.
l i e p i S i y K ( f ) d X o v oêSov I o t l v eô/xevov
25 etVetv* t t o X X o l s y a p K a l o i y K (f > a X o s SoKet f i v e X o s
etvat Kat a p x r j t o v f x v e X o v Sta t o c r v v e x ^ j tov
p a x iT T jv a v r c o o p a v j i v e X o v ,
o n Se r r a v T o v v a v r l o v
ai>Tcp t t j v (f> v o L v c o s etVetv o f i e v y a p i y K e c f r a X o s
i / j v x p o r a T o v t o j v ev t c o a c o f ia T L f i o p l c o v , o Se f i v e X o s
B e p j i o s t t j v (frvcrL v B r jX o L S rj X i r r a p o T T f s a v T o v K a l
30 to 77tov.
Sto Kat o v v e x r j S o p a x L T r j s t c o e y K e c fr a X c o
eoTtv aet y a p rj c f jv o i s /xTâvaTat T T p os t t j v e K a a r o v
V 7 r e p j3 o X r jv f i o r j O e i a v t t j v t o v e v a v T i o v TrapeSptav, tva
a v L a a ^ r j t t j v 9 a T i p o v v r r e p f io X r jv O a T e p o v .
ort /xev
o v v o f i v e X o s O e p f i o s 1 eWt, St/Aov k t t o X X c o v .
rj Se
35 t o v iy K < f> c iX o v i f j v x p o T r j s < f> a vep a f i e v Kat k o t o . t t j v
d i g i v , ert S avat/xdraTOV to>v v y p c b v t o j v
ev toj
crcofxaTL T r a v T C o v ( o v S OTtouv yap a i f i a T o s e^ct ev
652 b auT<&) Kat a v x p rjp o T a T O V .
e o T i S o v re rre p L T T C O fia
o v t t o j v o v v e x > v f i o p l c o v , aAAa tSto? rj e n v o i s , K a l
e v X o y c o s T O L a v T r j.
o t l f .ie v o v v o v k eêt auveêtav
ouSe/xtav TTpos* Ta a l o O r j T i K a f i o p i a , StJAov /xev K a l
5 Sta ttJs o i/j C o s , t l Se /xaAAov tw /x7jSe/xtav 7rotetv
a i a O r jc r i v O i y y a v o f i e v o s , o j c n r e p o v h e to at/xa oi)Se to
TTCpLTTCOfXa
TCOV
COCOV.
1 Oepfios P Z : Oepfiov vulg.
148
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vi.-vii .

and so it is sticky ; and it is sinewy too so that it
can stretch.
W e have now explained why marrow is present in
certain animals. W e have also made clear what
marrow is. The surplus o f the blood-like nourishment
which is distributed to the bones and spine gets
enclosed within them, and after it has undergone
concoction then it is marrow.
V II.
The brain is the next subject on our list. I t
comes appropriately after the marrow, as many think
that the brain is really marrow a and is the source o f
the marrow, because, as observation shows, the spinal
marrow is continuous with the brain. As a matter
o f fact, however, the two are quite opposite in nature.
The brain is the coldest o f all the parts in the body,
whereas the marrow is hot, as is shown by the fact
that it is greasy and fat. And that is the real reason
why the spinal marrow' is continuous with the brain.
Nature is always contriving to set next to anything
that is excessive a reinforcement o f the opposite sub
stance, so that the one may level out the excess o f
the other. Now* there are many indications that the
marrow is hot ; and the coldness o f the brain is
shown not only by its being cold to the touch, but
also by its being the driest o f all the fluid parts o f the
bod} and the one that has the least blood in it in
fact, it has none at all. It is, however, not a residue,
nor is it to be classed among the parts that are con
tinuous. It is peculiar in its nature, and this after all
is but reasonable. Inspection shows that the brain
has no continuity with the sensory parts, but this is
showTi still more unmistakably by the fact that like
the blood and the residue o f animals it produces no
sensation when it is touched.
a Cf. Plato, Th/iaeiis 75 c, D,
149
Brain,
ARISTOTLE
652 b
fY77apX^ Se
TOIS
oXrjs o c o rrjp ia v .
T iO e a o i
n vp
fj
T o i a v r r jv
j8cATIOV
T10VTS'
io
tpOlS
e p y o is
O ep fiov
Io
15 fj
tt ] v
coov
(j>avai
tovtov
Tp(f>iv
K al
to
yap
ra u ra 8c Sta r a vttjs
ofx oiov
Kal
ovv
T r p io v a
to
T eK T oviK rjv,
oti
to
to
^Jvxfjv
ttjv
ef>opriKcos
V TOlOVTCp
a in o v
tcov
v v a fiec o s.
< /> d v a i T r v p
rov
a S v v a f ii v ,
VTrrjpeTiKcoTarov
t iv
e p y o v o t i ,
Trjs
t iv
* t(TCOS
o c o f ia n o v v e o T a v a i.
ip vx fjs
TTpOS TTJV TTJS (frvOeCOS
o i fxev y a p
Tl vl
Trjs
o t i t o is
o cofid rcov
k
iv e lv
to
^ v \ r js
fxa Atara y l v e r a i
fa x ty
ttjv
fj r p v r r a v o v
tov
e lv a i
TeKTova
e p y o v 7r e p a lv e r a i
e y y v s
fiev ovv BepfiOTrjTOS r a cpa

fx e re x ^ iv a v a y K a l o v , SrjXov k t o v t c o v
errel 8*
arravra Setrat rrjs evavrlas porrrjs, iva rvyxd vrj t o v
aXXrjXcov ovcriv.
fx e r p io v K al
K al
tov
x ^ p is ),
tov
oti
fiecrov (r r jv y a p o v o i a v e \ l
Ao y o v , t c o v 8 *
Sta T a vT rjv ttjv a
tottov K a l
ttjv
Kal t o v t o v
fiopiov ro ls cpois,
K al y r js , K al
// \
eyK ecpaAov,
25 K a r a
to
Sta
^
lr ia v
e i x r e p o v
T T pos tov r r js
tovto
exî
ovk
K a p S ia s
ev avrfj BepfioTrjra fxefxrj-xavrjTat
eyKecfraXov fj cfrvois,
to
aKpcov
t rjv
tovto
tco v o
ra
X^-P lv v rra p x e i
<j>v(jiv exov
'
koivtjv
evaifxa
eêt
aAAcov o v o e v cos eirreiv,
a va X o y o v , o to v o
ttoX v t t o v s '
tov
tovto
vSaros
rra vr a
\ \
ttA tjv o t i
oX iyoB epfxa y a p
Travra 8 ta rr jv a v a ifiia v .
"0 fiev ovv eyKecfraXos evKparov rroiel ttjv ev rfj

KapSia OepfioTTjra Kal e o iv iva Se Kal t o v t o t o
fiopiov Tvyxavrj fierpias Bepfiorrjros, dcfS eK arepas
Trjs <f>Xef36s, Trjs re fxeyaXrjs Kal rrjs KaXovfxevrjs
30 a oprrjs, TeXevrcooiv at <j>Xefies els ttjv firjviyya ttjv
1 (fiev) Rackham.
a e.g. Democritus ; see Aristotle, De anima, 403 b 31,
6 Or, proportion.
150
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vn.

The brain is present in order to preserve the animal
organism as a whole. Some a maintain that the Soul
o f an animal is Fire or some such substance. This is
a crude way o f putting i t ; and m ight be improved
upon by saying that the Soul subsists in some body
o f a fiery nature. The reason for this is that the
hot substance is the most serviceable o f all for the
activities o f the Soul, since one o f the activities o f
the Soul is to nourish ; another is to cause motion ;
and these are most readily effected by means o f
this substance (viz. the hot). So to say that the
Soul is fire is like saying that the craftsman, or his
craft, is the saw or the auger which he uses, on
the ground that the activity is performed while the
two are near together. From what we have said this
at any rate is clear : animals must o f necessity have in
them a certain amount o f heat. Now, everything needs
something to counterbalance it, so that it may achieve
moderation and the mean ; for it is the mean, and
not either o f the extrem es apart, which has re
ality and rationality.6 For this cause nature has
contrived the brain to counterbalance the region o f
the heart and the heat in i t ; and that is why animals
have a brain, the composition o f which is a combina
tion o f W ater and Earth.
Hence, although all
blooded animals have a brain, practically none o f
the others has (unless it be just a counterpart, as
in the case o f the Octopus), for since they lack blood
they have but little heat.
The brain, then, makes the heat and the boiling in
the heart well blent and tempered ; yet in order that
the brain may still have a moderate heat, blood
vessels run from the great Blood-vessel and what is
known as the A orta, till they reach the membrane
151
ARISTOTLE
652 b
7rep i t o v iyK(f>aXov. 7rpos S e t o t t J OepjiOTrjTC firj

13Xa7TTLV, avTL fiev fieyaXcov (/cat)1 oXiycov 7rvKval
/cat Xerrral <j>Xefies Trepcexovocv a v r o v , avrl Se 9oXep ov 2 /cat n a x eo s a ifia ros Xerrrov /cat Kadapov. S to
/cat Ta pevfia ra Tot? ocofiaocv c/c Tq? KecfraXrjs lo re
35 ttjv apxrjv, oaocs av fj Ta Trepl t o v eyKe<f>aXov
i/jvxpoTepa Trjs ovfifierpov Kpaoecos' avadvficco653 a fievrjs
yap
Sta
t co v
<f>Xeficov avco
Sta TTJV
TTCpLTTCOfia lpVXOfJiVOV
Svvajicv
pevfiaTa
nocec
Trjs
TOV
rpocfrrjs
to
TOTTOV TOVTOV
cfrXeyfiaros
Kal
Ixcopos.
Set Se XafSecv, cos fieyaXco rrapecKaôvra ficKpov,

OflOCCOS ovflfia cvecv COGTTp TTJV TCOV VTCOV yCVCOtV
5
avaOvficcofievrjs y a p
<j>epofievrjs
oTav ev
tco
vtto
tov
tcov
Trjs y rjs
TTpos
Trjs
a rficS o s
tov
avco
Kal
tott ov,
vrrep Trjs y rjs y e v rjra c aepc o v re i/jv x p w ,
G v v c o r a r a c rraXcv e ls
K arco n p o s
e/c
O ep fiov
ttjv
y r jv .
Sta
iiScop
aAAa
ipvtjcv K a l p e l
ttjv
n e p l fie v
tovtcov
e v T ats
vo o co v a p x a is a p fio r r e c X eyecv, e<j> o o o v Trjs (f>v-
10 GCKrjs <f)cXoGO</)cas e a r l v elrrecv rrepl auTaiv.
Ilotet Se Kat
tov
rocs
vt t vo v
coocs
tovto
to
Se firj côyat
to
avaA oyov K a ra ifjv x o v y a p ttjv a?ro Trjs rpocfrrjs
tov
a c fia ro s errcppvocv ( rj K al Sta Ttva? o jio c a s
atTtas aAAa?), jSapuvet t c t o v T 0770V (Sto ttjv KecfraXrjv
fiop cov
tocs
e x o vG c v eyKe<j>aXov,
15 K a p rjfia p ova cv
o i vT rv c o o o o v re s ) K al K arco rrocec
Oe p fio v x)TTO(j>evycv fie T a

a O poct,ofievov e m
vt tvov,
oaa
K al
tw v
to
tocs
tov
K arco
S vva o O a c
cocov opOa
tov
ttjv
1 (K a l )
a c fia r o s .
tottov
eora va c
Sto
a rrep y a ^ era c t o v
opda
cf>vocv l o r e ,
acfracpecrac
tco v
S aAAcuv
H aekham .
2 QoXtpov coiii. Buss. ( turbidi S ) : iroAAov vulg.
152
to
rrXecov
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II.
v ii.
which surrounds the brain. And in order to prevent

injury being' done through heat, the blood-vessels
surrounding it are not few and large but small and
multitudinous ; and the blood is not muddy and
thick but thin and clear. This also explains why
fluxes begin in the head ; they occur when the
parts around the brain are colder than the rightlyproportioned blend. W hat happens is that, as the
nourishment exhales upwards through the blood
vessels, the residue from it becomes cooled owing
to the specific nature o f the brain, and produces
fluxes o f phlegm and serum. A nd we should be justi
fied in maintaining that this process resembles, on
a small scale, the one which produces rain-showers.
Damp vapour exhales up from the earth and is carried
into the upper regions bv the h e a t; and when it
reaches the cold air up aloft, it condenses back again
into water owing to the eold, and pours down to
wards the earth. H ow ever, so far as Natural Philo
sophy is concerned with these matters, the proper
place to speak o f them is in the Origins o f Diseases.
Furthermore, it is the brain (or, if there is no brain,
its counterpart) which produces sleep in animals.
I t cools the onflow o f blood which comes from the
food (or else is due to other causes o f the same sort),
and weighs down the part where it is (that is why
when a person is sleepy his head is weighed down),
and eauses the hot substance to escape below to
gether with the blood. Hence, the blood accumu
lates unduly in the lower region o f the body and
produces sleep *, at the same time it takes away
from those animals whose nature is to stand upright
the power to do so, and the others it prevents from
a See p. 38.
6 No such treatise exists.
153
ARISTOTLE
653 a
,
r r jv
o p O o r r jr a
20 a v r a
ev
re
K < f>a X rjs * n e p l
r r js
to ls
nepl
c5v e t p r j r a L
a la O r jG e w s
Kal
KaO
v itvo v
nepl
SLOJpLCTfJLeVOLS-
*O tl
Ig tIv
y r j s , S r jX o l
y iv e ra L
to
g r jp o s
vb a to s
Kal
c r v fifia L v o v n e p l a v r o v ' ii/jo fx e v o s
e y K e (j > a X o s
yap
K a l G K .X r jp o s , K a l X e i n e r a i t o
e g a rix ia O e v T O S
to v
w crn ep
x^Sponw v
rd
rw v
25 K a p n t b v , S t a
lo v to s
ro v
G K X r jp a
vS a ros
y e r jp a
vn o
r r js
e i /jr jjjL a r a
etvat
y r js
to
to
f jL L x O e v r o s v y p o v
Kal
k o lv o s
yew Ses
O e p f x o r r jr o s ,
Kal
aAAcuv
rw v
TrA etorov f i e p o s ,
e-
* /cat y a p r a u r a y i v e r a L
n a jin a v .
" E ^ e t S e t o j v ,t p c o v e y K e < j> a X o v n X e l a r o v a v O p w n o s

w s K a r a jx e y e O o s , K a l r c o v a v O p w n w v o l a p p e v e s r w v
O rjX e L w v
K al
80 n X e v / j i o v a
to v
y ap
ron ov
n epl
O ep /x o r a r o v
/cat f x o v o v e a r l r c o v
( f> v G is e v L a x v o v a a
w w v
r r jv
opO ov
rj y a p
ro d
n o L e l t t jv a v g r jG L V a n o
K a r a r r j v a v r r j s < j) o p a v .
/cat r o v
K a p S la v
e v a t ju o r a r o v .
K al
S to
O e p jx o v
rov
jx g o v
n p o s o v v n o X X r jv O e p f i o r r j r a
a v r t/ c e t r a t n X e i w v v y p o r r j s K a l x j j v x p o r r j s , K a l S t a t o
n X r jO o s
85
o ifjia L r a r a
o
ogtovvs
X povov
ro
n r jy v v ra i
K aX ovG L
ftp e y /ia
O e p jx o v a n a r f i i ^ e i v
G V /J L ^ a lv e L r w v
tovto
653 b n X e l o r a s
eêt
n X eio v s r w v
ro n o s
n epl
e v a lfx w v
r r jv
fl,
tlv
n epl
s ,
rw v
r r jv
S ta
a v r rjv
K a l /xaAA ov o
K e< f> a X rjv

to
noX vv
S a X X w v ovSevt
aku v.
K e < f> a X r jv ,
O r jX e iw v , S ta r r j v
evn vovs
to
K a l p a < f> a s Se
K al
to
appev
a lr ia v , o n w s o
7rAeta>v e y K e < f > a X o s '
v y p a L v i j x e v o s y a p r j g r j p a i v o f j i e v o s /xaAA ov o v n o i r j G e i
to
a vrov
epyov,
)\\>
aAA
rj
1 / /
ov
ip v g e i
rj
/>
n r jg e i,
w a re
See De s o m n o , 455 b 28 ff., especially 456 b 17 ff.

6 The cranial bone, which covers the anterior fontanelle.
154
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vn.

holding their heads upright. These matters have
been spoken o f separately in the treatises on Sensation
and on Sleep*
I said the brain is compounded o f W ater and
Earth. This is shown by what happens when it is
boiled. Then it becomes solid and hard : the earthy
substance is le ft behind after the W ater has evapor
ated owing to the heat. I t is just what happens
when pulse and other forms o f fruit are boiled ; they
also g e t hard and earthy altogether, because the
greater part o f them is earth, and the fluid mixed
with it departs when they are boiled.
O f all the animals, man has the largest brain for
his size ; and men have a larger brain than women.
In both cases the largeness is due to there being a
great deal o f heat and blood in the region around the
heart and the lung. This too explains why man is
the only animal that stands upright. A s the hot sub
stance prevails in the body it induces growth, begin
ning from the centre along its own line o f travel.
I t is against great heat, then, that a large supply o f
fluid and cold is provided. This bulk o f moisture
is also the reason why the bone that surrounds the
brain (called by some the bregma)b is the last o f all
to solidify ; the hot substance takes a long time to
evaporate it off. This phenomenon does not occur
in any other o f the blooded animals. Again, man
has more sutures in the skull than any other animal,
and males have more than females. The size o f the
brain is the reason for this also ; it is to secure
ventilation, and the larger the brain, the more
ventilation it requires. I f the brain becomes unduly
fluid or unduly solid, it will not perform its proper
function, but will either fail to cool the blood or else
F
155
ARISTOTLE
5voa ovs
ev
K a l
e a r i
r r a p a v o la s
/capSta
r fj
K a l
O e p fio v
ra x eT a v
Aovros> t l
K a l
tto lc lv
K a l
rj
K a l
ir o ie iT a i
r f)v
rra a xovT O s
t o v
to
O a v a ro v s'
a p x*l
y a p
G U fx ira O eG ra ro v
a ig O y jg w
T repl
t o v
fie r a fia X iy K e c fr a X o v
a ifia r o s .
T le p l
fie v
10 G x e S o v
ra
re
ra vra
e lp r jr a i
yovrj
r r js
Kal
ra
yd
r p o c fr r js
rlv a s
a lr la s , r a
T repl
a vrcov
to
Se
exovG i oa pK a s, ev
Kal
StJAo v Se /cat
rco
fio p L o v
vorep oyevcbv
e a r l,
to
TrecjiVK O O LV e \ e L V
Kal
rcov
O e c o p ia v
aJco v
r r js
T ra p a
l/caora
O L K e io v s
V T ra p xeL
to
fie v
yap
a p x f)
Kal
Se
K a ra
tc o v
aX X cov
T rp corov
e\eL
Sta
Kal
yeveoecos
to ls
a X X o is r o
KaO
rov
fio p lc o v
rrep l
a vro
cpcov
A oyov t o yap
acfrrj, r a v r T f s
ro
ev
o fio io to ls
avaX o y o v t o v t o
rcov
a la O r jo L v , T rp c o ro v
e o T L V f y jr o L
rcov
oapK os
Se
a lo O r fr tfp L o v
T rp corov,
e o r lv .
cpov
t t jv
opt-
T rp c o rrfV
to t o lo v -
coorrep
a At De gen. an. 722 a, 776 a 15 ff.
156
re
/cotAtaj, /cat
X ^ P LV y e v e o e c o s .
o d b fia
eêtv
a v r r } S eortv
25 r o v
r r js
vypcov
T rep l o T r e p f i a r o s K a l y d X a K r o s e v
Ilept Se
apx^l
to
o > o ls
rcov
r p o c j )r j s
Aa rot?
re
Se
20 f i e p c o v G K e r r r e o v ,
o fie O a
Kal
yeveoecos*
Io tl,
V III.
r r js
O K eijtL V
Adyous1, Ttcrt
yap
tt a v r c o v
to ls
f i e v o v v r r j s r p o c f ir js T T e p i T T c o f i a r a r r e p l
rovs
to ls
o v fic fr v r c o v
T repl
V T T o o r r jfia
to vtco v.
r r jv
rcov
T T e p iT T c o fia r a
K vorecos
15
ovv
rj
K op r]
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vii.-vm.

will make it set fast, thus producing various forms o f
disease, madness, and death. Indeed, the heat that
is in the heart, being the source, is extrem ely re
sponsive to any influence upon i t ; and i f the blood
which surrounds the brain undergoes any change or
any other affection, then this heat at once becomes
sensitive o f it.
W e may now claim to have considered all the fluids
which are present in animal bodies from their very
earliest stages. There are others which are first
produced only at some kvter stage, and among these
we must reckon the residues o f the nourishment
that is to say, the deposits from the bladder and
from the g u t ; and also semen, and milk ; these
make their appearance according to the species and
sex o f the animal concerned. Discussion o f the resi
dues o f the nourishment will come in appropriately
during our general consideration and examination
o f nourishm ent; we shall then show in what animals
they occur, and why the)r do so. Semen, which
gives rise to generation, and milk, which exists on
account o f generation, we shall deal with in the
treatise on Generation.a
V III.
W e must now go on to consider the rest o f Flesh and
the uniform parts. L e t us take first o f all Flesh (and, Hone*
where Flesh is absent, its counterpart), for this is to
animals both a principle and a body in itself. Its
primacy can also be logically shown, as follows. W e
define an animal as something that has the power o f
sensation, and chiefly the primary sensation, which
is touch ; and the organ through which this sensation
is effected is the flesh (or its counterpart). And
flesh is either its prim ar}r organ (comparable to the
pupil in the case o f sight), or else it is the organ and
157
ARISTOTLE
r r j s oxfsecos, f j t o S t o v o v v e L X r jf x /ie v o v , c o a rre p a v et
t l s T T p o a A a fio i r f j K o p r j t o S t a ^ a v e ? 7 r a v .
o iv
r c o v a X X c o v a la O f jo e c o v a S v v a r o v t c
i n i /x e v
K a l ovSev
TTpO VpyO V TOVT* f jv TTOLfjoaL T f j <j)V O l, TO S aTTTLKOV

e a v d y K r j s f io v o v y a p f j f i a X i o r a t o v t
80 r c o B e s
a lo O r jT r jp ic o v .
tco v
Se
l a r i a c o /ia -
t t jv
a io d r ja iv
TaAAa t o v t o v X ^ P l v o v r a , X e y c o S
<f>avepov n a v r a
o lo v o a r a
K a ra
K a l S e p / i a K a l v e v p a K a l <f>Xefies, e r t Se
T p l \ e s K a l t o t c o v o v v x c o v y e v o s , K a l et t i t o l o v t o v
TpO V ic T L V .
p ia s
85
ev K v
Tf j V
fx
(f)V G L V
f j (XV y a p TCOV OGTCOV <f)VGLS GCOTTJ-
ix fx r jx a v 7 ]T a L
o v o a ,
rj e ^ o f crt, t o
/ xev
a K a vO a
Ta
t o ls
TOLS
a va X o y o v ,
Se
/xev oSv eêt
(t o u )1
^XOVGLV
o lo v
iv
/ xaX aK ov,
OOT&
t o ls
o K X q p a
lx O v g l
TOLS
t o l s
x ^ v S p o s.
tco v
,ipcov evros t rjv roLavrr/v
654 a f io f jd e L a v , evta Se t c o v aval/xcov I k t o s , ouoTrep t c o v t {
fxaXaKoorpaKcov eK a a rov, o lov KapKLVOL K al t o t c o v

Kapaficov yevos, K al t o t c o v oorpaKoSep/xcov cucravTCos, o lo v Ta KaXov/ieva o o r p e a ' Traoi ya p t o v t o l s
t o /xev oapKcoSes evros, t o Se ovv ex o v /cat cfrvXarrov
6 I k t o s t o yecoSes I c f t i v rrpos ya p r f j <f>vXaKjj Trjs
ovv ex ^ ia s , rco e'xeiv oXiyov a v r c o v rrjv <f)VGLV Oep/xov
avai/icov ovrcov, o lo v irviyevs t l s TrepLKei/ievov t o
SarpaKOV <f>vXarreL t o efxrrerTvpev/xevov Oep/iov. fj
Se xeXibvrj K al t o rcov e/ivScov yevos o/xoicos e ^ ctv
1 (ro v) Ogle.
0
Apparently because the objects with which it deals are

more corporeal than those of the other senses it has
to be in bodily contact with them.
b As apart from a p rio ri reasoning.
e Sometimes, as here, counterpart could be represented
by the modern term analogue.
d Lit., the soft-shelled creatures.
158
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vin.

the medium o f the sensation combined in one (com
parable to the pupil plus the whole o f the transparent
medium in the case o f sight). Now not only was it
pointless, it was impossible for Nature to make such
a combination in the case o f the other senses ; with
touch, however, it was due to necessity, since its
sense-organ is the only one which is corporeal
or at least it is definitely the most corporeal one.a
It is also clear from our actual experience in sensation6
that all the other parts exist for the sake o f the organ
o f touch (the flesh). In these I include the bones, the
skin, the sinews, the blood-vessels ; also the hair, nails
o f every sort and kind, and the like. The bones,
for instance, whieh are hard in substance, have been
devised for the preservation o f the soft parts. The
same is true o f the counterpartc o f the bones in other
crcatures : two examples in species o f fish are spine
and cartilage.
N ow with some animals this hard supporting
substancc is situated inside the body, with others
(some o f the bloodless ones) it is outside. It is out
side in the case o f all the Crustacea d (e.g. the Crabs
and the group o f Crayfish), and the crroup o f Testaceae
too, e.g. those that are known as Oysters. A ll these
have their fleshy part inside, and the earthy part
which holds it together and protects it is out
side outside, because it performs an additional
function as w e ll: since these creatures are bloodless,
they possess but little heat, and the shell acts like
a couvre-feu ; it encloses the faintly burning heat
and protects it. Another quite different group o f
creatures, the Turtles and the group o f freshwater
* Lit., the shell-skinned creatures.
Testacea is the
nearest modern term. See Introduction, p. 23.
159
ARISTOTLE
^
* 5
OOKL
TOVTOLS,
10e v T O f i a
TpOV
OV
cocov
tcov
Kal
Ta
fia X a K ia
i v a v r i c o s K a l a v T o l s a v r L K L fie v c o s
yap
ooTcoSes
fiiv o v ,
cJ x e S o v
e X LV
Kal
tl
oXa
a lov
etvat
V (f> 9 a p T O v
fia X a K o v
a>G7Tp
KaT*
fie v
Ix B v c o v
tt jv
G r jn lo v ,
g i< j)O S .
ov
t t jv
25 i y p a i p e
fie v
t
S i v
TavTa
k ov,
aS
g tlv
fir )
to
ra
K aO anep
e ^ e t.
e ^ e t Se T a g l v
T TJS O a p K O S
c /jv o ls ,
OV
S tatpeTTjv*
fie v
avaX o y o v
T a ls
to
noX vnoS cov
fiL K p o v
ex^Lv
t t jv
toon ep
to l
tco v
to
K aX ov-
( y e V o ? )4
to
k vto s
S z v f ir jK r j.
OaTepa
Kal
T a ts
o r jn la L s
Sto
a K a f iijjia v
vit -
iv a iftc o v
to ls
S e v r o fia t o v t o l s
K a^ t o l s iv a lfio L s , K a d a n e p e L iro fie v
a < f> c o p L O fie v o v
o g to v
Kal to
tco v
a vrcov
eêt G K X r jp o v , t o
G c o fia
fie v
1 [a] seclusi.
8 ro Platt: ra vulg.
160
fia X a K L a
Se
kvk X ovs
iv
S a /cavflav.
a A A oA ov t o
T O L a v T T jv ,
a770/ce/c/)t-
fie v
Se T at? t c v O l o l
iv
K (f> a X r jv ,
rj
to ls
iv a v T L C O s e x L
yap
/cam
a vT o ts
t o 3 S
o p d o T T jT a
o g to vv
ovS ev
oap
O^tO'tV l ^ e t
Sev e êt S ta t o
K a X o v f iiv T jv
npos
7j k V o v h i v
npos
a i> T w v ,
aK avO aLS, o to v
K a X o v fie v o v
to lo v to v
Se
aAAa
v7 ra p x L
fie v o v
[ a v ] 1 e ^ o v x p ^ a L f i c o T a T o v a v e c r j2 n p o s t t j v
o vtco s y a p
rcov
to l
fia X a K a ,
o to fia
c o o t rep
T 7 )V
e v d v c o p la v
20l o x v v .
tovtols
o a p K o s K a l v e v p o v r r ) v cj)V 0 L V
yap
VCVpOV'
Kal
to
15 a a p K c o h r j , f i e T a g v
aAAa
ltt l v ,
a a p K coS rj
g w
Ta
oi5Se y t r j p o v
Zo l k c v
' S i *
TOVTCOV.
yVO S
o K X r jp o v ,
Se f i a X a -
O K X r jp o T r jT a
o-ap/ccuSeorepav,
aapK os
1 xPfriaLlxt^rara V SU.
4 (yevos) Platt.
Se
S
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vm.

Tortoises, are apparently in like case. On the other
hand, the Insects and the Ccphalopods are differ
ently constructed from these, as well as being
different from each other. N ot only, as it appears,
have they no bony part, but they have practically
no earthy part at all distinct from the rest o f the
body.
The Cephalopods are almost wholly soft
and fleshy, y e t in order to prevent their bodies
from being easily destructible as fleshy struc
tures are, the substance o f which th ey are formed
is interm ediate between flesh and sinew', having the
softness o f flesh and the elasticity o f sinew. W hen
it is split up, it breaks as flesh does, that is, not
longitudinally but into circular portions. The reason
for this seems to be that such a structure secures
the greatest strength. There is found also in these
creatures the counterpart o f the spinous bones o f
fishes ; examples are : the pouncc (os septae) o f
the cuttlefish, and the pen (gladius) o f the
calamaries. Nothing o f this sort, however, appears
in the Octopuses : this is because in them what is
called the head forms but a small sac, whereas
in the cuttlefish and calamaries the head is o f
considerable length. So we see that, in order to
secure that th ey should be straight and inflexible,
nature prescribed for them this hard support, just
as she gave to the blooded creatures bones or spines.
Quite a different contrivance obtains in the Insects
different both from the Cephalopods and from the
blooded creatures, as has already been stated. In
the Insects we do not find the clear-cut distinction
o f hard parts and s o f t ; here, the whole body is hard,
y e t its hardness is such that it is more fleshlike than
161
ARISTOTLE
654soa o a r c o h e a r e p a v
Kal
yeco h ea rep a v,
npos
f ir j
to
ev-
S i a l p e r o v e l v a i t o o c b f ia a v r c o v .
T V
#17
& iX t
I A.
O*
OfJLOLCOS
r c o v <f)Xeficov (j> v o i s*.
7] T
e K a re p a y a p
r jp y f ie v r ) a v v e x ^ S i o n , K a l o v t
85 K a O '
o v h i v , aAA* rj
a v ro
>
TCOV
OGTCOV
Kai
T)
a v r c o v a<j>9 i v o s
o g to v v ia n v
f io p io v
co s
av ro
ovvexovs
rj
a iT T O f ie v o v K a l rrp o o h e h e f L e v o v , i v a x p f j r a i ff <f>vois
654 b
K a l co s i v l f< a l c rv v e x e t K a l co s S v o l K a l Str jp r jf ie v o is
npos r r j v
a v rrj
epyov
ovk
av
J/
/ /
ir r o ie i
Se K a l
o f io ic o s
ia n v ,
ov
K e x w p io f ie v o v r jv , t o t
X ^ P LV
io n
o o t o jv
T ^ )V
( p v a is [ o v r e y a p
cfrXei/j o v S e j i i a
aAAa r r a a a i f i o p i o v f i i a s
o g t o v v r e y a p et n
e io iv .
5
K a fjo p iv .
K a O 9 a v r r jv
/)/
a v K a f iip e c o s r jv a m o v
ovr
opuo-
T r j r o s o v S e / i i a s f ir j o v v e x i s o v aAAa StaAetTror), e n
vn\
<f>Xeip
o v v e x f jS
7Tpos r r j v
a t f i a m rj
yap
a O a i,
apX?)
avvexys
r jv
a p x r jv ,
iK e iv r js
Se feat
pa^t?
?) t c o v
Kal
15 p a x i S i o r i v .
162
n/ n
aK avua
n s
r r jv
roT s
aX X cov
o t\
"
'
rj p e A o s
av
O e p f io r r js
at?
Kal
fir j
/capSta,
e 'x o v o i v
o g tco v
r r r jy v v -
o a r c b v rj
rra o iv ,
acj>9 r js
< f>va is* rj y a p
avvexovaa
a va yK rj
a vrrj
x < * > p i ,o f i e v o v .
rco v
oa ra
ecrrt
iv
K coX vei
to
evov r
eacoê t o
o r jir o f x e v o v
o p O o r r jr a
irre l
K e x o jp io fie v r j
ovk
r c o v f i e v cfrX ep cov rj
K a X o v fie v r j
f ir jK o s
an*
< f > a iv e r a i
Se
a v coanep
etW e
a a p g lv ,
10
>\ o
epA avT ev
tco v
K iv o v fie v o v
t,co co v
to v
ro
rj
coov
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vm.-ix.

bone is and more bony and earthy than flesh. The
purpose o f this is to ensure that the body shall not
easily break up.
IX .
The system o f the bones is similar to that o f
the blood-vessels : each is a connected system begin
ning from one point. There is no such thing as a
bone b y itself in isolation ; every bone is either
actually part o f the connected scheme, or else is
attached to it and so is in contact with it. This
enables Nature to use any couple o f bones either
as a single connected piece, or, when flexion is
required, as two distinct pieces. In like manner,
there is no such thing as a blood-vessel b y itself in
isolation: they are all o f them parts o f one blood
vessel. A n isolated bone could never discharge the
function for which all bones e x is t ; for, being dis
continuous and disconnected from the rest, it could
never serve as the means either for bending or for
straightening a limb ; but worse than that, it would
be a source o f harm, like a thorn or an arrow sticking
in the flesh. Similarly, i f we imagine a blood-vessel
isolated and not connected with the source o f them
all, it could never keep the blood within it in a proper
condition, since it is the heat which comes from that
source which prevents the blood from congealing, as
is shown by the putrefaction o f blood when separ
ated from it.
This source o f the blood-vessels
is o f course the heart, and the corresponding source
o f the bones in all bony species is what is called the
backbone. The system o f the bones is a connected
whole, starting from the backbone, since the back
bone connects together the length o f the animals
body and holds it straight. Now although this back
bone is a unity because it is connected together, it
f
163
Bonea.
ARISTOTLE
654 b
K d fji 7T T G 8a L
eoTL,
to
o c b fia ,
7 T o X v f i p r js
fila
Se T t j
S td T r j v
fie v
Statpe'cret t c o v
e/c Se T a v T T ]$ t o l s eôi/crt
KtoXa
o vv \rj
o w e 'x e t a v
o t t o v S v X o jv .
av t t j v ]
[7rpos
r a t o v t c o v o o t a [t o j v a p p i o v L c b v ] e c r r t v r a 1 ftev [e ^ e t
r a /cd)Aa K a p a /jL V o v v SeSe^teva r o t? 2 v e v p o i s , /cat] t o )v
20 O X a T a J V O VVap fJL O T T O V T C O V ,
to v
Se 7T p L (f ) p o v s > ^ /cat
fiio c p
tva
{JLV
K o lX o V
OVTOS
k o lX c o v ,
ev
Se T r e p ie iX T jc fjo T a jv , o t o v y o f i c f r o v , a o T p a y a X o v ,
y lv r jr c u
a S vva to v,
K a p u p is
/cat e/craat? (a X X c o s y a p f j o X c o s
7} ou /caAd)? a v e770t0i/v t t j v T O i a v r r j v k l -
e v ta S a u r a )v o/xotav e x o v r a r q v a p x t y t t j v
v r jo i v )*
25 O a T t p o v r f j
/cat
TOV
a / x ^ o re p a jv
T e X e v T jj
xovSpcuS??
daTpov
fio p ia
[a w v S e S e r a t vev/>ots],s
[i T a v
t G jv
K a p u fje c b v
e a n v , 4 otov O T O i f i r ), T T p os t o a A A ^ A a f i r ) Tpt/Jetv.
Ile p t
Se
ra
oara
at
TTepnrecfrvKaoi,
aap/ces*
7TpooiXr)fjLfjLivaL XeTTTOis Kal tvcuSeat SeofjioTs' c5v

eve/cev t o
tcuv o g t c o v
so t t X c l t t o v t c s
e/c 7rrjXov
ovoTaoeoJs v fa o T a o i
o5 ra>
a )o v
tc o v
e/c
tw v
w o n e p y a p ot
17 t i v o s
OTtpecov
TrepnrXaTTOVoi, r o v
SeSrjiJiLovpyTjKev
yevos*
o tl
avt o
oapKcov
ti
aXXrjs vy p a s
owjiaTCOv, et#
T p onov
to
rj
cf>vois
a )o v .
T ots
jLtev o 5 v aAAots* t>77e o r t v o c rra Tots' oapKcbSeoi fxo-
plots,
35 X ^ P LV>
TOLS
ftev
rls
655 a ovyK X eiovoai
1 ra Peck :
KLVOVfJLVOlS
S ta
Ka/llffLV
to vto v
aKLvrjTOLs cfrvXaKrjs eve/cev, otov a t
TrXevpal
to
o t t jO o s
ocoTTjplas X^PLV
ra? Z : $ vulg. : oara ra>p u o p ico v i c r r t v r a s f ie v

vulg.) Ixct T *wAa /cat Kafiifriv Z.
2 rot? S U : re vulg.: ye EY*
3 11. 16*25: hunc locum correxi, partim S et Albertum
secutus. vid. p. 46. fortasse et eVet 8 dvdyiaj . . o-noySuAoh* (11. 14-16) secludenda.
4 eioiv vulg.
(jj
f ie v
164
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. nr.

is also a thing o f many parts because o f its division
into vertebrae, since the body must be able to bend
while the animal is in motion. And the bones o f the
various limbs (in those animals which have them)
are connected with this backbone, from which they
originate. Some o f them have extremities which fit
on to each o th e r: either (a) one is hollow and the
other rounded, or ([b) both are hollow and hold a
huckle-bone between them (as it m ight be a bolt),
to admit o f bending and extension, since these
movements would be quite impossible or at any rate
unsatisfactory without such an arrangement, (c)
There are some joints in which the adjacent ends o f
the two bones are similar in shape ; [these arc bound
together by sinews,] and there are pieces o f cartilage
inserted in between them, like a pad, to prevent
them from rubbing against each other.0
N ow the whole system o f the bones exists to sub
serve the fleshy parts o f the body, which have their
place around the bones and are attached to them by
thin fibrous threads. Modellers who set out to mould
an animal out o f clay or some other plastic substance
begin first o f all with a hard and solid core and mould
their figure round it. N atu res method has been the
same in fashioning animals out o f flesh. W ith one
exception, all the fleshy parts have a core o f bone :
for the parts that move and bend, this is present as
a means for enabling the limb to b e n d ; for those
that do not move, it serves as a protection : an
example o f this are the ribs, enclosing the chest,
which are a means o f protection for the viscera in
0 The text of this paragraph has been confused by a
number of interpolations, most of which I have omitted in
translating.
165
ARISTOTLE
n e p l r r jv K a p h la v G T r A d y x v w v r a
tw v
k o i Atav
otS^crtv
avocrrea n a o i v , o n w s f ir j
ano
t t jv
kw
Se n e p l r r jv
avrots* w o i s
X v tj r r j v
T r j s TpO(f>rjs y iv o f ie v r / v
e a v a y K r j s K a l t o l s O rfX e o i r r j v e v a v r o i s r w v e f i P p v w v a v r ) ( jiv .
Ta
fie v
woroKa rw v
ovv
Kal
t ,w w v
ev a v r o is K ai
e K r o s T r a p a T r X r jG L a v e % e i t t j v t w v o o t w v S v v a f x t v K a i
lo y y p a v .
fir j
tto X v
y ap
n a v r a r a rot aura r w v
fie i^ w
w o t o k w v c o s /card Aoyov ewretv t w v o w f i a T w v
evtax
ov
y ap
noX X a
tverat
fie y a X a
w otokw v,
tw v
10 otov ev A i p v r j K a l t o l s T o n o i s t o l s O e p f i o i s K a l t o l s
r jp o is .
to ls
v n e p e io fia T W v
Se
fie y a X o is
lo x v p o T e p w v
K al
fie i ov w v
K al
a v T c io v
to vtw v
appevw v
c r K X r jp o T e p a
c ra p K O < f)d y w v
ra
w o ir ep
fiia o T iK W T e p o is .
to ls
15 O K X y jp a V
(rj
tov
fj
Set
c r K X r jp o T e p w v ,
Sto
ra
tw v
K al
tw v
T a t w v O r jX e iw v , K a l tcl t w v
T p o< f> rj
y ap
X e'o v ros'
TTjV <f)V<JlV W O T
Sta
ovtw
fia x * f) $
y ap
d nTo9ai
t o v t o ls ),
eêt
T a v ra
TVTTTOfXeVWV
e/c X i Ow v n v p . eêt Se /cat o SeX</)ls o v k

aAA* ocrrd* w o t o k o s y a p ecrrtv.
Tots* S e v a ifio is fie v firj ^ w o t o k o l s Se n a p aAAarret /card fiiK p o v rj (f>vois, o l o v t o l s o p v i o iv
o o ra fie v , a o d e v e o T e p a Se. t w v S Ix O v w v t o l s fie v
20 w o t o k o l s a K avO a , K al t o i s o<j>eotv a K avO w Srfs eortv
ff t w v o o t w v (frvois, n X rjv t o i s Atav f i e y a X o is ' t o v
K a O a n ep
a K a vO a s
t o is
lo x v v
Se, Si
a nep
lo x v p o T e p w v
K a X o v fie v a
vypoTepa v
oeX a x?)
Te y a p
K al
tols
w otokols,
npos
Cartilaginous fishes, including the sharks.

166
ttjv
Set t w v O T e p e w fia T w v . rd Se
xvSpa/cav0a ttjv </>vcriv eortv*
avay/catov avrcov etv a i ttjv k l -
PARTS OF ANIiMALS, II. ix.

the region o f the heart. The exception is the parts
near the belly, which in all animals are boneless.
The purpose o f this is that the swelling which takes
place o f necessity after the receipt o f nourishment
m ay not be hampered, and (in females) to prevent
any interference with the growth o f the fetus.
The nature o f the bones is similar in all viviparous
animals (that is, internally viviparous as well as
externally) ; and as the Yivipara are much larger
proportionately in bodily size than other animals,
their bones are strong. In some places many o f these
animals grow to a great size, as for example in Libya
and other hot dry countries. These large animals
need stronger and bigger and harder supports,
especially those o f them that are particularly violent
in their habits. H ence, the bones o f males are harder
than the bones o f females, and those o f carnivorous
animals than those o f herbivorous, because the car
nivorous have to fight for their food. An example
is the Lion : it has such hard bones that when they
are struck fire is kindled as it is from stones. N ote
that the Dolphin, being viviparous, has bones like the
other viviparous creatures, and not fish-spines.
In the creatures which though blooded are not
viviparous Nature has made a series o f graduated
changes : for example, birds have bones, but they
are weaker than the bones o f the Vivipara. The
oviparous fishes have fish-spine, not b o n e ; and the
serpents have bone whose nature is that o f fish-spine ;
except the very large species, and they have bones,
because (just like the Vivipara) i f their bodies are
to be strong the solid framework o f them must be
stronger. The creatures called Selachia have spines
made o f cartilage. This is because their movement
167
ARISTOTLE
655 a
25 v t j g i v ,
pov
ro
Set
aAAa
w o re
etv a i
v n e p o x r jv
e ls
Sc
a l fiv ^ c o S e s 1 r o
K e ifie v r jv ,
ro v s
ev
o to v
ro
fie v
p io fie v c o
o v v
ev
fJ iv e X a )
fie fiiy fie v o v
rj
S ia c fr e p ei
t o is
fia X a k tjv
n oX X a
re
r a
r a
n e p i-
(b ra
K pavp a
n o ie i
K al
rax ^ cos
v^Pov
'r jr r o v
an oK on ev.
a fiv e X o i
x o v S p o i
K ex co -
x o jP l t l l e v o v
y a p
rj
tw v
etv a i
r r jv
Sc ( f > v a i s r j a v r r j x
Se r c o f i a X X o v K a l
n e o is
to
S ia v e fie iv
aap K a
rrep l
y ap
av av erai
r r jv
e ls
S e r r jv a v r r jv
a v fi c f r e p e i fia X a K O V
d p av erat
ea rt,
fir j K p a v -
y ecoB es
c o o t6 k o is
Sta
a v fifie fir jK e
K al ov S erep ov
Ot
o a o is
a 7 T x o v o iv .
t o is
Sto
Kal
fiv c b 8 r f
a rra y
r r jv
r o v
Se t o i s o e X & x e o i v r j p a x ^ s
xovSpaiS^s f i e v e a n v , eêt Se f i v e X o v a v r ' o g t o v
y a p a v r o is v n a p x ^ i t o v t o
to f i o p i o v .
H v v e y y v s Se K a r a r r j v a ( f > r j v eart r o t s o o r o t s K a l
r a rotaSe r c o v f i o p i w v , o t o v o v v x ^ s r e K a l o n X a l K a l
X ov S p ov
o v o r a o iv .
X r jX a l K a l k I p a r a
5
K al
aS v v arei
K a l ev r o ts
arep eov
jJL V K r r jp a s '
K al o g to v
655 b
noX X ovs to tto v s
ev ea n
xvS p a> 8 y >
o g tc o v
85
e p e ia fia r c o v
fia X a K c o r e p a v ,
B e p f i a T ra v a v r jX c o K e v rj ( fr v a is * a f i a
< /> v a is .
so K
K a l r r jv r c o v
Se
r a v r a
a v rco v
o to v
r r jv
ev
K a l p v y x fj r a
fio r jO e ia s e x o v a l x a p iv
a v v e a r r jK o r a
on X rj r e
oX rj
G c o r r jp la v
K a l
o X a
K a l
K ep a s
e K a a r o is .
ev
rco v
o p v id c o v .
[t<x aia]3, Ta
a v v c o w fia
t o is
rra v ra
y a p
o X o v , fie fir jx a v r jr a i n p o s
r o v r c o
Se
rco
y e v e i
1 ivfuohes Z.
2 vfub8r) EPSZ.
3 [ra <pa] secludit Rackham.
Cf. the law of organic equivalents.
6 See note on 644 a 17.
168
fio p io is ,
K a l
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ix.

has to be somewhat supple, and accordingly the
supporting framework o f their bodies must be some
what pliable, not brittle. In addition, Nature cannot
allot the same plentiful supply o f any one substanee
to many different parts o f the body ; a and in the case
o f the Selachia she has used up all the available earthy
substance in constructing their skin. In the Vivipara
too there are many instances o f cartilaginous bones :
they are found where it is an advantage that the
solid fram ework should be pliable and glutinous for
the benefit o f the flesh that surrounds them. This
applies to the ears and the nostrils. Such projecting
parts quickly g e t broken if they are brittle. Car
tilage and bone are the same in kind and differ
only by " the more and less b ; so neither o f them
continues to grow when it has been cut out o f the
living organism.
The cartilagcs o f land-animals contain no marrow
that is, no marrow existing as a separate thing.
W hat in ordinary bones is separable is here m ixed
in with the body o f the cartilage and gives it its
pliable and glutinous character. In the Selachia,
however, although the backbone is cartilaginous it
contains marrow, because it stands to these creatures
in place o f a bone.
T he follow ing substances or " parts resemble
bones very closely as regards their feel : the various
sorts o f nail ; h oof and ta lo n ; horn, and beak.
A ll these substances are present for the sake o f selfdefence. This is shown by the fact that the complete
structures which are made out o f them and bear the
same names e.g. the complete hoof, or horn have
been contrived in each case by Nature for the creatures
self-preservation. W e must reekon the teeth in this
169
ARISTOTLE
855 b
T) TCOV 680VTCOV GTL <f)VOCS, TOt? fJCV V TrdpXpVGd

10 7rpos ev ep yov ttjv ttjs rpo<f>7js epyaocav, r o ls Se
TTpos T TOVTO Kal TTpOS dA/aJv, OLOV TOCS KCLpXOipo8ovoc
7r a v r a
Kal
xavXcoSovoc
ottXov y a p avrrj 8vvajxcs.

JJL&XAoV V
Trdocv.
avayKTjs
Se
yeco 87j /cat a r e p e a v exet ttjv cj>vacv
ra vra
TOCS
15 <pord/ccov, Sta r d
a v o ra o c v fj t o
Sto /cat 7r d v r a r d r o t a v r a
TCTpaTTOOCV
vTrdpx^c
yecuSeare'pav
,coocs
rcov
eêtv n d v r a
ttjv
avdpconcov y e v o s .
tcov
aAAa
/cat
7rept rovrcov /cat t w v eô/zevajv, o lov 8ep jia ro s Kal
Kal rpcx& v /cat m e p c b v /cat
K vorecos1 Kal vjie vo s
t w v avaX o y o v ro vro c s Kal et r t T otovrov ea r t jxepos,

v a rep o v
a jia
tocs
dvofjLocopLepeoc
Oecoprjreov
ttjv
20 alrcav avrcov, /cat tcvo s eve/cev vTrdpxec tocs wot?

e/cao rov
e/c
rw v
epycov
/ca/cetva, Kal T a v ra
ya p
yvcopcêcv,
avayK a lov a v
eltj,
a>OTrep
aAA ort
avvcovvfjca r o ls oXocs r d fieprj, ttjv r d f tv aneXapev

ev rot?
o/iocojxepeoc v v v .
to v t c o v
to
yovrjs
25 v y p w v
re
o a r ovv
Kal yaX aK ros

/cat
etat
ap%al navrcov
/cat rj oap.
ere Se Trepl
aTreXcTrojiev ev rfj Trepl rcov
ojJcocojjLepcbv
Oecopca
r o ls
yap
Trepl
yeveoecos Xoyocs d p jio r r o v o a v eêc ttjv okzi/jcv t o

fjcev y a p avrcov dp^rj r d Se rpocj>rj rcov ycvojievcov
e a r tv.
X . Nt/v Se Xeyco [le v o lo v a n
apxrjs ndXcv, a p f a -
fievoc 7rpcorov a n o rcov npcorcov.
Traac y a p rocs
1 GKVTOS Buss, (aKVTecus E Y ).

170
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ix.-x.

class too. In some creatures teetli are present to
discharge one function only viz. mastication ; in
others they are a means o f force as well (e.g.
sawlike teeth and tusks). A ll these parts are
o f necessity earthy and solid in character ; that
is the proper sort o f substance for a weapon.
So there is a tendency for all parts o f this sort to
appear in the four-footed Vivipara more extensively
than in man, because the former all have more earthy
matter in their constitution. W e shall, however, con
sider these substances, and the other kindred ones
such as skin, bladder, membrane, hair, feather, and
the counterparts o f them, and all such parts, when
we come to deal with the non-uniform parts. Then
also wre shall consider the Causes o f them and for
what purpose each o f them is present in animal bodies;
since it is true to say, o f both sets o f things, that our
knowledge o f them must be derived from a study o f
the functions which they discharge. The reason why
we have just been taking them with the uniform
substances and out o f their proper order is that in
them the name o f the complete structure is the same
as that o f a portion o f it, and also because the sources
and principles o f them all are bone and flesh. W e
also left out all mention o f semen and milk when we
were considering the fluid uniform substances. As
semen is the source o f the things that are generated
and milk is the food that feeds them, the proper place
to discuss these is in the treatise dealing with
Generation.
X.
W e may now make what is practically a fresh
beginning. W e will begin first o f all with the things
that come first in importance.
171
The non.
A R IS T O T L E
655 b
30 I[coots
t o is
r e X e io ts 1 S v o
9
d u a y /c a t o r a r a
ra
i a n v , fj t c S c ^ o v r a t r r jv Tpocfrrjv K a l fj
to
/
fio p ia
rrepiTTCOfia
d<f>taotv2' o v r e y a p etvat o v r e a v tja v e o O a i i v S c ^ c r a t

a v e v Tpo<f>fjs.
</)a/JLev r o v
35
tottov
( r a [l e v o v v <f>VTa K a l y a p r a v r a tfijv
fie v d xp rjcrrov TreptTTcofiaros
K r r js y r js y a p
Tpo<f>rjvt a v r l Se
K a p iro v s )
tovs
tovtcov
656 a f ie v o v v
rrpoteTai r a
t c o v <j)VTC0V <f>vcris
tco v
ear tv
ovaa
rj Trjs l,ojrjs
fio v t fio s
tSeav, Kal
to v
Oetov
i rpo
t o jv
oXiyas
r a Sc TTpos
c^ct
tco
t t jv
erepcov fiaXXov, Kal
oacov firj fiovov
avOpcoTTCjjv y e v o s * y
to v
rjv aAAa Kal
rotovro S cart rd
ya p fiovov fierex^ i
to v
rjfitv yvcopificov cocov, fj fiaX iora TravTCov.
w o r e Sta re
fiaX ior
n epl
erepa
rj
TToXv-
Oecoprjreov
rroXvfiopcfjoTepav
eS rjv rj <f>vots fieTeiXrjcfrev.
tco v
10
exovra
to vtco v
TToXvxovoTepav
ov
avofioiofiepcov* 7rpos ya p
oXiycov opyavcov rj XPV(TLâ
aioOrjCTiv
ttjv
o rrep fia T a K a l
KaO avra rrepl Trjs iSeas avrcov.

fjv
exei
T ptT ov Se fie p o s i v Trdotv c a r t r d
f i e o o v , i v co rj a p x y
etSrjs icTTt
7Tpatjeis
tovtov
ovk
X a fip a v e i TreTrefifievrjv
to vto ,
avrov rrjv
to vto v
Kal Sta
t o jv
to
yvcbpifiov etvat
ecoQev fiopicov fiopcjjrjv,
Xc/crcov rrpcoTov.
cfjvoe i flop ta Kara (f>voiv exî
evOvs y a p Kal r a
to v tco
ju o v c o ,
Kal rd
1tois
reActots P e c k : t o i s ye t. O g le : /cat reAetou/xevots' /cat

tgXclois P la tt: /cat rcAetots Vlllg.
2 a<f>iacnv S U Y : a</>rjaovaiv alii.
a These three parts of the perfect animals are again

referred to at De ju v . et sen. 408 a 13 If. At De gen. an.
172
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

A n animal can neither exist nor grow without food.
Therefore in all living creatures o f perfect formation
there are two parts most necessary above a ll: one by
which food is taken in and the other by which residues
are eliminated. (Plants which also we include
under the head o f living things have, it is true, no
place for the useless residue, but this is because their
food, which they g e t out o f the earth, is already con
cocted before it enters them, and instead o f this
residue th ey yield their fruit and seeds.) And in all
creatures there is a third part interm ediate between
these indispensable two, and this is the seat o f the
source and principle o f life. Plants, again, are so made
as to remain in one place, and thus they do not exhibit
a great variety o f non-uniform substances; they have
few actions to perform, and therefore but few organs
are needed to perform them. For this reason we must
consider plants and their formations separately. But
with ereatures that not only live but also have the
power o f sensation, the formations are more varied,
and there is more diversity in some than in others, the
greatest variety being found in those creatures which
in addition to living have the capability o f living the
good life, as man has. M an is the only one o f the
animals known to us who has something o f the divine
in him, or i f there are others, he has most. This is
one reason vvhy we ought to speak about man first,
and another is that the shape o f his external parts is
better known than that o f other animals. Another and
obvious reason is that in man and in man alone do the
natural parts appear in their natural situation : the
733 b l and 737 b 16, 26, the perfect animals are the
viviparous ones. For the most highly finished animals
see 666 a 28.
173
ARISTOTLE
656 a
tovtov
a vc o n p o s t o
tov
*
/
'
oAov ext avco* /xovov y a p
o p B o v o t l t c o v w w v a v O p c o m s .
T o /XV OVV )(W TTjV Ke(f>aXr)V aoap/COV /C TCOV

16 rrepl
iyKecf)aXov
to v
elprjfievcov
jSe'/fy/cev.
ov yap wcr7rep
GapKcbSrjs
rjv,
tlvis
avay/catov
cru/x-
XeyovoLV, ore
/xa/cpo/JtWTepov av
fjv
et
yevos,
to
aAA evaLaOrjoias eve/cev aoapKov elvai âcrtv*

atoftxveaflat pcev yap tco iyK(f>aXco, ttjv 8* aiofl^crtv
ov TrpooieodaL Ta fxopLa Ta oapKcoSrj Atav.
20 8
tovtcov
ovSerepov ecrrtv aXrjQes, aAAa TroXvaapKOS /xev
Tonos cbv o rrepl
iyKecfraXov TOi)vavTLOV av
tov
arreLpyaêro ov eveKa vrrdpx*L Tl$ 4>ocs o i y KecfraXos (ov yap av eSvvaro KaraifjvxLV aXealvcov
ai>Tos Atav), tcov t* atcrflâewv ov/c atTto? ovSe/nas,
os ye avaioOqTos /cat avTos* eortv aboTrep
25 tcov
'irepLTTcofxaTcov.
aAA*
ov^
otlovv
Sta
evpLGKovres
Ttva atTtav evtat tojv atoflâewv ev Trj Kecf>aXfj

rots
t,coois elai,
to vto
8*
opebvres tStatVepov ov
rcov aXXcov fiopicov, eK auXXoyLopiov TTpos aXXrjXa

aw8vat,0VGLV.
I gtlv o Trepl
t epov iv
tols
oVt /xev ovv apx1? T<^v aLaOrjaecbv

ttjv
/capStav toôs1, Stwptorat rrpd-
Trepl aioOrjoecos, Kal StoTt at /xev Svo
so (f>avepa>s rjpTrjfxevaL rrpos
ttjv
/capStav etatv,
17
Te
twv arrrcov /cat 17 twv x^/xwv, twv Se Tptwv 17 /xev

rqs 6a<f>ptfaecos fiecrr), aKor) Se /cat o^t? /xaAtor* eV
T rj
Kecf>aXfj Sta T17V twv alodrjTrjpicov <f>VGLV eiai, /cat
a See the identical phrase in Zte

477 a 22.
6 Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 a - c .
174

upper part o f man is placed towards the upper part
o f the universe. In other words, man is the only
animal that stands upright.
In man, the head is lacking in flesh, and this follows of the
o f necessity from what we have said about the brain, gân d *
Some 6 say (erroneously) that i f the head abounded Sensewith flesh mankind s lifespan would be longer than
it is, and they explain the absence o f flesh as on pur
pose to facilitate sensation, their view being that the
brain is the organ o f sensation, and that sensation
cannot penetrate parts that are too fleshy. Neither
o f these assertions is true. The truth is that if
the part surrounding the brain were fleshy, the
effect o f the brain wTould be the very reverse
o f that for which it is intended : it would be
unable to cool the rest o f the body because it would
be too hot itself. And, o f course, the brain is not
responsible for any o f the sensations at a l l ; it has no
more power o f sensation than any o f the residues.
People adopt these erroneous views because they are
unable to discover the reason why some o f the senses
are placed in the head ; but they see that the head
is a somewhat unusual part, compared with the rest,
so they put two and two together and argue that
the brain is the seat o f sensation. The correct view,
that the seat and source o f sensation is the region
o f the heart, has already been set forth in the treatise
O f Sensation,11where also I show why it is that two o f
the senses, touch and taste, are evidently connected
to the h e a r t; o f the remaining three, smell is placed
between the other two, hearing and sight, and these
are practically always located in the head : this is
owing to the nature o f the organs through which
De sensu, 438 b 25 ff.
175
ARISTOTLE
656 a
to v tc o v
35 i n i
Tracrtv
rj o i/ jis
TCOV
Kal
l\ 0 v i0 v
i n e l rj y
TCOV
a K o r j K a l r j ocrcfcprjcns
jx e v o v < f> a v e p o v o l k o v o v g l jx e v y a p
S ouSev eôi/ox
rj S
a la O y jT r jp io v
to v tc o v
a la O r jr c b v }
tco v
656 b e v X o y c o s i c r r l r r e p l
r r jv
t o
eyoat,
K a l o a c fr p a lv o v r
< f> a v e p o v i v
r f j K ecfra X fj
o x jjis i r a a i t o i s
iy K e < f> a X o v o
t o v
S JS c o p
K a l t /jv x p o s , r j
TTOtet
TOLOVTCOV
e x o v a iv
fie v y a p
(f r v a i v i o r l v
vypos
t o v t o
yap
ecrrtv. ert Se r a s
a/cptj3earepas* t c o v a t a d r j o e c o v Sta t c o v K a d a p c o r e p o v
ix o v T io v t o
a lfia
f i o p l c o v avay/catov a K p i p e a r e p a s
5 y l v e a O a r i K K o r r r e i y a p r j T r j s ev t c o a l / x a n 0ep/ x o r r jr o s
k I v tjg ls
r r jv
a ic r O rjn K rjv
iv e p y e ta v
Sta
ra u ra ? r a s a l r l a s ev r f j K e<f>aXfj t o v t c o v r a a l a d r j S ia c fr a v c o v
tco v
r r jp ia
ia n v .
Ou
S eort rd
fio v o v
om aO ev
a v r r jv
10 yap
e vc frvX a K ro ra ro v
r r js
otl
aaapKos
r r js
ro v
K ecfraX rj
"E ^ e t
15 e v
TCO
S e
K al
TOTTCO
r r jv
TC O
a e p o s
a la d r jr r jp io v
a ip o s
yap
Sev
fj K a l
a la d r ja e c o s
om adev
X (* P IV
o vk
eêt
o jx o Io js .
a K o r jv
7Tpl
K a X o v f jie v o v
to
ov
r r j v K < j>a X rjv.
iy K e c fr a X o v
ia T iv
i y K (/ > a X o v , a a a p K o v
etê
fio p to v
eôv, ^v S av
< f> o p n o v
a e a a p K c o f J L e v r jv
ov
rj
ex o va v
Suvarat
6p6ovG 0ai
S r jX o v
aAAa rd
Sta rd 77aat rots*
Setv etvat rovro rd
op O ora rov
rotourov, et
e firrp o a d e v a o a p K o v ,
K e< f> a X rjs,
TTJV
r r X r jp e s
e lv a i
e u A o y a js *
K C < f> a X r jV
i o n ,
rd
e v ta
rco v
TO
y a p
S e
r r js
to co v
K VO V
a K o r js
< a /x e v .
1 (c7m . . . aladrjTojv) Cook Wilson, qui et (ou) post

Aeyo/ieioi', 1. 35.
176

they operate. Sight is always located there. The
case o f hearing and smell in fishes and the like
shows that the opinion I maintain is patently correct.
These creatures hear and smell, although they have
no obvious and visible organs for these senses in the
head. As for sight, it is reasonable enough that
when present it should always be located near the
brain, for the brain is fluid and cold, and the senseorgan o f sight is identical in its nature with water,
which o f all transparent substances is the easiest to
keep confined. Again, those senses which are in
tended for more precise work than the others must
necessarily receive greater precision by being situ
ated in parts where the blood is specialiy pure, since
the m ovem ent o f the heat in the blood ousts the
activity appropriate to sensation. These are the
reasons why the organs o f these senses are placed in
the head.
Now the back o f the head is free from fleshiness as
well as the front. This is because the head is the
part which all animals that possess one have to hold
as upright as possible. Nothing that carries a burden
can raise itself upright, and the head would be
burdened i f it were w ell covered with flesh. And
this is another reason to show that the lack o f flesh
on the head is not for the purpose o f enabling the
brain to function in sensation. There is no brain in
the back o f the head, although the back has no more
flesh on it than the front.
Some animals have their organ o f hearing as well
as o f sight located in the region o f the head. This is
well explained on our view, which is that the organ
o f hearing is o f air. The space in the head called the
vacuum is full o f air.
177
ARISTOTLE
5b
^
~
/
>
E/c fiev ofiv tc o v o<f)6aXfiwv ot rropoi <j>epovaiv els
ra? rrepl t o v ey/ceâAov <f>Xefias' ira X iv S e/c t c o v
cotu tv cboavTCos rropos ets T o v m o d e v a vvarnTei.
["E ort S o v t a v a i u o v ovSev a loO yjT iK ov o v t t o
20 af/xa, aAAa t c o v e/c t o v t o v t i . St07rep o v Sev i v
rots* i v a i f i o i s a v a ifio v a lo O r jr iK o v , ovS avro to
af/xa1, ovSev yap t c o v ^cocov f i o p i o v . ] 2
Êêt S ev t w fi7TpoG0v t o v iyKe<f>aXov 77avra
Ta exovra tovto to fiopiov , Sta to efirrpoadev
etvat ecf> o a ia U a v e ra i, t>)v o aiau rjo iv a7ro ttj?
25 /capSta?, t avTtjv S etvat ev t o is
efnrpooQev, /cat
to aloBaveoOai Sta rcov ivaificov yiveoO ai fioplcov,
(j>Xeficov S efvat /cevov to omoOev k v t o s . reVa/CTat
sa
rov Tponov t o v t o v Ta alcjdrjTrjpia Trj (j>V(Jl
KaXcos, Ta fiev rrjs aKorjs eVt fiearfs Trjs rrepiêpeias
(a/covet y a p ov fiovov /car evOvcopiav aAAa 7rav80 To0ev), 9] S oj/rts* et? to efnrpoadev (opa y a p /car
evOvojptav, rj Se k iv tjo is els to efirrpoodev, rrpoopav
Se Set e( o ^ Kivrfuis') . 77 Se ttJ? oacfrprjoecos
fie ra ^ v tcov o/x/xaTcuv evAoyco?. St77Aovv fiev y a p
ia T iv e/caorov rcDv aloBrfTrfpicov Sta to St7rAovv
efvat to ocofia , to fiev Seftov to S aptorepov. eVt
86 /xev ovv ttJs* a ^ ? to vt aSrjX o v t o v t o v S atrtov
oti ov/c eort to TTpcoTov aladrjrrjpiov rj oapf /cat to
TOIOVTOV fiopiov , aAA evrd?. eVt Se Trjs yXcoTTrjs
fjTTov fiev, /xaAAov S r} 771 tt}? acfrrjs eort yap ofov
1 ovS* avro to at/ua om. E .
*
11. 19-22 seclusi (20-22 O gle): partim ex 666 a 16 translata.
This passage seems to be a note on a remark which comes
a few lines below, and should probably be omitted from the
text. Part of it is taken from 666 a 16.
178

Passages (or channels) run from the eyes to the
blood-vessels that are round the brain. And, again,
a passage runs from the ears and connects to the
back o f the brain.
[N o bloodless part is capable o f sensation, nor
indeed is the blood itself. It is the parts which are
made out o f blood that have this faculty. Hence,
in the blooded animals, no bloodless part is capable
o f sensation, nor indeed is the blood itself, for it is
no part o f animals.] a
The brain, whenever there is one, is in the forepart
o f the head. This is (a) because all acts o f sensation
take place in a forward direction ; ( b) because the
heart, from which sensation has its origin, is in the
forepart o f the body ; and (c) because the process
o f sensation depends upon parts that have blood
in them, whereas the sac at the back o f the head
contains no blood-vessels at all. In fact, Nature
has located the sense-organs in a very satisfactory
manner. The ears arc half-way round the circum
ference o f the head, becausc they are to hear sounds
from all directions alike and not only from straight
before them. The eyes face front : this is because
sight is along one straight line, and we must be able
to see along the line in which we are moving, which
is directly forward. The nostrils are between the
eyes, and this is quite reasonable. Each o f the
sense-organs is double, bccausc the body itself is
double : it has a right side and a left side. I t must
be adm itted that this duality is not at all clear in the
case o f touch : this is because the primary senseorgan o f touch is not the flesh 01* a corresponding part,
but something internal. W ith the tongue the duality
is not very clear, but more so than with touch.
179
ARISTOTLE
657 a a <f>rj
Kat
n s
av rrj
aX X w v
a lo d r jr r jp iw v
Stf i e p r j s '
6 rp o T T O V
fio p io v
av
ovk
K al
ex v ot
K al
ev
fie o o v
rw v
r p ic o v
10 rows'
r r js
rd
fiV K r r jp a s ,
fie o o v
roT s
fiV K r r jp a s ,
ecrrtv
a v r r js
ro v ro
Sc rd
cartv.
a io B r jr r jp iw v
w o is
7Tpos
r r jv
fie v y a p r e r p d r r o S a
ava) 6 e v
is aAAa
rw v
o fifia r w v ,
< j> a i v e r a i
Kt>77Tetv.
ovrw
fie re w p o re p a
o r p e ( j ) 6f i e v a
ro v
l iX r jv
cf
tStav
to jv
rj
r r js
Sc
ro
fio p io v
K ara
Sto n e p
rj
e ls
< f> v o is
C7Tt r r j v
B e io a fiia v
ovra
r js a v
Sofetev
w s
av, ovk
ifjo< j> ovs
ovk
rd <3ra.
eêt Sc,
Scêrat
Kal
ovv
yap
fia X X o v .
exovoi
Sta
rd eêtv
fir j
rro p o vs fio v o v
etvat*
X I.
T(* vo iv
d r r r jp r r jf ie v a
Se rd 7rAetarov
h e p fia r o s
20 r p i x a s aAAa
ov
o v v r jy a y e v
o r a d fir jv
Sta rd ju.^
rra vroO ev
X I I . O t S
r r jv
rj
K aB arrep
epy ov ,
KaAcus1 Sc Kat rots* dXXois eêt

ra
K al
K iv r jo iv .
a v a ir v o r js
r r jp ia
rj a i o d r j a i s
r r j s d v a r r v o r j s rj a i o O r j a i s
e fir r p o o O e v
otov eVt
K al
aAAov o5v av
8 ie o 7 T a o fie v r j,
c a r t v Sta ya/>
ev w
S r jX o v
Sc rcov
o fifia r a
c a r tv.
h i< f> v r js
e r r o ie i
Se
o fiw s
e o x L O fie v r j.
< f> a v e p w r e p w s
h v v a fiis
K e ifie v r j
a K o r js ,
y ap
r c ya/> Svo Kat
S ir a
fW K r r jp w v
ro ts
rj a i o O r j o i s .
âtVcrat
7rl r a v r r j s
eêt
o fio L w s
r o ia v r r jv
Sc Kat
rw v
Aristotle seems to refer here to the forked tongues of

certain animals. See 660 b 7 ff.
ISO
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.-xn.

(Taste, in fact, is itself, as it were, a sort o f touch.)
The duality is plain, however, even with this sense,
for it is seen to be divided.a W ith the other senses,
the organ is more evidently parted into two : there
are tw o ears and tw o eyes, and two passages for the
nostrils in the nose. The sense o f smell, i f it had
been otherwise placed separated into two, that is,
like the sense o f hearing would not have been
able to perform its proper fu n ction ; nor would
that part o f the body in which it is situated, since
in animals which have nostrils, the sensation o f
smell is effected by means o f inspiration, and this
part is at the front and in the middle.
This is
why Nature has brought the nostrils together in a
straight line and made them the central o f the three
sense-organs in the head, located where the motion
o f in-breathing takes place.
In the other animals as well as in man these sense- Ears.
organs are very satisfactorily arranged as required
by the peculiar nature o f each animal.
X I. For
instance, the quadrupeds have ears that stand out free
from the head, and they are higher than the eyes
or appear to be, although this is not really so : it is
an illusion due to the fact that these animals are not
upright but stand on all fours. And as they are
usually in this posture when in motion, it is useful for
them to have their ears well up in the air, and also
m ovab le: this enables them to be turned round and
oick up sounds better from all directions.
X II.
Birds have the auditory passages only,
owing to the hardness o f their skin, and because
they have feathers instead o f hair, which means that
they have not go t the right material for forming
ears. The same argument applies to those oviparous
181
ARISTOTLE
657 a
,
ra
TeTpanoSw v
Kal
a p fio a e i
(fx o K r j
tw v
Sta ro
25
K at
^w oroK a
Kal
Kal
30
oi
o i
t w v
a iT io v
fiA eiT W C T l
[t
fie v
fiX e ^ d p o is
rj
(f r v a i s
Sc
w g i
o ttw s
(/cat t o u t o
i r r o i r ja e ),
Ta
ov
av
r jv
o^ vw T ra
S e.
S ep fia
n X e ia ra K is
T(*
to
n e p l
fiX e < f> a p a '
Kal
fia X ia T
t o i s
T r p o a ip e a e w s ,
avO pw nos
e lv a i.
p X e fa p ls
S e p fia T a
T r e p i e i X r jf i f i e v r j*
o u t
Sto
a K p o r r o a O ia ,
ia T iv .
opvidwv oa oi Trj Karw /3Xe<j)apiSi fivova i,

w o T O K a t w v TeTpanoSwv, S ta t rjv aKXrjpo-
1 om. Z 1.
2 TOVTOV flkv o v v ] TOV flV 0$V V E P Z .
a O r, imperfectly developed.
182
fie v
o v k
o vk
S e p fia T i
GapK os
iv a
< j)V a W $ ]1'
rrp oG T T LrrT ovra
outc
avev
T TjS
rra vT a
ea ri
o ti
Twv
Ta
fiX e c fr a p ls
ov
ot
etva i
to
G v f i < j )v e T a t
K at
Kal
Xv
fie v
a w T r j p i a s X ^ P LV
X e T T T o S e p f iO T a T O S
to
CH
k w
A c7t t o v
r e
< / > v X a K r jv
o v v
a fiA a fiio T e p a
,
S v o ,
aA A ot
T rj
o fifia r a
VTTO
r a
T eT p a rroS w v
fie v
t o v
G K a p S a jiV T T e i T e
rra vra
fiX e < f> a p a
a K a p S a fiv T T o v a i
Ta
ov T a
Sta
t o vt o
t w v
K a l
< j> v X a K rjv
o p v iO w v
TpO TTO V
eveK a
o v v %
o p v iO e s
w oT O K a
t w v
t t p o o t t it t t o v t w v
Kal
Sta
yap
ot
K a l
w oTOK a
TOV
K o p r j v e o T i , T r js S e
aA A
fie v
v y p a
t o
ttjv
avO pw T T O S ,
657
Ta
rj
a K o r js ,
rrop ovs
T eT p a rroS w v
t w v
fiv o v a iv
e w d ev
t w v
t o v t o v
35
T a
a vros
T eT p a rrovv.
e lv a i
K a vd w v v fie v i.
o v t o v
a K X r jp o S e p f ia
vtto
Kal
aAAa
a vd p w rroi
o x js e w s ,
yap
c^ct Sc Kat
y o s .
w T a
cooroK a
/3Ac<aptSt
o p v id e s eK
e y e iv
o v k
G K a p S a fx v T T O v a i,
fia p e is
k <x t w
Ao
iK e lv w v
fie v
Kal ra
T r js
e \ o v a i
o ts
ir r *
w o to k w v
T r e T r r jp w f i e v o v
X III.
K a l < j> o X i S w T a ' o
w otokcl
C f.
B k . I I I . ch. viii.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xn.xm.

quadrupeds which have horny scales. One vivi
parous animal, the Seal, has no ears but only auditory
passages ; but this is because, though a quadruped,
it is deformed.
X III.
Man, the Birds, and the Quadrupeds (both Eye*,
viviparous and oviparous) have a protective covering
for their eyes. The viviparous quadrupeds have
two eyelids to each eye (which also enable them
to blink) ; some o f the birds, especially the heavily
built ones, and the oviparous quadrupeds, when
they close their eyes, do so with the lower eyelid ;
birds, however, can blink, with the aid o f a mem
brane that comes out o f the corner o f the eye. The
reason for the existence o f these protective cover
ings is that the eye is fluid in order to ensure
keenness o f vision. I f the eye had been con
structed with a hard skin it would o f course have
been less liable to injury by impact from without,
but its vision would have been duller. For this
cause the skin round the pupil is left thin and fine,
and the safety o f the eye is ensured by the addition
o f the eyelids. The movement o f the eyelids known
as blinking is a natural and instinctive one, not
dependent on the will, and its object is to prevent
things from gettin g into the eyes. A ll animals
that have eyelids do it, but human beings blink
most o f all, because they have the thinnest and
finest skin.
N ow the eyelid is encased with skin ; and that is
why, like the tip o f the foreskin, it will not unite
again once it has been cut, because both o f them
are skin and contain no flesh.
W e said just now that some birds and the ovi
parous quadrupeds close the eye with the lower
183
ARISTOTLE
7b
T 7 )T < 1
TOV
S ep/J L C LT O S
[i v o v a i v .
o i fjliv y a p
etVat
fJL7) T T T T j T l K o l
t o v
S d p fia T o s
10 K a l
Se /cat Ta
O T epa l
TW V
W OTOKW V
T pa
rra vT a
iaTiv
K aT w O ev
X 7 T T O T 7 ]T a
7r e p l
K a l
fjiv o v a i,
T a
S i
8*
t w
K iv r jG iv ,
Ta
K<f>aX r)v
S e p fia r a
8etv
/Ct0eV,
f3 X ecf> a p ov
eêtv
w g t
t o v
G K X r jp o v
j8Ae'âpov
t o
T fX G lV .
v/xe'vt, S ta
S i
e/c Se
t o v .
ir c p i-
T C T p a ir o S a
ttjv
Z/capSa/iVTTot/ot S o i jSapets* o p v i d e s
ov,
TTJV
8id
e x o v a iv .
K a l
eêt
ovk
a a p K w S es,
S ta t o
TOVTO Se O/cA^pO-
tO T lV '
w g t
ovv
S i o 7Tp
a v T o ls ,
Se
a/x<otv.
T o ia v T a
fx iv
t o
TTTCpw Tw v
OVTW
7 T T p W V a V ^ T J G lV e l s
fiX e e /x lp w
< f> o \ lS w T a
K (f> a X r jV
TeT/oa/x/xe'vTjv
k o ltw
T p i^ o s ,
S e p fia T o s
15 to
t w
T T JV
jH a p e i s t o j v
TTJV T W V
7 T a x v T r jT a
/xev
ovroi
Tpl
TOV
t o v t w
/JpaSetav etvat
t o
ttjv
T a ^ e t a v y i v e a O a i , o 8* vfjLrjv
t o v
K avdov
T ra p a
t o v
/xev
t o v t o v
t o io v
p L V K T T jp a s
t o v s
20 G K a p S a f J L V T T O V G lV , O T I jSe'AT I O V 0.7T* d p X ^ S / X l& TTJV

(f > v G iv
etvat a v T w v ,
T a Se
o p io iw s ,
a K p ifir )
T T pa7T oS a
o t i
o v
ttjv
K a l
v y p a v
o x jjiv
rj
T a
y a fx ifjw v v x c i
9 e w p ia
/xcEAtoTa
/Jir)
184
T r js
t w v
7 T T 7 ]T iK O L f
W O TO Ka
a v T o ls
im y e io is
a v a y K a lo v , ir o p p w O c v
K a l
ir p o s
ttjv
/xaAAov.
n X a y io v
25
8* e x o v a i v a p x t y
o v to i
7T p O G (j> V G l V K a l T O 7 T p O G 0 lO V a p X ? ) T O V
T O V f lV K T r jp a
y a p
G K a p S a flV T T G l
o v a iv
8*
t o is
rj X P V GL^ r f s
T p o < f)fjs ,
S io
e ls
K a l
v iffo s ),
d X cK T p v ov cs
y a p
a va n eT O V T ai
T a
o p v io iv
d i/ jc w s .
/xev dfvct>77a (avajflev
op vd w v
otov
OV
avay/catov eêtv /cat
S io
a v to I s
T a vT a
S em'yeta /cat
K a l
ra
rotavTa,
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xm.

eyelid only. This is due to the hardness o f the
skin which surrounds the head. ( a) The heavily
built birds are not great fliers, and so the material
which would have supplied growth for the wings has
been diverted, resulting in thickness o f the skin.
These creatures, then, use only the bottom eyelid to
cover the eye ; whereas pigeons and such use both
eyelids.
(b) W ith regard to, the oviparous quad
rupeds : A s the horny scales with which they are
covered are in every case harder than hair, so their
skin also is harder than ordinary skin. And as the
skin on their heads is hard, they can have no upper
eyelid ; but lower down the skin has some flesh with
it, and so they have a lower eyelid that is thin and
extensible.
N ow the heavily built birds blink not with this
lower eyelid, because its motion is slow, but with
the membrane above mentioned, whose motion is
swift, as is requisite. This blinking or nictitating
begins at the corner o f the eye nearest the nostrils,
because it is better that the membranes should have
one place o f origin rather than two, and in these birds
this is where the eye and nostril are conjoined ; also,
the front is more a place o f origin than the side.
The oviparous quadrupeds do not blink in this
way, becausc, unlike birds, which have to use their
eyes over great distances, they go upon the ground,
and therefore there is no need for them to have
fluid eyes or great accuracy o f sight. The crooktaloned birds are sharp-sighted, for they view their
prey from above, and that also explains why they
fly to a greater height than other birds.
The
birds that remain on the ground, however, and do
not fly much (e.g. barn-door fowls and the like) are
IS 5
ARISTOTLE
637 b
ovwna*
ovk
ovSev
yap
a vra
KaTeneiyei
npos
ro v fttov.
30
Ot S
Ix O v e s
h i a < j> 4 p o v r a
ovSev
avTw v
eêf
ovk
Se
rj
Sta
to v
t w v
oi
5 rots*
ra
npos
to
x p r ja is .
t o is
d io n T O S e K e iv o is
o
o v k
o v k
npos
T T jv
enei
o i f ji v
Se
T r jv
ovv
to
o ^ v r e p o v fiX e n r j
npos
noXXd
w anep
t o v
r r js
n e ^ o is
vow p
a v y r jv .
ttjv
a v a y K a ia
rj
eêt Se
n a x v r r jT a
jSAeVetr*
d < f > 9 a X (i o v s t o i s
e la iv
K iv r ja iv
e x e i fiX e < f> a p o v ( o v S e v y a p
npos
e7Tt S avay-
S e x o fie v a
fie v
fie v
r r js
/?AeVovra
o K X r jp o h e p fio is , w a n e p
Kal
n o io v fie v o is
r r jv 1
T a v t t )s
ia T iv , o to v
a tT a , o n w s
v y p o < f )9 a X f i o i
oXw s
T a x e ia v
o lv tI
a fifiX v T e p o v
t o is
(f> w s
fiX e c f r a p o v
X P V a ts
aAA
f ) < j> v a is t o v s
ert
n p o a n e (f > v k o t o s
ftX e n e iv i v a v r i o v ,
fia T a
yap
a k X t jp o T T jT a
TeTpanoSw v
n o X X r jv
ttoX X o v
fie v
Kal ra
o fifia T a ,
f iX e c f r a p o v
in o ir ja e v
Ix O v e s
ra
a K X r j p 6 <f)8a X f i d
T T jv
a T p ic fr o v T a
e v T O fia
ip y a a ia v -
iv T O /u o is , K a l fia X X o v
e v ia
io
ro v
fiX e tfr d p o v
K iv o v fie v o v s
658 a
ra
eêt
navT a
Sta
K a io v
ra
exoval
e x e i.
S e p f ia T iK r jv
35 (jy v X a K r js
Kal
fie v
ra
a r jp ,
yap
e/c
o ifie w s
o
a r jp
fie v
t o
euogv
npoaK pova
Sta
fie v
t o v t
rj cf> va is n o i e i f i a r r j v ) ,
uSaroj
v y p o < f )9 a X f i o i
e la iv .
X IV .
BAeâptSa? S i n i t w v fiXecjxipwv e x ova iv
oa a Tplxas e x o v a iv , opvi 9 es Se /cat t w v </>oXi8wtwv

o v S e v o v y a p e x o v a i T p ix a s
n ep l y a p t o v a r p o v -
9 o v t o v A ifiv K o v Trjv aiTiav vaTepov ip o v fie v * t o v t o

1 t^v Ogle: Kal vulg.: rrjv ante ipyaoLav vulg., om. SU.
186
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xm.-xiv.

not sharp-sighted, since there is no urgent necessity
for it in their kind o f life.
M any differences in the eye itself are found among
the Fishes, the Insects and the hard-skinned Crus
tacea, though not one o f them has eyelids. In the
hard-skinned Crustacea there cannot be an eyelid at
all, for the action o f an eyelid depends upon swift
working o f the skin. T o compensate for the lack
o f this protection, all these creatures have hard
eyes : it is as though the eyelid were all o f a piece
with the eyeball, and the creature looked through
the lid as well. But since the vision is bound to be
dimmed by this hardness o f the eye, Nature has
given the Insects (and even more noticeably the
Crustacea) movable eyes, just as she has given some
quadrupeds movable e a rs; this is to enable them
to turn towards the light and catch its rays and so
to quicken their vision. Fish have fluid eyes for the
following reason. T h ey move about a good deal and
have to use their sight over long distances. N ow
when land-animals do this, they are looking through
air, which is highly transparent; but fish move about
in water, which is inimical to sharpness o f vision ; so
to counteract its opacity their eyes are fluid in
composition. A t tlie same time, water contains far
few er objects to strike against the eyes than the air
does ; hence fish need no eyelids, and because
Nature never makes anything without a purpose,
they have none.
X IV .
Those animals that have hair on their body Eyelashes
have eyelashes on their eyelids : the others (birds and Hair*
and the creatures with horny scales) have none.
There is one exception to this rule : the Libyan
ostrich, which has eyelashes. The cause o f this
g
187
ARISTOTLE
658 a
15 y a p
exet
r p ix a s
ra
yap
X i
/3 X e < f )a p i8 a s
in
rerp a T roS a
to is
ev
20 7r p a v f j
to is
ttfiic o re p a
rj
to is
< f> va is
fie v c o v
25 t c o v
i n el
< f> vo vT a t f i a v a l
in i
T r js
to vtco v
ra
avvT ai
rats*
so X o < f> ia v
Y f
(y co co v ,
o a a
'
r a
'
o e
K epK O V s
K e K o a fir jK e v
r o v
Kad*
6p i l v ,
e x e i,
e x e i
ff
a roX ov
< f> v a is
fia K p a is ,
v p o s
658 b
r ra v ra x o v
aAAo
T T eT T o iq K e ,
o lo v
in i
y a p
fio p io v .
w a n e p
ra
a p p r )v
ix o v a a s ,
t o is
w a n e p
t o v t o i s
r w v
evSeajs*
apK T W v
r o ts
B e
aAA*
e x e t
ra
fiiK p o v
in n o ts ,
aA A o
e n
a w fia
ra
rrep l
i m
o
-
e x o v a i
r o ts
Be
rcov
r a v r a s
X a fio v a a
a v fip e ^ K e v .
av rt
SeSa-
\ /
A ecov.
t o
1 npavks delet Platt.
188
t t jv
r o ia v r a
K al
fie v
a77oSi'Sajcri
o a o ts
to vto
exei
yevos,
k v v w v
Kal
f
if
85 f i a K p o v f i p a x e i a i s , K a l K a r a r r j v r o v
cf> v a tv
iv S e x o -
S ta
npaves1
a c b fia
tco v
O p itji,
tc o v
Kal
a v O p w n o is *
in n o i
fifjK o s
ra
v n e y p a i/je v
r a t s fia a x a X a ts o v t *
iv
t o
to is
o p d o rrfra
/3 X e< f> a p i8 a
oA ov t o
o to v
tol
7T p o a O i a
p X e c fra p o v i v L o i s n a p a -
to is
K aO anep
x a tr^ v ,
Se
iK
ia T iv .
to
iv
K a f ii/jiv
t t jv
yap
8*
fj
rerp a n oa i
ra
r ifitw r e p o ts
ovre
o vt
w anep
fie v
ovv
S ta
aet
ovO ev
rp lx e s ,
tfp y s,
fia X X o v
o v k
ol
a * T P >LX S ^ 7r~
X ^ P iv
la o v
aAA* v t t o t o v t o
K aT C oO ev,
/ta X X o v
a K e n rfs,
^ e X r io v o s
rerp a n oS w v
v t t t io is
A e a et S ta t t j v
jSo^fletav*
to v
e x o v a iv .
ro ts
fie v
o n ta O io is , t o i s
r r jv
a ir ia
T r js
aAAa
fiiv ,
iv
v tttlo is
yap
to is
fia X X o v
e ^ o v rc o v
rrp a vea t
to is
a K e n r js
8 a v d p w n o is
n p o a d ia
iv
e x o v a iv
8c tra t
w w v
tojv
fio v o v
Kal
avdpw not
t o is
T o vva vT to v
n p a vea tv.
a pxovai
oi
rw v
T p t x a S>
a vdpcoT T O i
<pov.
ro
a f i < j> o r e p a
B e
a c o fia r o s
er e p w d e v
Saau
r r fv
A tav
K ep K ov,
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiv.

will be explained later. M an is the only animal
which has eyelashes on both lids. W h y is this ?
The quadrupeds tend to have more hair on their
backs than on the underside o f the body ; but in
man the reverse is true. The purpose o f hair is to
give protection ; and as the quadrupeds go on all
fours, they need more protection on their backs ; so
they have no hair on their front, although the front
is the nobler o f the two sides. Man goes upright,
and so there is nothing to choose as regards his need
o f protection between front and back.
Therefore
Nature has prescribed the protection for the nobler
side, the front an example o f how, out o f given
conditions, she is always the causc o f that which is
the better. This, then, is why none o f the quad
rupeds has lower eyelashes (though some have a
few scattered hairs grow ing on the lower eyelid),
or hair in the axillae or on the pubes, as man has.
Instead o f this, some o f them have thick hair all
over the back part o f 6 their body (e.g. dogs), some
o f them have a mane (e.g. horses and such), others
a flowing mane, like the male lion. Again, i f an
animal has a tail o f any length, Nature decks that
with hair too ; long hair for tails with a short stem
(e.g. horses), short hair for tails with a long stem.
This, however, is not independent o f the general
condition o f the whole animal, for Nature gives
something to one part o f the body only after she
has taken it from another part. So when she has
made an animal's body extrem ely hairy, we find
that there is not much hair about the tail. A n
example o f this is the Bears.
See 697 b 13 ff.
b Platt deletes the back part of.
189
ARISTOTLE
;b
T V Se i<e<f>aXrjv avdpwrros e a n rw v w wv SaavraTov, ef avayKrjs jxev Sta rrjv vyporrjra r o v
iyK(f)dXov Kal Sta ras pacfras (orrov ya p vypov Kal
5 depfjidv TrAelorov, ivravd* avay/catov irXelorrjv elvai
rrjv eKcfrvcriv), eveKev Se fiorjQelas, o t t c o s aKerrdX^wai
cfrvXarrovaai r a s vrreppoXas r o v r e ifrvôvs Kal rrjs
a Aea s.
7rXeiaros S wv /cat v y p o r a ro s o rcov
avdpconcov iyK(f>aXos rrXelarrjs Kal rrjs <f>vXaKrjs
S e ir a r r o ya p v y p o r a ro v Kal et Kal ijsvxerat
10 fiaX iara, r o S evavrlw s eôv airaOearepov e a n v .
AAAa Trepl fiev rovrcov TrapeKprjvai avfifiefirjKev
exofxevois rrjs rrepl r d s /3Ae<j)ap[8as a lrla s, Sta rrjv
a v yyeveia v a vrw v, w o r e rrepl rcov Xonrwv ev roTs
olKelois Kaipois arroSoreov rrjv jive lav.
XV.
A I S ocf>pves K a l at fiXecfraplSes d/x<drepat
is f3orj0elas X^PLV elaiv, at /xcv ocfrpves tw v /carafiaivovrwv vypwv, orrws drroareywaiv otov arroyelawfxa rw v and rrjs Ke<f>aXrjs vypwv, at Sc /3Xecf>aplSs
rw v 7rpos rd ofifia ra rrpoamrrrovrwv eveKev, otov
rd âpa/ccu/tara rroioval rives rrpo rw v epyjxarw v}
> v
\ / /
i\
n/
^ ^
\
eiai o at jxev ocppves e m avvueaei oa rw v , oio Kai
20 Saauvovrat ttoXXois drroyrjpdoKovoiv o v rw s w a re
SeioQai Kovpas' at Sc fiXecfraplSes in i Trepan
<f>Xeplwv, fj ya p r o Sep/xa rrepalvei, Kal r d <Aej8ta
1 ipyjiaraiv scripsi: epy/xaru>v Bekker : Ipvixarwv editores.
0 This is one of the passages fastened upon by Bacon in
his tirade against the importation of final causes into physics,
Adv. of Learning (publ. 1605), ii. pp. 29, 30 : This I finde
done not onely by Plato, who euer ancreth vppon that shoare,
but by Aristotle, Galen, and others, who do vsually likewise
fall vppon these flatts of discoursing causes ; For to say that
the haires o f the Eye-Uddes are fo r a quic-sette and fence about
190
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. xiv.-xv.

M an has the hairiest head o f all the animals. This
is (a) due to necessity, because the brain is fluid, and
the skull has many sutures ; and a large outgrowth
necessarily oecurs where there is a large amount o f
fluid and hot substance. But also (6) it is on purpose
to give protection ; that is, the hair affords shelter
both from excessive cold and from excessive heat.
The human brain is the biggest and the most fluid
o f all brains ; therefore it needs the greatest amount
o f protection. A very fluid tiling is very liable both
to violent heating and violent cooling, while sub
stances o f an opposite nature are less liable to such
affections.
This, however, is a digression. W e were led into it
because the subject was connected with our investi
gation o f the cause o f eyelashes. A nything further
that there is to be said about it will be said in its
proper place.
XV.
Both eyebrows and eyelashes exist to afford
protection to the eyes : the eyebrows, like the eaves
o f a house, are to protect the eyes from the fluids
that run down from the head ; the eyelashes are like
the palisades which are sometimes put up in front o f
an enclosure ; their purpose is to keep out things that
try to g e t in. H ow ever, the eyebrows are placed
where two bones join (which is why they often g e t so
thick in old age that they have to be c u t); and the eye
lashes are placed at the ends o f small blood-vessels,
which have to stop w'here the skin itself eomes to
the Sight . . . and the like, is well inquired & collected in
M e t a p h is ic k e , but in P h is ic k e they are impertinent.
But
there is no incompatibility, p. 33, For the cause rendred
that the halves about the Eye-liddes are fo r the safeguard o f th
sight, doth not impugne the cause rendred, that Pilositie is
incident to Orifices of Moisture." See also Xen. Mem. i. 4. 6.
191
ARISTOTLE
rrepas ex et r o v fir jK o v s *
a m ovoav
cj>voews
25
Sta
t/c/xaSa
epyov
to o r*
a va y K a lo v
o w f ia r t K r jv o v o a v ,
ifirro h lo rj
TTpos
Sta
a v firj n
aAArjv
r r jv
r r js
X P*io l v > K a i
r r jv r o i a v r r jv a l r i a v i a v a y K rjs ev r o l s ro rro ts
t o v t o i s y lve o d a t r p l x a s .
X V I.
Tots fiev ovv aXXots Repots r o ls rerparrooi
Kat w o to k o is ov rroppw rp on ov rtv a SteorrjKev
aXXrjXwv r o rrjs oo<f>prjoews atodrjrrjpiov, aAA* ocra
so fiev e x ei TrpofirjKets els orev ov arrrjyfievas r a s
o ta y o v a s , ev rco KaXovfievw p v y x e t Kal r o rcov
[xvKrrjpcov ivv7rdpxei fiopiov Kara r o v evSexofievov
rpoirovy r o ls S aAAots fiaXXov Strjpdpwfievov e o n
rrpos r a s o ia y o v a s .
o S eXecfaas tStatraro v exei
t o v t o t o fiopiov rw v aXXcov cocov r o r e ya p
35 fieyeO os Kal rrjv 8vvafiiv e x ei rrepirrrjv.
fivKrrjp
ya p e o n v w rrjv rpo<f>rjv rrpooayerai, Kadarrep XlPL
659 a xpcofievos, TTpos t o o r o fia , rrjv r e rjpav Kal rrjv
vypav, Kal r a SevSpa rrepteXlrrwv avaorra, Kal
Xprjrai Kadarrep av el XLpl- ^rjv ya p cfrvotv eXwSes
afia r o wov e o n Kal rreôv, w a r eirel rrjv rpocj>rjv
cf vyp ov ovvefiaivev exeiv , avarrvelv S* avayKalov
6 7reov ov Kal evatfiov, Kal firj r a x ela v rrotelodai rrjv
fierapoXfjv c/c r o v vyp ov rrpos r o {;rjpov, Kadarrep
evta rw v w o to k w v Kal evalfiw v Kal avarrveovrwv,
r o ya p fieyed os ov virepfidXXov, avayKalov ofiolw s
rjv xpfjQ a 1 T<? vypw worrep Kal rfj yfj. otov ovv
r o ls KoXvfifirjrals evtoi rrpos rrjv avarrvorjv opyava
io TToplôvrai, iva ttoXvv XPV0V ev rfj OaXarrrj fie vovres cXkwoiv ewdev r o v vypov Sta t o v opyavov
r o v aepa, r o to v r o v rj <j>vots r o r o v fivKrrjpos fie yed os errolrjoe r o ls eXecfraotv. htoirep avarrveovotv
Or strength.
192
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xv.-xvi.

an end. Thus, owing to the fact that the moisture
which comes off is corporeal in composition, hair must
be formed at these places even on account o f a neces
sary cause such as this, unless some function o f Nature
impedes by diverting the moisture to another use.
X V I.
The general run o f viviparous quadrupeds
differ very little among themselves as regards the
organ o f smell. The following variations occur, how
ever. Those animals whose jaws project forward and
become gradually narrower, forming what is called
a snout, have the organ o f smell in their snout this
being the only possibility ; in the others, the jaws
and nostrils are more definitely separated.
The
elephant s nose is unique owing to its enormous size
and its extraordinary character. B } means o f his
nose, as i f it were a hand, the elephant conveys
his food, both solid and fluid, to his mouth ; by
means o f it he tears up trees, by winding it round
them. In fact, he uses it for all purposes as i f it
were a hand. This is because the elephant has a
double character: he is a land-animal, but he also
lives in swamps. H e has to g e t his food from the
water ; y e t he has to breathe, because he is a landanimal and has blood ; owing to his enormous size,
however, he cannot transfer himself quickly from the
water on to the land, as do quite a number o f blooded
viviparous animals that breathe ; hence he has to be
equally at home on land and in the water. Some
divers, when they go down into the sea, provide
themselves with a breathing-machine, by means o f
which they can inhale the air from above the surface
while they remain for a long time in the water.
Nature has provided the elephant with something o f
this sort by givin g him a long nose. I f ever the
193
Nostriia.
ARISTOTLE
659 a
V
V
1
V
apavres avco Sta r o v vSaros ro v fivKrrjpa, av 7Tore
Troicbvrai St vyp ov rrjv rropeiav KaOarrep ya p
15 eirrofiev, fivKrrjp e a n v rj TTpofioaKls r o is eXecfraaiv.
errel S aSvvarov rjv elvai rov fivKrrjpa r o io v r o v firj
fiaXaKov ov ra firjSe KafiirreaOai Suvafievov (even oSie ya p av rco firjKei TTpos ro Xafieiv rrjv GvpaOev
rpo<j>rjv, Kadairep <f>aal r a Kepara r o is oTTiaOovofiois
20 fio v a iv /cat ya p eKeivovs vejxeaOal <f>aaiv v m Xcopovvras TraXifiTrvyrjSov) vrrapijavros oSv r o io v
r o v r o v fivKrrjpos, rj cf>vais rrapaKaraxprjrai, KaOairep eicoOev, errl rrXeiova rots' avroTs fiopiois, avrt
rrjs rcov TTpoaOicov ttoScov x p e ia s.
r o v r o v s ya p r a
TToXvSaKrvXa rcov rerpanoScov avrt xeipaiv exova iv,
25 dAA ov fiovov evex VTToardaecos r o v fidpovs' o i S
eXe<j>avres rcov mXvSaKrvXcov elai, Kal o v re StâXov$ exova iv o v re ficovvxas r o v s TroSas** eiTel Se r o
fieyeO os ttoXv Kal r o fidpos r o rov acbfiaros, Sta
r o v r o fiovov ep eia fia ros elai x^ P lv> Ka'L
TVV
fipa&vrfjra Kal rrjv acfrvtav rrjs Kafupecos ov XPV~
aifioi1 n pos aAAo ovOev.
30 Ata fiev ovv rrjv ava7rvorjv e-%ei fiVKrijpa, KaOarrep
Kal rcov aXXcov eKaarov rcov exovrcov TrXevfiova
cpcov, Sta Se rrjv ev rco vypcp Siarpifirjv Kal rrjv
fipaSvrfjra rrjs eKeWev fierafioXrjs Svvdfievov eXirreaO ai Kal f i a K p o v a<f>rjprjfievrjs Se rrjs rcov ttoScov
35 x p y GCs , K a l rj cfrvais, ( o a T r e p eirrofiev, K araxprjrai
Kal rrpos rrjv and rcov noScov yivojievrjv av fiorjdeiav
rovrco rco fiopico.
659 b Ot S opviOes K a l o i o<j>eis K a l oa a aAA evaifia
1 xPV^f101 Rackham : xPVatil0V vul
194
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvi.

elephant has to make his way through deep water,
he will put his trunk up to the surface and breathe
through it. This is possible, because, as I have said
already, the trunk is really a nostril. Now it wrould
have been impossible for the nostril to be put to all
these uses i f it had not been soft and able to bend ;
for then by its very length it would have prevented
the animal from gettin g its food, just as they say the
horns o f the backward-grazing oxen do, forcing
them to walk backwards as they feed.a So the trunk
is soft and pliable ; and in consequence Nature, as
usual, takes advantage o f this to make it discharge
an extra function beside its original one : it has to
serve instead o f forefeet. Now in polydactylous
quadrupeds the forefeet are there to serve as hands,
not m erely in order to support the weight o f the
animal ; but elephants (which must be included under
this class o f animals, because th ey have neither a
solid hoof nor a cloven one) are so large and so heavy
that their forefeet can serve only as supports ; and
indeed they are no good for anything else because
th ey m ove so slowly and are quite unsuited for
bending.
So the elephant s nostril is there, in the first place,
to enable him to breathe (as in all animals that have
a lung) ; and also it is lengthened and able to coil
itself round things because the elephant spends
much o f his tim e in the water and cannot quickly
em erge upon land.
A n d as his forefeet are not
available for the normal function, Nature, as w e
said, presses the trunk into service to supply what
should have been forthcoming from the feet.
The Birds and Serpents and the quadrupeds which
See above, on 648 a 16. This is from Herodotus, iv. 183.
G2
195
ARISTOTLE
659 b
/cat
w oroK a
exovai
e ln e lv
rw v
rw v
rerp a n oB w v,
p v K r r jp w v
f iV K r r jp a s ,
el
8 i r j p 6p w
c fra v e p w s
npo
ro v
S ta
p rj
pevovs
to
a v rl a ta y o vw v
Se
ro vrw v
rovrov
rj
rov
10 a r e v o v
p ev
S ta
w a re
rj
rw v
o p v ld w v
SIt t o w
yap
a i r la
a v v e a r r jK v ia
ea n
Kai
n rep v-
ovv
r r jv
x P V crtlJL0V 77P S
fj
r p o c f r r jv ,
T0^
t o a r r jO o s
Kal
oa rw S es
re
r r jv
exoval
ro
Se r w p v y x L t o v s n o p o v s e 'x o v a t r r j s o a c f r p r ja e w s ,
S e ^ etv a h v v a r o v .
p v K r r jp a s
I l e p t Se T aiv a X X w v
15 e l p r j r a i
K r r jp a s ,
to v
w w v
St
n p orep ov
avAov,
Ta
rw v
n vevp a rt ro v
e a n v
p rj
to v
/cat 7ravT a
a w p a ros w nep
Kal
exovat
fip a y x iw v ,
S ta
evrop a
a va n veovrw v
o v k
vn o^w p a ros
a v p c frv rw
t w
3 (/ c a t )4 K i v e i r a r
ov
Se
e x o v a i
K a O a n ep
p v y x o s
r o v s
p v K r r jp a s
r w v
O vpadev
e ln o p e v ,
o B o v tw v
K a l
r a
Sta
r r jv
e a n v
x c iX w v ,
X 6 ^ 1?
rj
r w v
x ^ X w v
dSdvras.
e v a lp w v
o a r w h e s
25 a v d p w n o v
to vt o
e n e la a K r o v
r p o c frr jv
a v v r jK r a i
w a n e p
K a 'L
a v
r o is
K a l
y a p
et
a v p c fr v a a s
e a n
y a p
r r jv
e ls
c fr v a is
o p v ia i,
aA k t j v
ev
t o
a v r
n s
a cfr eX w v
r o v s
a v w d ev
1 <j)OTOKa Z, Vlllg. : a)OTOKa EPSUY.

2 eêt S : *XLV vulg.
196
ju v -
Se S ta
ra
*T7to
r o is
t w v
oapw v,
S v n a p x ^ i c fr v a e i n a a i
rw v
am av
r jv
aA A a T a p e v S ta
a la O a v o v r a i
20
o p vts
Se S t a r r j v p i K p o r r j r a r r j s K e c fr a X r js .
p vy x o s> a revov
ev
e\ovai
a v a y K r j p i K p o v r o f i a p o s e x eLV T
onw s
Kal
ovk
t o v t o Se a v p f i e f i r j K e v ,
/cat t o r r j s K e c fr a X r js , w a n e p
avx^vos
a A k t jv
rj
nopovs
w a re
e^ct t o K a X o v p e v o v p v y x o s
c fr v a is
rp on ov.
yw rov, w a r
p ev
epyov,
aAA
5 p r jd e v a v e l n e i v e x e t 2 p i v a s .
o n
rovs
a rop a ros,

like them are blooded and oviparous, have their
nostril-passages in front o f the mouth : but they have
nothing which except for its function can be called
nostrils nothing distinctly articulated. A bird, at
any rate, one m ight say has no nose at all. The
reason for this is that its beak really replaces jaws.
And this is because o f the natural structure o f birds.
A bird is a w inged biped ; hence its head and its neck
must be light in weight, and its breast must be
narrow ; and it has a beak, which (a) is made out o f
bony m aterial, so that it will serve as a weapon as
well as for the uptake o f food, and (6) is narrow, owing
to the small size o f the head. I t has the passages for
smell in this beak, but it is impossible for it to have
nostrils there.
W e have spoken already about the animals that do
not breathe, and shown why they have no nostrils :
some o f them smell by means o f the gills, some
through a blow-hole ; while the insects smell through
the middle part o f the body. A ll o f them smell, as
all o f them m ove, by means o f the connate pneuma a
o f their bodies, which is not introduced from without,
but is present in all o f them by nature.
In all blooded animals that have teeth, the lips have Lip*,
their place below the nostrils. (A s stated already,
birds have a bony beak for gettin g food and for de
fence ; and this is as it were teeth and lips run into
one. The nature o f the beak can be illustrated thus.
Supposing, in a human being, that the lips were
rem oved, and all the upper teeth were welded toa Cf, De somno et vig. 455 b 34 ff. For a full account of
Xivn^x/rov Tlvevfia see G.A. (Loeb edn.), pp. 576 ff.
* amep SUZ2 : wonep vulg.
4 <*ai> Peck.
197
ARISTOTLE
659 b
t o v s KaTw 9 ev n p o a y a y o i firjKOS
dSovra? x w p ls /cat
noirja as ap(froTepw 9 ev els o t e v o v etr) y a p a v t o v t o

rjSr] p v y x o s opviBw Ses-
t o l s fiev o v v aXXois Repots
7rpos aw rrjp la v t c o v o h o vrw v rj t c o v x ^ X w v

G tI Kal
7Tpos
<f>vais
<f>vXaKT]V, SlOnep COS KIVWV
flT
so e x o v a i t o v aKpifiajs Kal KaXws rj t o v v o v t l o v , o v t w

Kal t o v Strjp 9p w a 9 ai t o v t o t o f io p io v e x o v a i v ot S
a v 9p w n o i fiaAaKa Kal aapKcoSrj Kal B vva p eva X ^ P ^
eaOai, <f>vXaKrjs
ev eK a t c o v o S o v t w v w a n ep Kal
Ta aAAa, Kal fiaXXov ert Sta t o
eS n p o s y a p t o
X p rjv 9 ai
w a n ep
tw
Xoyw
Kal
ra v ra .
yap
Trjv
35 yXw TTav ovx ofiola v t o i s aXXois in o irja e v rj <f>vais,

npos
ip y a a ia s
Svo
K araxprjaafievrj,
Ka 9 anep
660 a eXnofiev n o ie iv avTrjv en l noXXw v, TTfv p e v yXw TTav
tw v
Te x v P WV eveKev Kal t o v
to v to v
9 eveKev /cat Trjs
X o y o v, r a Se x ^ 7]
t w v o S o v t w v <f>vXaKrjs.
p e v y a p Aoyos o Sta Trjs </>wvrjs e/c t w v ypafifiaTW V

a vyK eiT a i, Trjs Se yXwTTrjs firj ToiavTrjs ovo rjs ftrjSe
5 t w v x eiX w v v y p w v o v k av rjv (f>9 e y y e a 9 ai Ta TrAetara
tw v
y p a fifia T W V
ra
fiev
yap
Trjs
yXcoTrrfs
npoafioXai, r a Se avfifioXal t w v x LXw v.
ra v ra
/cat n o a a s
Kal
Tivas
exei
elal
n o la s Se
Siacfropas,
Set
n v v 9 a vea 9 ai n a p d t w v fieTpiKw v.
9AvayKr] S rjv ev9vs aKoXov9rjaai t o v t w v tw v

io
fiopiwv KaTpov npos tt]v elprffieirqv X P V aLV evepya

Kal TOiavTrjv exovra
ttjv
</>vaiv Sio aapKiva.
f ia -
XaKWTaTT) S rj aapi; rj tw v av9pwnwv vnrjpxev.

t o v t o Se Sta r d ala9rjTiKWTaTov etvat tw v wwv
tt]v Sta Trjs a<f>fjs aia9rjaiv.
198

gether, and similarly all the bottom teeth, and then
each set were extended in a forward direction, and
made to taper : this would result in a beak such as
birds have.) In all animals except man the lips are
intended to preserve and to protect the teeth ; hence
we find that the distinctness o f formation in the lips
is directly proportionate to the nicety and exactitude
o f formation in the teeth. In man the lips are soft
and fleshy and can be separated. Their purpose is
(as in other animals) to protect the te e th ; but
still more im portant they subserve a good pur
pose, inasmuch as they are among the parts that
make speech possible. This double function o f the
human lips, to facilitate speech as well as to protect
the teeth, may be compared with that o f the human
tongue, which is unlike that o f any other animal, and
is used by Nature for two functions (a device o f hers
which w e have often noted), (a) to perceive the
various tastes, and (6) to be the means o f speech.
N ow vocal speech consists o f combinations o f the
various letters or sounds, some o f which are produced
by an impact o f the tongue, others by closing the lips ;
and i f the lips were not supple, or i f the tongue were
other than it is, the greater part o f these could not
possibly be pronounced.
For further particulars
about the various differences between these sounds
you must consult the authorities on M etre.
I t was necessary, however, from the start that each o f
these two parts should be adapted and well-fitted for
their function as stated a b o ve; therefore their nature
had to be suitable thereto, and that is why they are
made o f flesh. Human flesh is the softest kind o f flesh
there is ; and this is because man's sense o f touch is
much more delicate than that o f any other creature.
199
ARISTOTLE
660 a
<
X V II.
15 y X
r o ls
avT a
tov
fj
tco v
K al
to ls
tco
w w v,
ttjv
xpTjat/xos1,
y ap
avO pcon os
K al
o v to ls
o fie v
rj
ovv
yX w T T av
e ^ e t,1 o n w s
fia X a K w r a r r fv
(o
K al
^w w v.
re /xaAtcrra
ip y a o ia s
a la O r jo iv
aX X cov
tw v
oro/xart r j
7reots* oêSov
iv
ecrrt, t o i s f i e v
rots* 8* a X X o i s a v o f i o t c o s
a n o X e X v fic v q v
xyyL cbv
ovpavov
w o is
n X a r e ia v
r a ro s
Se
K al n p os T a n e a
a fJ L < f> o T e p a s
20t c o v
n a o i,
avO pw nos
K al
'Y n o
corra
ofJLOLCOs
n p os
rrpos
n pos
re
ttjv
e v a ia O r jr o -
fia X a K T )
y X corT a
Se y e v a i s a c fr r j
ypa/x/xara/v S i a p O p w c r i v
( a i o r O r j r i K C O T a T T } ) 2, a n T t K c o T a T T j y a p , r )
tls
K al
io T L v ), K a l n p o s t t j v t o j v
n p os
tov
X oyov
O LfJLO s * c r v o T e X X e c v
r/
y ap
fia X a K T )
K al
K al
n X a T eia
n p o fid X X e iv
XPV~
n avroS an rj
25 r o i a v T T ] o v a a K a l a n o X e X v f J L e v r j f i a X i G T av SJvatro.
S r j X o l S oaoLS f i r j Atav a7roAeAi>Tar i p e X X i ^ o v T a i
y ap
K a l T p a v X i^ o v a i, t o v t o
8* eVrtv evSeta t c o v
y p a fifia r w v .
*Ev re t c o TrAaretav etvat K a l t o o T e v q v e a r tv

ev y a p t c o f i e y a X w K a l t o f i i K p o v , i v Se t c o f i i K p w
t o fie y a o v k e o T iv .
Sto /cat r w v o p v i O w v o l /xaAtora
so < f > 0 e y y o f i e v o i ypa/x/xara n X a r v y X w r r o r e p o i t w v aAAaiv etatv. r a S e v a i f i a /cat ajord/ca t w v rerp anoSw v
jSpaêtav r>}s <f>w vrjs e x e i S i a p O p w o i v
G K X r jp a v
re y a p K a l o v k a n o X e X v f i e v T f v e x o v a i
/cat n a x ^ i a v t t j v y X w T T a v .
t w v
8* o p v i O w v evtot
n o X v c f jw v o i, K a l n X a r v r e p a v o i y a jju p w w x o i e x o v a i v .
85
n o X v < f> w v o i
yX w T T T )
Kal
ot
npos
fJ iiK p o T e p o i.
e p fir jv e ia v
Kal
a X X y X o is
xpaivTat
n a vres
660 b erepot Se tojv erepa>v /xaAAov, cSar* 77*
iv iw v
1 /cat fxaA.
post r vulg.; transposui.
2 alodrjrtKCJTaTr) supplevi.
200
rfj
fie v ,
Kal
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvn.

X V II.
Under the vaulted roof o f the mouth is
placed the tongue, and it is practically the same in
all land-animals; but there are variations in the other
groups, whose tongues are as a whole different from
those o f land-animals and also different among them
selves. The human tongue is the freest, the broadest,
and the softest o f all : this is to enable it to fulfil
both its functions. On the one hand, it has to per
ceive all the various tastes, for man has the most
delicate senses o f all the animals, and a soft tongue
is the most sensitive, because it is the most re
sponsive to touch, and taste is a sort o f touch. I t
has, also, to articulate the various sounds and to
produce speech, and for this a tongue which is soft
and broad is admirably suited, because it can roll
back and dart forward in all directions ; and herein
too its freedom and looseness assists it. This is
shown by the case o f those whose tongues are slightly
tied : their speech is indistinct and lisping, which
is due to the fact that they cannot produce all the
sounds.
A tongue which is broad can also become narrow,
on the principle that the great includes the small,
but not vice versa.
Th at is why the clearest
talkers, even among birds, are those which have
the broadest tongues.
On the other hand, the
blooded viviparous quadrupeds have a lim ited vocal
articulation ; it is because their tongues are hard
and thick and not sufficiently loose. Some birds
the smaller sorts have a large variety o f notes.
T he crook-taloned birds have fairly broad tongues.
A ll birds use their tongues as a means o f communica
tion with other birds, and some to a very consider
able extent, so much so that it is probable that in
201
Tongue,
ARISTOTLE
jiadrjaiv elvai So/ceTv 7rap9 ccAAtjAcov eiprjrai Be nepl
avrcov ev r a is lorop ia is t o i s nepl rw v a>cov.
T cov
fie v
Be
r r jv
ne^cov
T r js
Kal
<j>covrjs
(L o t o k c o v
ip y a a la v
Kal
e v a lfic o v
a x p r ja r o v
ra
npos
noXXa
5 r r j v y X c o r r a v e x e i K a l n p o a B e B e f i e v r jv K a l a K X r jp a v ,
npos
Be
oavpoi
ovrco
t t jv
t t jv
Kal
fia K p a v c o o t
Se
B iK p o a v
Kal
X ix v e ia v
B iK p o a v
vEêt
r iK o v
yap
Trjs
aK pov
X en rov
in i noX v,
T r jv
exovra
Sta
r jB o v r jv
r r jv
r r js
Be K a l r a
fir j
e v a ifia
tc o v
Kal ra
a lo O r j-
to co v t o
e v a ifia
n d v ra
Kal
o a a f ir ] B o K e t r o i s n o X X o is e x e iv , o lo v e v io i r c o v
n a p a n X r ja ic o s
S 01
< j> a iv o v r a i
a lr ia v
evX oyov
a r o fia r o s
to is
a K a v d c o B r js
n a oi
r o is
X V fic o v ,
coan ep
y X ia x p o v e x o v a i, K a l
K p o K o B e iX o is .
n o r a fiio is
n X e ia r o i
fiiK p o v x p o v o v e lv a i t t j v
20
ol
o j> e is
r p ix c o B e s
yap
B m X ijv
Kal
fie v
a ia d r ja iv .
Ix & v c o v , K a l o S r o i r p o n o v n v a
rov
o<j>eis
oi
Kal
< f> v a e c o s * B m X r j v
r c o v x v fic b v fio p io v
15 a x e B o v
ov
e x o v a iv ,
iK r e iv e o d a i eK fiiK p o v
to
10 K r d r a i t c o v x v f i c o v , c o a n e p
yevoecos
01
xu/zojv y e v a i v
tco v
fia K p a v
e x e iv
Sta
eanv
a v rco v
re
yap
r o io v r o is ,
a ia O r ja iv r o t s
Kal
n v
ron os
Sta
to
iv v B p o is r c o v
K a l r j X P V GLS Q -v r r js f i p a x e i a ,
ov rco
jSpavetav e x o v a i v a v r r j s K a l r r j v B i a p d p c o a i v . raêta
?/ 5
*
\
\/
'
'
\ Tt
) f
0
r j o i o o o s e i s t t j v K o i A i a v ota r o f i r j o i o v r
e iv a i
B ia r p ifie iv e K x v f ii^ o v r a s * n a p e f i n i n r o i y a p a v r o
vB cop.
coot
ia v
fir j
n s
c f r a i v e o d a i a c fre O T rjK O S t o v t o
ia n v
ov ros
25 o v f i i / j a v a e c o s
j
/
tcov
ro n o s '
to
to
a r o fia
fio p io v .
o v y K e ir a i
in iK X iv r j,
fir j
a K a v d c o B r js
yap
I k
r r js
f i p a y x i c o v , c o v r j c b v a is a K a v d c o B r js
e a r iv .
See
202
H u t. A n .
504 b 1, 536 a 20 ff., 597 b 26, 608 a 17.
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, II. xvn.

some cases information is actually conveyed from one
bird to another. I have spoken o f these in the
Researches upon Animals.a
The tongue is useless for the purpose o f speech in
most o f the oviparous and blooded land-animals be
cause it is fastened down and is hard ; but it is very
useful for the purpose o f taste, e.g. in the serpents and
lizards, which have long, forked tongues. Serpents*
tongues are very long, but can be rolled into a small
compass and then extended to a great distance ; they
are also forked, and the tips o f them are fine and hairy,
owing to their having such inordinate appetites ; by
this means the serpents g e t a double pleasure out
o f what they taste, owing to their possessing as it
were a double organ for this sense.
Even some o f the bloodless animals have an organ
for perceiving tastes ; and o f course all the blooded
animals have one, including those which most people
would say had not, e.g., certain o f the fishes, which
have a paltry sort o f tongue, very like what the river*
crocodiles have. M ost o f these creatures look as i f
they had no tongue, and there is good reason for this.
(1) A ll animals o f this sort have spinous mouths ;
(2) the tim e which water-animals have for perceiv
ing tastes is s h o rt; hence, since the use o f this
sense is short, so is the articulation o f its organ.
The reason why their food passes very quickly into
the stomach is because th ey cannot spend much tim e
sucking out its juices, otherwise the water would g e t
in as well. So unless you pull the mouth well open,
you will not be able to see that the tongue is a sepa
rate projection. The inside o f the mouth is spinous,
because it is form ed by the juxtaposition o f the gills
which are o f a spinous nature.
203
ARISTOTLE
630 b
tov
fio p io v r o v r o v
ttjv
K a r w aKlvrjTOv e x e iv .
rfj K a rw
a va rrrjp la v K al
TTpos
t rjv
to
ex o va iv
aAAo is
yap
tols
tl
ttjv
a ia y o v a
e a n fie v y a p rj y X w r r a
avficfrvrjs, o l
a vo) K a rw *
ttjv
30
Tots* Se KpoKoSelXois avfifiaXXerai
w anep
a v a n a X iv
rj avco
a K lv r jr o s .
TTpos fie v OVV Trj aVW OVK CÔUCTl TTJV y X w T T a v , OTL

e v a v r l w s a v e^ o t n p o s
Se Trj K a r w ,
en
Se /cat
a v f i fie firj K ev a v r w n e w o v n
Sta
filo v , w a r e
K al
a v r o v e x e iv
tovto
T o v S
35
e x o v a i,
K al
ovpavov
K al
tw v
fia X a K o v ,
661 a S o K e l v
to
Is
T a v T T jv *
ex ov ai
oi
fie v
ov
TO VTO T o l s
a a cfr r j
Ix O v a i
at o O
r ja iv
T p o c fr r js * rj y a p
fio p io v
ix v v e s
Se
o i> x
e v io i
a < f> o S p a
K a X o v fiev o i
K v n p lv o i,
a K p ifiw s
ta
r r jv
ex ov ai
[T r js
t t jv
fie v t w
w are
y X w rrav
e ip r jfie v r jv
T p o c fr r js
t t js
aAAa
lx O v w v
aapK coS rj
Stap d p w
X - P IVY
e x e iv
a iT ia v
a iv
K ai
y X w T T o e iS e l
t t js
T& v
fio p iw ,
a/cpaj f i a X i a r a , Sta
t o v t * a c f r c o p i a r at f i o v o v .
e x e i r p o c f r r j s r a <Sa 7ravra w s
o fio lw s
'U m O v fila v
ex ov ra
ot
a ia d r ja is e v e a n
n a v r l2
a S ia p d p w r o v
aapK coS rj noX X ol K a l tw v
a K o n o v a iv
eV ct
eanv,
^rjv ixQ vcov
fio p io v .
n o r a filw v
o
ov
a va y K a lo v
tovto
to
o lo v
fir j
y X w r rr js .
5x v fiw
Trjs rpocfrrjs e ia o S o v , n p o s
ttjv
w a n e p fie ra K e ifie v rj rj avco
otl
r jS o v r js
e m O v fila
o fio io v
tw
tov
ro v ro
r r js
y iv o fiev r js
r jS e o s
n a a iv ,
e a rlv .
w
r r jv
eK
r r js
aAAa
to
a ia O r ja w
10 n oiovvra i rrjs Tpocfrrjs, aAAa ro ls fiev anoXeXvfievov

ro ls Se npoanecfrvKos, oaois firjSev epyov vnapxei
1
[r^s Tpo(f>i}s x-Plli) praecedentium interpretationem seclusi,
cetera co rrexi: Tijs ev rols x vljL0^ ecrlv y aiaOyais (els atcOrjaiv
Z) t o fiev ( fiev t o E YZ) yXuirroeiBes exei (exei om. Z) fiopiov
vulg.
2 iravrl Z : navrrj vulg.
204
x v ii.
A m ong the factors which contribute to the de

form ity o f the crocodiles tongue is the immobility
o f its lower jaw , to which the tongue is naturally
joined. W e must rem em ber, however, that the
crocodiles jaws are topsy-turvy ; the bottom one is
on top and the top one below ; this is clearly so,
because in other animals the top jaw is the immovable
one. The tongue is not fixed to the upper ja w (as
one m ight expect it to be) because it would g e t in
the way o f the food as it entered the mouth, but to
the lower one, which is really the upper one in the
wrong place.
Furthermore, although the crocodile
is a land-animal, his manner o f life is that o f a fish,
and this is another reason why he must have a tongue
that is not distinctly articulated.
M any fish, however, have a fleshy roof to their
mouths.
In some o f the fresh-water fish e.g.
those known as Cyprinoi it is very fleshy and soft,
so that casual observers think it is a tongue. In
fish, however, for the reason already given, the
tongue, though articulated, is not distinctly so ; yet,
inasmuch as the power also o f perceiving tastes
resides in the tongue-like organ, though not in the
whole o f it equally but chiefly in the tip, therefore on
this account in fish the tip only is separate from the
jaw.
N ow all animals are able to perceive the pleasant
taste which is derived from food, and so they have a
desire for food, because desire aims at gettin g that
which is pleasant. The part, however, by which this
perception or sensation o f the food takes place, is
not identical in all o f them, for some have a tongue
which moves freely and loosely, others (which have no
vocal functions) have a tongue that is fastened down.
205
ARISTOTLE
Ia
<f)W l> fjs ,
fj
TOLS
K al
oap K w S es.
K a p a fio is
fie V
S io
K al
fia X a K o v
fia X a K O O T p a K o is ,
t o is
tolovtols,
tols
Se
rots*
O K X rjp O V
K al
iv ro s
v n ap \ ei
15 O T O f ia T O S t o i o v t o v , K a l t o l s f i a X a K t o i s , o l o v
n o X v n o a iv .
K al
iv T O S
X L
S9
tw v
iv r o fiw v
fio p io v ,
t o io v t o v
fir jK w v y e v o s , c o a a v T W s S e
noX X am T a
K al
T p o cf> T jv a v a G T T a V .
fie X lT T W V
in
K evrpov,
tw v
e\ ei
K o y x v X tw v
G T p o fifiw v
o lc jT p o i
iv
tovtw
Se
TW V
o i
ovv
S v v a fiiv
tovto
S ia r p v n w a i
S e X e d J^ o v c r iv
fiv w n e s
c fr v a iv
ic r r iv ,
fiv K T ijp i t w
fio r jO e ia v
K evrpov
80 n d v T w v
t o v t o is
tw v
o i
tols
w an ep
ia r lv
a o fic fr o v
in i
K al
Sc
o ia v n e p
Se
T r jv
to
to
w o is
ra
fio p io v
S e p fia r a
rj
K al
o to v
tw v
t o v t o is
aX X w v
fj
ot
dvO pw nw v
S ia ip o v a iv .
y X w rra
d v n a r p o c fr w s
tw v
w are
e n
tw v
8s
n o p < f> v p a is
oarp aK ov ,
a u ra s*,
fie v
Tl
T O IO V T W V ,
iX e < f> a v rw v m K a l y a p
fiV K r r jp t
ia r iv .
fie v
K al yeveoO ai K al
r a is y a p
K a l r a t w v a A A cov l , w w v
fie v
ttjv
o ls
K al
e v ia
TO TCOV f i v p -
S f j X o v S e t o v t o i n i T e flV L W V
T T aV T W V
iv iw v tw v o G T p a K o S e p fiw v
r o a a v r r jv
25 o i
K al
tov
a r jn ia is
K a l tw v o o T p a K o S e p fiw v
k t o s , o t o v
c f> v a iv K a l KoiXoVy w a d * a f i a
20 ttjv
w w v
o to v
o to v
tl
r o ia v r r j
e\ ov aa
tw
iK e iv o is
n pos
y X w rra
av rl
^ w w v fj y X w r r a
e l'n o fie v .
Under this name Aristotle probably includes several

species of Purpura and Murex. Tyrian purple (6, 6' dibrom-
206
x v ii.
Some again have a hard tongue ; others a soft or

fleshy one. So we find that even the Crustacea e.g.
the Crayfish and such have a tongue-like object
inside the mouth, and so have the Cephalopods e.g.
the Sepias and the Octopuses. O f the Insects, some
have this organ inside the mouth {e.g. the Ants),
and so have many o f the Tcstacea. Others have it
outside, as though it wrere a sting, in which case it is
spongy and hollow, and so they can use it both for
tasting and for drawing up their food. Clear ex
amples o f this are flies and bees and all such creatures,
and also some o f the Testacea. In the Purpurae/1for
instance, this tongue has such strength that they
can actually bore through the shells o f shellfish with
it, including those o f the spiral snails which are used
as baits for them. Also, there are among the gad
flies and cattle-flies creatures that can pierce through
the skin o f the human body, and some can actually
puncture animal hides as well. Tongues o f this sort,
wre m ay say, are on a par with the elephants nose ;
in their tongue these crcatures have a useful sting
just as the elephant has a handy implement in his
trunk.
In all other animals the tongue conforms to the
description we have given.
indigo) is obtained from Murex brandaris. For the boring
powers of these creatures tongues see the reference for
Purpura lapillus given by Ogle (Forbes and Hanley, Brit.
Mollusca, iii. 385).
207
r
6S1 a
Se
*E x o fie v o v
35 i(T T L
e x o fie v o v
66ib
vtto
e lp r jfie v c o v
tcov
rots*
c fr v a is
/cat
c o o is ,
tovtcov
Kal
T ots f i e v o v v a X Aots rj
fie v
im
tt jv
r jp r jf ie v r js ,
fj
to ls
e ir i
Te
a v v e a T T jK o s
tco v
tt jv
Sovtcov
to
T T e p i-
to vtcov
c frv a is k o l v t j
v T r a p x e i, xaipt?
f ie v aA K r js x^P^y Kai T a v r r j s Stto
T r o ie iv
7r o i e i v , o lo v o a a
ia T L V , r a
cfrva iv
eK
oS ovtco v
Kal
f ir j
to
r a f ie v y a p a fic fro iv e v e K e v e x e i , K a l
5 K al tov
rw v
a r o fia
r js Tp ocfrrjs e p y a a i a v
Se Kara y e v r j
to
a a p K o cfra y a
Se f l o r j d e i a s
n d crx e LV
f ir j 7 T a 0 e lv
tov
tco v
a y p ic o v
x ^ P LV> a>cJ7rep
7TOAAa t c o v a y p ic o v K a l t c o v r jf ie p c o v .
'0
exet
S a v 9p c o 7r o s T T p o s T e t t j v k o l v t j v x p f j a i v K a X c b s
7r e c f r v K O T a s 9 t o v s
S ia ip c o a i,
io o p i ^ o v a i
fie v
T T p o a d io v s
o e is ,
Iv a
r o v ? Se y o f i c f r i o v s ttAarets*, tv a A e a i v c o a t v
S
eK aTepovs
oi
k vvo S o vtcs,
fie a o i
t t jv
c fr v a iv d f i (j )O T p c o v o v r e s ' t o
T e y a p f i e a o v d f ic f r o T e p c o v
fl T X e i
><*
o g e is
tcov
TO JV
~
tjj
aXXcov
fia X iO T a
to vs
208
CLKpCOV,
O \
be
T T p os
c o c o v ,
Se
/cat
ttjv
OL
T r A a r e is
oaa
K VVoSoVTeS
t
>
e io iv
fir j
t o v t o v s
S ia X e K T O v
T ra vT a s
e x o v a iv
yap
fie V
/cat
oe
to lo vto vs
t t o X X ol
T jj
0 fi0 L C 0 S
Kal
o fe ts
t o o o v
T T p os
em
TTJV
BOOK III
T he subject which follows naturally after our previous Teeth,
remarks is that o f the Teeth. W e shall also speak
about the M outh, for this is bounded by the teeth
and is really form ed by them.
In the lower animals teeth have one common
function, namely, mastication ; but they have addi
tional functions in different groups o f animals. In
some th ey are present to serve as weapons, offensive
and defensive, for there are animals which have
them both for offence and defence (e.g. the wild
carnivora) ; others (including many animals both
wild and dom esticated) have them for purposes o f
assistance.
Human teeth too are admirably adapted for the
common purpose that all teeth subserve : the front
ones are sharp, to bite up the fo o d ; the molars
are broad and flat, to grind it small ; and on the
border between the two are the dog-teeth whose
nature is interm ediate between the two : and just as
a mean shares the nature o f both its extremes, so
the dog-teeth are broad in one part and sharp in
another. Thus the provision is similar to that o f
the other animals, except those whose teeth are
all sharp ; but in man even these sharp teeth, in
respect o f character and number, are adapted
chiefly for the purposes o f speech, since the
209
ARISTOTLE
15 y e 'v e a t v
tw v ypafif.ia.TWv
o i
npoadioi tw v
o S o vtw v
av/ifiaXXovTai.
*Evta Se
wwv, w anep elnofiev, Tpo<f>fjs XGPlv
tw v
eêt fiovov.
oaa Se Kal n pos f5or)6eiav Te Kal n pos
aXKrjv, Ta fiev x avXi6Sovras ^xei, KaOanep $s, r a

S oeTs Kal inaXXaTTovTas, odev /capâpdSovTa
20 KaXeirai.
tovto
n pos
en el yap ev
Se yivoiT
tt) v
tols
oSouatv rj la xv s avTwv,
av Sta Trjv o^vrrjra, o i
olXktjv
dfifiXvvwvrai Tpifiofievoi n pos aXXrjXovs.

tw v
ovSev Se
wwv earIv afia KapxapoSovv Kal x avXioSovv,
Sta to fir)Sev fiaTrjv n oieiv
25 e p y o v
tw v
xPVCLlXOi
evaAAaf efininT ovaiv, o n w s fir)
eart Se
twv
Se Sta Sr)yfia ros.
tt)V
(frvaiv fir)Se n ep l-
fiev Sta nXr)yfjs r) j3or)0eta,

Sionep a l dr)Aetat twv t o
h aK vovaiv ov ya p exov a i x^vXioSovTas.

(KaOoXov Se xpewv Tl AajSetv, o Kal en l t o v tw v
Kal enl noXXwv tw v varepov XexOrjaofievwv ecrrat
Xprjcrifiov.
tw v r e yap n pos aAkt)v Te Kal fiorjOeiav
30 opyaviKwv fiopiw v e/caara anoSlSwaiv r) </>vais t o i s

Svvafievois xPVGâL Pôvois rj /xaAAov, /xaAtara Se
t w fiaX iara, o f o v Kevrpov, nXrjKTpov, KepaTa,
XOvXiohovras Kal et rt to io v to v eTepov.
7ret Se to
appev laxvporepov Kal OvfiiKwrepov, Ta fiev fiova

r a Se /xaAAov eêt Ta rotauTa twv fiopiw v.
oaa
85 /xev yap avay/catov /cat rots 0T)Xeaiv ex eiv , otov Ta

77^0? tt)v Tpo(f>r)v, exouat fiev rjrTov S exouatv, oaa
Se 77^6? fii)Sev tw v avay/catwv, ou/c exot/atv.
c See note on 644 a IT.
210
/cat
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. i.

front teeth contribute a great deal to the formation
o f the sounds.
As we have said, the teeth o f some o f the animals
have one function only, to break up the food. O f
those animals whose teeth serve also as a defence
and as weapons, some (like the Swine) have tusks,
some have sharp interlocking teeth, and are called
saw-toothed u as a result. The strength o f these
latter animals lies in their teeth, and sharpness is
the means o f securing this ; so the teeth which are
serviceable as weapons are arranged to fit in side by
side w'hen the jawrs are closed to prevent them from
rubbing against each other and becoming blunt. No
animal has saw-teeth as well as tusks ; for Nature
never does anything without purpose or makes any
thing superfluously. These teeth are used in selfdefence by biting ; tusks by striking. This explains
why sows b it e : they have no tusks.
(A t this point we should make a generalization,
which will help us both in our study o f the foregoing
cases and o f many that are to follow. Nature allots
defensive and offensive organs only to those creatures
which can make use o f them, or allots them in a
greater degree/ a and in the greatest degree to
the animal which can use them to the greatest ex
tent. This applies to stings, spurs, horns, tusks, and
the rest. E xa m p le: Males are stronger than females
and more spirited ; hence sometimes the male o f a
species has one o f these parts and the fem ale has
none, sometimes the male has it in a greater degree.
Parts which are necessary for the fem ale as w ell as
for the male, as for instance those needed for feed
ing, are o f course present though in a less degree ;
but those which serve no necessary end are not
211
The more
ARISTOTLE
662 a S ta
TOVTO
K tp a ra ,
Kal
Ta
Sc
Se
tw v
Kal
a p p iv w v
x v < J tv .
i X d (j )W V
0ryAetat
K epaTa
o jio iw s
5 tw v
TW V
ai
iv
to ls
fl V
appV$
Kal tw v
T r p o fia T O L S *
ai
T ro X X a l
e êt
avTW S
)(O V O t ,
8 ia<f>pei
k 'x o v o i v .
d r jX e iw v f i o w v
ix o v T w v
cos
oi
ovk
Kal
tw v
n X ijK T p a
d r jX e iw v
to v to
Se
T a vp w v
Kal
ovk
im
tw v
K a pxa poS ovres >
ttX t jv
a X X w V T W V T O L O V T W V .)
Ot
to v
S
iv o s
Kal iv
ix d v e s
ro v
T a is
e lo l
a tt l o v
C K a p ov
68o i n - a s
y X w T T a is
to v to v
T ra vT es
K a X o v fx iv o v
o tl
S ex o v c r i
noXXol
Kal iv
a v a y K a lo v
to ls
iv
ovpavoTs.
v y p o is
ovoi
10 7 T a p L o 8 i x a 9 a L t o v y p o v a f i a T r j Tp o<f>fj, K a l t o v t o
T a x iw s
iK
7r 4f i 7T iv .
ov
eV Seêrat
yap
X e a iv o v r a s
S t a rp tjS e tv e l a p i o i y a p a v t o v y p o v e l s r a s /cotAtas.
S ta
to v to
X e a lv e iv e ls
is Se
S ta
ro
"E ^ et
t t jv
a X t c r jv
/cat
< f> v o is
ttjv
Staipecrtv
r r jv
tv a
a v rt
7t X t j 6 l .
anaaav
t w v
avT T j
X p ijr a i,
o to v
K a l
T ravrw v
kolvov
ir ip w v ,
t l
rj
eve/ca
t,w w v
K a d
Se t o
i m
a T o jia r o s
t o v
20 K O L V O L S T T a V T W V f l O p l o L S
to v
y a fiip o l
S ta
a v T o ls
t o v
S a X K rj
a va n veL V
ttjs
w a n e p
7T oX X d
o v
* l8 io v
T ravrw v
d v p a d ev .
c l t rojuev,
TW V
O T O fia T O s
tlvw v
I8 lw v
fie v
rj
K a l
KOLVOV.
iraAiv kq.1vulg.
a Probably the parrot-fish.
w a
a v a n v o ijs ,
K a T a ip v x TaL
K a l
LS
<uatv T a
eTt
K a l
a v r r jv ,
1 sic P : Btaipeotv.
212
rrpos
ir o X A a x fi,
ax^Sov
e p y w v
t w v
a va T T vel
y a p
Kal
TroAAa K e p f i a r l ^ w a c t w
Se
tc
t o v t w v
fj
d fe ts
e la iv
tto X X o I
etvat.
to vtw v
o a a
7ra vT S
K a l1
fio v o v ,
Cf. 675 a 3*
tols
K a T a T po< /yrj
X o y o s
rj
Se
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, III. i.

present. Thus, stags have horns, does have not.
Thus, too, cows* horns are different from bulls horns,
and ewes* from rams. In many species the males
have spurs while the females have not. And so with
the other such parts.)
A ll fishes are saw-toothed except one species,
the Scarus.0 M any o f them have teeth on their
tongues and in the ro o f o f the mouth.
This is
because as they live in the water they cannot help
letting some o f it in as they take in their food, and
they have to g e t it out again as quickly as possible.
I f they failed to do so, and spent time grinding the
food small, the water would run down into their gut.
So all their teeth are sharp and intended only for cut
ting up the food. Further, they are numerous and
placed all over the mouth ; so by reason o f their
multitude they can reduce the food into tiny pieces,
and this takes the place o f the grinding process.
Th ey are also curved ; this is because practically the
whole o f a fishs offensive force is concentrated in
its teeth.
The mouth, too, is present in animals on purpose
to fulfil these same offices, but it has also a further
purpose, at any rate in those animals which breathe
and are cooled from without namely, to effect re
spiration. As we said earlier, Nature will often quite
spontaneously take some part that is common to all
animals and press it into service for some specialized
purpose. Thus, the mouth is common to all animals,
and its normal and universal function has to do with
food : but sometimes it has an extra function, peculiar
to some species only : in some it is a weapon, in others
a means o f speech ; or more generally, though not
universally, it serves for respiration. Nature has
213
Mouth,
ARISTOTLE
652aj<piv' a t s
a n a vra
a v v r jy a y e v
e ts
ev, n o to v a a
s
JL '
o ia < f> o p a v
a v ro v r o v fiopiov n pos r a s rijs ep yaaias Sta<f>opas.

25 Sio
rd
fie v
ean
a v a r o f iw r e p a , r d
Se fie y a X o a r o fia
o a a f i e v y a p rp o < f> rjs K a l a v a n v o r j s K a l X o y o v x LP l v >

a v a r o f iw r e p a
ra > v
K a p x ^ p o S o v ra
a v ro ts
r r js
Se
fio r fd e ta s
n d v ra
a X K r js
ev
to is
S r jy f ia o L
fie y a X r jv e tv a i r r jv a v d n r v iv r o d
so y a p
Kal
nX eov
K a ra
fie t^ o v
a v ep p w y rf
ro
S r f tje r a i,
a r o fia .
T^
x GP l v
a v e p p w y o ra *
o v a r js
yap
X P 7] (TL11 0 V
a r o f ia r o s n X e to a i
oaovnep
exovai
av
Sc
enl
Kal
to
rw v
I X 0 V W V o i S r j K r i K o l K a l a a p K O (f > a y o i r o t o v r o v a r o f i a ,
oi
Sc fir) aapKocfrayoi fivovpov rotovrov yap avrots
Xptfaifiov, eKetvo Se axpqarov.

T o ts S opvtaiv e a n r o KaXovfievov p v y x o s a r o fia *
85 t o v t o ya p avrl xîXwv Kal oSovrw v e x o v a iv .
662 b (frepei Se
to vto
Sia-
Kara r a s XPVaLS KGLL T s ftorjBeias*
r a fiev ya p yafiifjwvvxa KaXovfieva Sta r o aapKo(jjayetv Kal firjSevl rpecfreoOai Kapnw yafiijjov exei
to
p v y x o s d n a v r a xP^l(TlPLOV yd p n pos
to
fitaartK w repov r o to v r o
rj S aAktj ev
to v tw
re
Kal r o ts
necfrvKos.
Kparetv Kal
ovvtm Sto Kal r o v s
yafiiporepovs exova iv.

ro v fitov x p y o w o v e a n
ovvxa s
rw v S aAAtuv eK aarw n pos

to
p v y x o s , otov ro ts fiev
SpvoKonots iaxvpov Kal aKXrjpov, Kal Kopa^t Kal

KopaKwSeat, r o ts Se fiiKpots yXa<j>vpov n pos Tas*
avXXoyas rw v Kapnwv Kal r d s
io Sapiwv.
214
Xrujsets rw v a>-
oa a Se norjcfraya Kal oa a n a p eXrj fj,
PARTS OF A N IM ALS, III. i.

brought all these functions together under one part,
whose formation she varies in the different species to
suit its various duties. That is why the animals
which use their mouths for feeding, respiration and
speaking have rather narrow mouths, while those
that use them for self-defence have wide and gaping
mouths. A ll the saw-toothed creatures have these
wide mouths, for their method o f attack is biting, and
therefore they find it an advantage to have a mouth
that will open wide ; and the wider it opens the
greater the space the bite will enclose, and the
greater the number o f teeth brought into action.
Biting and carnivorous fishes have mouths o f this
s o r t ; in the non-carnivorous ones it is on a tapering
snout, and this suits their habits, whereas a gaping
mouth would be useless.
In birds, the mouth appears in the form o f a beak, Beak,
which serves them instead o f lips and teeth. Various
sorts o f beak are found, to suit the various uses in
cluding defensive purposes to which it is put. A ll
o f the birds known as crook-taloned have a curved
beak, because they feed on flesh and take no vegetable
food : a beak o f this form is useful to them in master
ing their prey, as being more adapted for the exertion
o f force. Their beak, then, is one w'eapon o f offence,
and their claws are another ; that is why their claws
are exceptionally curved. E very bird has a beak
which is serviceable for its particular mode o f life.
The woodpeckers, for instance, have a strong, hard
beak ; so have crows, and other birds closely related
to them ; small birds, on the other hand, have
a finely constructed beak, for picking up seeds and
catching minute animals. Birds that feed on herb
age and that live by marshes (e.g. swimmers and
215
ARISTOTLE
5b
K a d a rrep
ra
rrX w ra
a vrcov
ia n v
o p v o o e iv ,
Kal
15 p i ^ o c j x x y a
aKpa
rcov
ro v
t o v t o is
pvyxovs
Trotet
fie v
ovv
o x & ov
f ie r a t jv
to
20 a r r o
r r js
yap
coO ev
r r js
eVt S
rw v
ro
S vva ra i
r r js
vos*
exovai
Kal
o jio io fiic o v
e v ia
7 r o r j< fr a y o is
ra
ra
yap
p a h ic o s .
aXXwv
e ip r jr a i,
fio p iw v
rw v
a v r r js
rw v
c fr w v r jv
ttjv
avxevos
o v o fia a d e v ,
etvat
rw v
a vd p w T rw v
K e c fra X rjs K a l r o v
Kal
p a 8 iw s
K e x a p a y fie v a
opdov
on w rre
o vn
aAAo v
fie v
rrX a rvp vy x a
rerp a T roS w v
Kal
rw v
upaêw s
fio v o v
to
yap
rcov
opvew v
ovai
T le p l
KecfraXfj
Kal
p iJ ^ o c fr a y o s .
a vrrj
Se
to p v y x o s , r a
* ro io v r c o
w orrep
yap
K al a reya vorroh a , r a
eêt
T p o i r o v x p 'f f o i f i o v
e o iK e v *
fio v o v
to
e ls
T rp oa w n ov,
cos
,w w v
rfj
iv
K a X e lr a i
Sta
7Tpoo-
Sta-
rrp oa w
T T e fn r e i.
II. llept Se
n ecfrvK e
25 f i r j
ro ls
K ep a rw v
e x o v a iv
w o r o K o v .
X eyera i
a vrw v
yap
Kal
to
Kal
aXXwv
erep w v
epya.
oaa
v ir a p x o v o iv
r o ls
fie v
erep a i
ovvxas
to
ovv
ov
T0^
io n ,
a rrep
Se
rw v
o n
rw v
au/x-
K e p a a iv
a in o v
r o ls
ovhevl
fio r jd e ia s
ov8evl
7 roX va x^rj
ovS ev
fie r a c fr o p a v
w o r o K a ,
K p a r e lv ,
ro vro v
ra vra
aAA
K epas
XPVT0LL
fie v
Sev eêt K e p a s .
K e p a s )8o r j d e i a s a i n
ov
T<*
e x e iv
rrp os
Kal
v r r a p x e i.
ix ov l
yap
ovre
Se
yap
exei
K epa ra m
K epa ros
X e y o fie v w v
ov8ev
K e c fra X fj.
n vw v
rov
/cat
X eK reov
rfj
o fio io r r jr a
aA/oJs* XGPlv
so a f i v v o f i e v o v
ia n v
Kad
epyov
rw v
f ie f ir jK e v
iv
o vt
ia x v o s
w w v,
to
fie v
r r o X v a x tB e a iv
SeSw K e y a p rj c fr v a is
S dSovTas* f i a x ^ T i K o v s , r o l s
f io r jd e ia i'
ro ls
a Under this heading all the Mammalia known to Aristotle
216
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. i.-n.

web-footed birds) have a beak adapted for their
mode o f life, a special instance o f which is the broad
beak, which enables them to dig for roots easily, just
as the broad snout o f the p ig enables it to dig an
exam ple o f a root-eating quadruped. These rooteating birds and other birds o f similar habits some
times have sharp points at the end o f the beak. This
enables them to deal easily with the herbaceous food
which they take.
W e have now, I think, spoken o f practically all
the parts that have their place in the h ea d ; but
in man, the portion o f the body between the head
and the neck is called the Prosdpon (Face), a name
derived, no doubt, from the function it performs.
Man, the only animal that stands upright, is the
only one that looks straight before him ( prosothen
opope) or sends forth his voice straight before him
( proso, op a),
I I . W e still have to speak o f Horns : these also,
when present, grow out o f the head.
Horns are
found only in the V ivip a ra ; though some other
creatures have what are called horns, owing to their
resemblance to real horns. None o f these so-called
horns, however, performs the function proper to horns.
The reason why the Vivipara have horns is for the
sake o f self-defence and attack, and this is not true
o f any o f these other creatures, since none o f them
uses its horns for such feats o f strength either
defensively or offensively. The polydactylous ani
mals, moreover, have no horns, because they possess
other means o f defence. Nature has given them claws
or teeth to fight with, or some other part capable o f
are included, except ruminants, solid-hoofed animals, and
Cetacea.
217
H o rn s ,
ARISTOTLE
662 b
35 8
aAAo
663 a T a
fie v
fio p io v
tl
noXXa
fic o v v x o jv
e v ia ,
ra
S e S o j K e v f j cfrvcris
r a x v r ijr a
K ev,
ff
exei
8c K a l n p o s f i o r j O e i a v , o a o i s 1 f i r j
fie y e d o s ,
K aO anep
Se
e n
fia X X o v
oS ovra , w a n ep
Ôaot?
*X V >
ttjv
to v to ls
lo c f r v a i s , o l o v
yeO os
Kal
avT w v
w c fr eX e i), K a l
fie v y a p
to
r a is
t w v
K al
to
(K al
y ap
a v f if t e p r jK e r a i s
K a f ir j
v w v
Se x a v ^ L~
StâAov ( o v ) . 2
Ta
yevos,
rj
e X a c fr o is
T axos
fto r jO e ia v
(to
TroAuaxtSes* f i a X X o v
Se K a l So p K a a t
K e p a a iv
tov
y a fiifr a
T a
d f i v v e r a i c fr o fir jO e v r a K a l
rav rrj
y ap
rj
fie -
f i X a n r e i fj
(n p os
e v ia
a fiv v o v r a i, T a
K ep ara
n e p ir r w fia r o s
K eparw v
tw v
erep av
fio v fia X o is
to v to ls
yap
t,w w v
O r jp iw S r j K a l f i a x i f i a a n o c f r e v y o v a i ) , t o l s
15 a X X r j X a ) t t j v
Kal
aXXwv
t w v
n e c fr v K e v
a v O ia r d fie v a to ls
o lo v
fie f io r jO r j-
K a fir jX o is '
and
n p o a r e O e iK e v
fie v
a w r r jp ia v ,
in n o is
e X e c fr a o iv .
t o is
ax pyoT os
npos
to is
rats*
w anep
v n e p fio X r j
c frO o p a v i K a v r j K w X v e i v , o n e p
X o is ,
npos
aAAr )v aAK r jv
a w fia ro s ,
6 fie y e O o v s
t o j v Se StxaAaiv
aA K t j v , K a l t w v
a fiv v e iv .
iK a v o v
K ep a ra
Se
Se
fio v d o o is
n e c fr v K e
n pos
a c fr e a iv * r o v r w
y ap
Se
Sta-
r fj
n p oeaei
d f i a S tK a v a s K a l n X e l o v s f i o r j O e i a s
Se'Sto K e v f j c f r v a i s t o i s a v r o l s .
vEaTt 8e Ta n X e i a r a r w v K e p a r o c f r o p w v StâAa,
Ae'yeTat Se K a l f i w v v x o v , o v K a X o v a i v 9I v S l k o v o v o v .
20 T a j u e v o v v n X e i a r a , K a O a n e p K a l r o a w j i a
h i r j p r j r a i r w v w w v o l s n o i e i r a i r r j v K i v r j a i v , Se i j i o v
K a l a p i a r e p o v , K a l K e p a r a Suo n e c f r v K e v eêti/ Sta
aw ^ erai erep a.
ov
1 8c post oaots vulg.: del. Platt, Thurot.

2 <6v> Ogle.
Cf. above, on 6iS a 16.
b The European bison.
e This is probably the Indian Rhinoceros.
218
This aocount
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. n.

rendering adequate defence. M ost o f the clovenhoofed animals, and some o f the solid-hoofed, have
horns, as weapons o f offen ce; some have horns for
self-defence, as those animals which have not been
given means o f safety and self-defence o f a different
order the speed, for instance, which Nature has
given to horses, or the enormous size which camels
have (and elephants even m ore), which is sufficient
to prevent them from being destroyed by other
animals.
Some, however, have tusks, for instance
swine, although they are cloven-hoofed.
In some animals the horns are a useless appendage,0
and to these Nature has given an additional means
o f defence. D eer have been given speed (because
the size o f their horns and the numerous branches
are more o f a nuisance to them than a help). So
have the antelopes and the gazelles, which, although
they withstand some attackers and defend them
selves with their horns, run away from really fierce
fighters. The Ronasus,6 whose horns curve inwards
to m eet each other, protects itself when frightened
by the discharge o f its excrement. There are other
animals that protect themselves in the same way.
Nature, however, has not given more than one
adequate means o f protection to any one animal.
M ost o f the horned animals are cloven-hoofed,
though there is said to be one that is solid-hoofed,
the Indian Ass,c as it is called.
The great m ajority o f horned animals have two
horns, just as, in respect o f the parts by which
its movem ent is effected, the body is divided
into tw o the right and the left.
And the
of it comes from the Indica of Ktesias of Knidos, quoted in
Photiuss Bibliotheca, lxxii. pp. 48 b 19 (Bekker) foil.
H
219
ARISTOTLE
663
}/
r r jv
opv
o *IvSt/co? KaXovfievos ovos .
K a l
25 f i o v o K e p a r a
ou ro )
yap
K ep a s
e v
e lv a L
Kal
so K a l
rcov
r o
K ep a s
e K a re p o v
r o
y a p
e a x a rco v .
XV^V
r o is
T V V a v r r jv
a v r o ls
r r js
ev
rj
e n
c frv a e c o s
r a is
r j c fr v a is a v c o d e v
S* av
ecrrtv,
o r r X a is
T<*
K e c fr a X r js *
av
eôt
a fic fr o r e p c o v
S ofete f i o v o K e p c o v
fiaXXov o 7rXrj
c fr v a iv ,
y iv e r a L
a^tot?
acfreiXe Kal
r r js
k olvov
K epan
a x io is
rj
*X L ^
fiepcov fiaX iar
S tx a A o u
exei
fie a c p
o fio ic o s
evX oycos
K e par cov.
e X X e n fr iv
ra t
rco v
fie a o v
r o ficovvxov ro v
(j l c o v v x o l s
35
ev
eo rt S o
fiev opv StâAov, o S ovo? /zcovyxov.
rco v
a i r L a v 1 o tl Se Kal f i o v o K e p a r a , o l o v
a v r r jv
Kal
co a r
B ovaa
rco v
y a p
a t o d * a/xa
o ttX cov
r o Sc'xaXov
evX oycos
r r jv
Kal
K a r*
to ls
vnepox^v
fio v o K e p c o v ir r o ir ja e v .
Opduts Se Kal r o em rijs KecfraXrjs 7Toirjaai rrjv

rcov Keparcov cfrvaiv, aAAa firj Kadairep o A iacon ov
Meojios SiafiefKfrerai r o v ravpov o n ov k em rois
663 b
cofiois ex ei r a Kepara, odev r a s rrXrjyas e V o te tT *

a v la x v p o r a ra s , aAA e m r o v a a 0 ev ea ra rov fiepovs
rrjs KecfraXrjs.
ov y a p o f if fiXencov o Matf.tos r a v r
in erifirja ev . w anep ya p /cat el erepcoOi ttov r o v
acofiaros Kepara inecfrvKei, fiapos av napeix^v aXXcos ovSev ov ra xp^latli a KGV /X7rdSta tcov epycov
noXXois rjv, ovrco Kal in i rcov co/icov necfrvKora. ov
ya p i-iovov xprj oKOireiv n60ev laxvp orep a i a i nArjy a i, aAAa /cat noOev n oppw repai' w a r in e l x^lpas
fiev ovk exova iv, i n i Se rcov ttoSwv aSvvarov, iv Se
1 avTTji' alriav P e c k : alrLav ravr-qv vulg.
a See Babrius, Myth. Aesop. lix. 8-10.

220
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. n.

reason in both cases is the same. There are, how
ever, some animals that have one horn only, e.g.
the O ryx (whose hoof is cloven) and the Indian
Ass (whose hoof is solid). These creatures have
their horn in the middle o f the head : this is the
nearest approximation to letting each side have its
own horn, because the middle is common equally to
both extremes. N ow it is quite reasonable that the
one horn should go with the solid hoof rather than
with the cloven hoof, because hoof is identical in
nature with horn, and we should expect to find
divided hoofs and divided horns together in the same
animal. Again, division o f the hoof is really due to
deficiency o f material, so it is reasonable that as
Nature has used more material in the hoofs o f the
solid-hoofed animals, she has taken something away
from the upper parts and made one horn only.
A gain, Nature acted aright in placing the horns
on the head. Momus in A esops fable is quite
wrong when he finds fault with the bull for having
his horns on the head, which is the weakest part o f
all, instead o f on the shoulders, which, he says,
would have enabled them to deliver the strongest
possible blow. Such a criticism shows Momuss
lack o f perspicacity. I f the horns had been placed
on the shoulders, as indeed on any other part o f the
body, they would have been a dead weight, and
would have been no assistance but rather a hindrance
to many o f the animals activities. And besides,
strength o f stroke is not the only point to be con
sidered : width o f range is equally important.
W here could the horns have been placed to secure
this ? I t would have been impossible to have them
on the f e e t ; knees with horns on them would have
221
ARISTOTLE
663 b
ro ts'
y o v a atv
10 K a t o v
w an ep
a /x a
K al
Se
ov ra
vvv
K a /x ifr tv
e x o v a iv ,
en l
r r js
n e c fr v K e v o v r c o
* E o r t Se Ta K epara St
>
av,
a v a y-
K e c fra X rjs
e^ etv .
eK w X vev
ra? a X X a s K t v r / a e t s r o v
n p os
a v e /x n o S ia r a
r r jv
a w /x a ro s
/x a X ta ra .
oXov arep ea ro ts eXacfrots
/xovots, Kal anofiaXXet /xovov, eveKev /xev wcfreXetas

Kovcfrtô/xevov, e f a vayKrjs Se Sta r o j8ap os.
15 aXXwv r a
Kepara
rtvo s KotXa, r a
r w v S
S a Kpa
arep ea Sta r o n p o s r a s nXrjyas r o v r * elvat X P V

at/xov.
onw s
necfrvKev eK r o v
( r o ) 3 arep eov
/xrjSe
eK r w v
Kepara e x o v ra
ro
kol Xo v
aaOeves
fj
o1
Sep/xaros, ev r o v r w 2 evrjp/xoarat
oa rw v
ovrw
yap
Kal r a
n p o s o X kt/v r e x P y] OLlJL<*JTaT'
earl*
20 Kal n p o s r o v aXXov fitov a v o x X o ra ra .

T tv os
/x ev
etp r /r a t,
\
r a
K at
ovk
I lw s
Se
v n a p x o v a tv
eveK a
25
ev eK ev
r iv
rj
rw v
a i r Lav ra
K eparw v
/x ev
ex ov ai
c fr v a t s ,
ro ta v ra
ovv
S ta
rov
ex ov atv
r r js
ef
a v a y K a ta s
a v a y K r js
K a ra K ex p r\ ra t,
fj
c fr v a e w s
K ara
rov
ex o v a r /s
X oyov
ro ts
c fr v a ts
X e y w /x e v .
Tlpw rov /xev ovv ro aw/xarwSes Kal yewSes nXetov

vnapxet rots /xetôat rw v wwv, Keparocfropov Se
/xtKpov na/xnav ovSev ta/iev eXax^crrov yap e a n rw v
yvwptô/xevwv SopKas. Set Se rrjv cfrvaiv OewpeTv
els ra noXXa fiXenovra * fj yap ev rw n a v rl f/ ws enl
\
\ \
'
J '
i '
i
>
* o
>
t o noAv ro Kara cpvatv e a n v . r o o oarwoes ev
1 o Peck, cf. / list. A n . 500 a 8 i ov vulg., om. E PY s otf
suprascr. Z (v. p. 46).
2 tovtco Peck : tovtco S vulg.
3 <to> Peck : cf. Hist. An. 500 a 9.
4 earl Platt: elvat vulg.: eirj av Thurot.
222
For the contrast between necessary nature and
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. w.

been unable to bend ; and the bull has no hands ; so
they had to be where they are on the head. A n d
being there, they offer the least possible hindrance
to the movements o f the body in general.
D eer alone have horns that are solid throughout;
and deer alone shed their horns : this is done (a) on
purpose to g e t the advantage o f the extra lightness,
(6) o f necessity, owing to the weight o f the horns.
In other animals the horns are hollow up to a certain
distance, but the tips are solid because solid tips are
an advantage when striking. And to prevent undue
weakness even in the hollow part, which grows out
from the skin, the solid piece which is fitted into it
comes up from the bones. In this way the horns
are rendered most serviceable for offensive pur
poses and least hampering during the rest o f the
time.
This completes our statement o f the purpose for
which horns exist and the reason why some animals
have them and some have not.
W e must now describe the character o f that
necessary nature, owing to which certain things
are present o f necessity, things which have been
used by rational nature ** to subserve a purpose. a
T o begin with, then : the larger the animal, the
greater the quantity o f corporeal or earthy matter
there is in it. W e know no really small horned
animal the smallest known one is the gazelle. (T o
study Nature we have to consider the m ajority o f
cases, for it is either in what is universal or what
happens in the m ajority o f cases that N atures
ways are to be found. N ow all the bone in animals*
rational nature** see above 640 b 8*29, 641 a 25 ff., 642 a
1 ff., and cf. G.A. (Loeb edn.), Introd. 14.
223
ARISTOTLE
663 b
so tois*
crw fia a i
rrXeiCFTov ev
rw v
xfravras elrreiv.
yewSes
wv
fie y t o r o L s
tols
ttjv
yovv
Sto /cat
]8Ae-
v r r a p x e i'
en l
to
TOLS fieiÔOL
V T ra p xp va a v errl /3orj6eiav /cat t o
7to X v
a w fia ro s T rep n -
tolovtov
V7TepfioXTJV V
TWfJLGLTLKTJV
ws
TW V
^W W V
avficfrepov K a r a -
XpfjTCLL TJ (frvOLS, /cat TTJV pOV<TGLV * avdyKTJS Ct? TOV

35 a vco
to tt o v
aTTeveL/ie,
tols
fie v et? o S o v T a ? /cat x a u A to S o v T a s *

S*
tols
els
K epa ra .
S to
tw v
/cepaTO -
(j.\opw v o v S e v eoTLV aficfrwSo v a v c o y a p ou/c e ^ e t

664 a
tovs
TTpoodiovs oSovras* acfreXovoa ya p evrevOev rj cfrvais

t o l s KepaoL tTpoaeOrjKe, Kai rj S tS ofievrj rpocfrrj els
oSovras t o v t o v s els t t j v t w v Keparwv avtjrjoiv

avaXiaKerai. t o v Se r a s drjXeias eXacfrovs Kepara
fiev fLTj e x eiv , Trepl Se t o v s o S o v r a s ofioiw s t o l s
5 appea t v , a t V t o v t o t t jv avrrjv elvai cfrvaiv dficfroiv
to vs
/cat
Keparo(j>6pov, acfrfjpTjrai
drjXelais
S ta
a p p e a lv ,
fiXdrrreadai
to
x P 7l aLtJLCL
S
Se
ra
I1!
rjaaov
S ta
Kepara ra is
etvai firjSe
t t jv laxvv.
t o ls
T w v S dXXwv wwv oa ois firj els Kepara ai t o Kpiverai to t o i o v t o v fiopiov r o v a w fia ro s, eviois
io fiev rw v oSovtcov av rw v iirrjij^rjae to fieyed os Koivfj
Travrwv, eviois Se x a vXi6Sovras warrep Kepara ck
r w v yvaBwv eTroirjaev.
Ilept fiev ovv rw v ev rfj KecfraXfj fiopiw v ravrrj
SiwpiaOw.
II I .
to ls
15 t o v t o
*T
tto
e x o va iv
to
Se
r r jv KecfraXrjv o
avxeva
fio p io v
e x e i,
rw v
aAAa
i.e. constituent substance.

224
au^v
w w v,
fio v a
rrecfrvKws e a n
ov yap
ra
rra vr a
eôvTa cov
See on 64-8 a 2.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ii.-m.

bodies consists o f earthy m a tte r; so i f we consider
the m ajority o f cases, we can say that there is most
earthy m atter in the biggest animals.) A t any rate,
in the larger animals there is present a surplus o f
this corporeal or earthy m atter, produced as a
residue, and this Nature makes use o f and turns to
advantage to provide them with means o f defence.
That portion o f it which by necessity courses upwards
she allots to form teeth and tusks in some animals,
and to form horns in others. A n d we can see from
this why no horned animal has incisor teeth in both
jaws, but only in the bottom jaw . Nature has
taken away from the teeth to add to the horns ;
so that the nourishment which would normally be
supplied to the upper teeth is here used to grow the
horns. W h y is it, then, that female deer, although
they have no horns, are no better off for teeth than
the male deer ? Th e answer is : Both o f them are,
by nature, horned animals ; but the females have
lost their horns because they would be not only
useless but dangerous. The horns are indeed o f no
more use to the males, but they are less dangerous
because the males are stronger.
Thus in some animals this part a o f the body
is secreted for the formation o f horns ; in others,
however, it causes a general increase in the size o f
the teeth, and in others again it produces tusks,
which are like horns springing out o f the jaws
instead o f the head.
W e have now dealt with the parts that apper
tain to the head.
III.
The place o f the neck, when there is one, is Of the
below the head. I say when there is one, because oefophûs.
only those animals have this part which also have
225
ARISTOTLE
664 a
X<xptv o av\7]v 7recfrvKev ra vra S eoTtv o re cfrapvy

Kal o KaXovjievos olaocfrayos.
f O fxev ovv cfrapvy ro v nvev/iaros eveKev 7recfrvKev
Sta r o v r o v yap elaayer at t o nvevjia ra a>a Kal
eKnejinet avanveovra Kal eKnveovra.
Sto Ta jxrj
20 exovra nXevfiova o vk exovaiv ouS auêVa, otov
\
to
n/
rw v
rj
a v a y K a lo v
ovdev
fie r a
e ls
r r jv
yap
ro v
napaaK evaêt
a r o fia r o s
yap
p te lr a t
e lv a t
ro
a n oreX ol
30 y a v o v
S tp tep rj
r r jv
ro v
fir jK o s ,
K a ra
ra s
r r jv
K a l r r js
a a p K ( I ) 8r j s ,
35 Se',
o to v
1*
ovra
< o>
exw v
Kal
ov
jjtrj
e vS ex era t.
etva t
ra a tv,
ov
e ls
av
jjt e Tas
ovrw s
S dp-
ro v
a v a y K r js
S o
e n
K e la O a t
St
a p r r jp ia s
e K n v o r jv .
ea n
vevp w h rj
ovk
a vX w va,
o la o c fra y o v
K o tX ia s .
a v r r jv .
K a X X ta r*
Kal
a v a n v o r jv
rov
npos
n X e v jx o v a
k o iv o v
a v a n v o r jv
nepl
a v a y K a lo v
a r o jx a r o s
onw s
T tva
n v e v jia
a vp ty y a s,
>
ei'Seêrat
9 ea tv
Se
r r jv K O tX ia v e v O e w s , t o v
Set
if
>
o ta o c p a y o s e a n
ot
/cotAtav cu<70* oaa
T r jv
, oi)S* o l a o c f r a y o v e n t h r j X w s e x o v a t v .
S e x e i v t o v o l a o c f r a y o v r r j s rp o < f> fjs
a vxeva
ovk
Se
yevos*
n op evera t
exet
eveK ev
25
tx vvw v
rp o c frrj
exovros
fie ra ^ v
rov
j i e v o la o c fr a y o s
v e v p w B r js
fie v ,
e x j j S t a r a a t v e l a t o v a r j s r r j s r p o c f r r js , a a p K w h r j s
onw s
jia X a K o s
r p a x v v o fie v o s
vtto
fj
Kal
rw v
eVStSa) /cat
jx rj f t X a n r r j r a t
K a n ovrw v.
*H Se KaXovjievrj cfrapvyi; Kal aprrjpta avvearrjKev

k xo*'Spc6Sous> aw jxaros' ov ya p jjlovov avaTrvorjs
eveKev e a n v aAAa /cat cfrwvrjs, Set Se to ifrocfrrjaetv
fieXXov Xelov etvat Kal a rep eorrjra exetv. Kelrat S
ejiTTpoadev rj aprrjpta r o v olaocfrayov, Kainep e/inohiôvaa av rov nepl rrjv v n o h o x ty rrjs rpocfrrjs*
6 eav ya p r t napetapvfj rjp6v fj vypov els ttjv aprrj-
664 b
226
$ip.pfj ovra Peck : Bificprjs <Zv v u lg .: hLfxepovs ovros Th#
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III.
h i.
those parts that the neck subserves viz. the larynx

and the oesophagus, as it is called.
The larynx is present for the sake o f the breath :
when animals breathe in and out, the breath passes
through the larynx. Thus creatures which have no
lung (e.g. fish) have no neck either. The oesophagus
is the passage by which the food makes its way to
the stomach ; so those that have no neck have no
distinct oesophagus. So far as food is concerned,
however, an oesophagus is not necessary, since it
exerts no action upon the food ; and there is really
no reason why the stomach should not be placed
im m ediately next the mouth. The lung, however,
could not be so placed, because some sort o f tube
must be present, common to both lungs, and divided
into two, by which the breath is divided along the
bronchial tubes into the air-tubes : this is the best
method for securing good breathing, both in and out.
This respiratory organ, then, o f necessity, is o f some
length ; and this necessitates the presence o f an
oesophagus, to connect the mouth to the stomach.
N ow the oesophagus is fleshy, and it can also be
extended like a sinew. It is sinewy so that it can
stretch as the food enters in ; and it is fleshy so that
it may be soft and yielding and not be damaged by
the food grating on it as it goes down.
W hat are called the larynx and windpipe are Larynx and
constructed o f cartilaginous substance, since the pur- windP1P9*
pose they serve includes speech as well as respira
tion ; and an instrument that is to produce sound
must be smooth and firm. The windpipe is situated in
front o f the oesophagus, although it causes it some
hindrance when food is being admitted as when a
piece o f food, no m atter whether solid or fluid, gets
227
ARISTOTLE
4b
p ia v ,
7 T v iy fio v s
Kal
tto vo vs
cos r a v T r j
t o 7to tov Se'êTat t o
c fr a v e p c b s r a
x a ^ 7T^ s
n o X X a x fj
TavTTj
to
7t o t o v
o v h e is
ia n v
K
T r jv
TOV
a v fifia lv e i y a p
Se y e A o to v c f r a i v e r a i t o A e y e i v c o s
e ta S e ^ e T a t
e ls
{w o v
7racn v o l s a v n a p a p p v r j t i T r js
X exêvra
10 T p o c fr r js .
COOTTep
j8r j x a s
Kal
S rj K a l Q a v f i a a e i e v a v t i s r c o v X e y o v r c o v
ifiT r o ie i.
Ta
K O iX la v
CJTOfXaTOS
7r o p o s
a )a .
yap
and
to v
ttX e v fio v o s ,
o p c b fie v
to v
o la o ffr d y o v .
e n
S i v t o i s i f i e r o i s K a l v a v T i a i s o v k a S r jX o v T ro d ev
to
vypov
15 o v k
(f r a i v e T a i
evO ecos
e ls
rr o p e v o fie v o v .
r r jv
k v o tiv
a A A e is T r j v K O i X l a v 77p o r e p o v
T rep iT T cb fJ L a T a c f r a l v e r a i
X avos
Kal
Se K a l o t i
B r jX o v
a vX X eyera i
Ta
yap
to
vypov,
T r js
K o iX la s
xpa>/xaTtetv r j I X v s r o d f i e -
o i v o v a v f if ie f ir jK e
Se t o v t o
7 r o X X a K is c fra ve p o v
7rt T a li' e l s t t j v K o i X i a v T p a v f i d r c o v .
ia c o s
to
e v r jd e s
to vs
e v r jO e is
tco v
aAAa y a p
X oycov
X la v
eeT a e tv .
20
*H S
iv
tco
c fr v a is
a p r r jp ia
7T p o o d e v
npos
t a v T T jv
aAA ocra
tco
vtto
to vto
ovk
S ia K e ia d a i,
T r js
T p o < frfjs
fJ L fx r )x d v T ]T a i
e x o v a iv
a rra vra
r r X e v fio v a e x e i K a l t o
K a Q a rrep
aAA* rj
emyAcorrtSa.
t t jv
i ^ c p O T O K o v v T a ,1
Ta
Se p f i a
T p ix c o T O V , K a l
25 f i r j cfroXlScOTOL f i t ) Se TTTepCOTCL T,Te<frvKV.

a vn
T r js
c fra p v y
eVtyAaiTTtSo?
ovnep
a v a T T T v a a e r a i,
Kal
eoSaj
Tponov
to v
a vva yera i
iK e iv o is *
e iito fie v ,
iv o x X e iT a i*
Kal
im fid X X e i
Te
/cat
(/ t e v )2 n v e v f i a T o s T j j e i a o S c o T e
a v a T T T v a a o fie v o s ,
T r js
Se
T p o c frrjs
1 ^(pOTOKOVvra] w a ra evaifia Ogle.

2 (jikv) supplevi et interpunctionem hie correxi.
228
T O V T O IS
StotyeTat
e lo -
h i.
into the windpipe by mistake, and causes a great deal

o f choking and distress and violent coughing. This
sort o f thing occurs and can be observed whenever a
piece o f food goes the w rong w ay ; y e t they must be
mysteries to those who hold that animals take in their
drink by w ay o f the w indpipe.0 And there are many
counts on which wTe can show' that this is a ridiculous
opinion to hold, (a) There is no passage leading from
the lung into the stomach, such as the oesophagus,
which, as we can see, leads thither from the mouth.
And again, ( b) there is no doubt where the fluid dis
charge comes from in cases o f vom iting and sea-sickness. (c) I t is plain, too, that the fluid m atter which
we take does not collect im m ediately in the bladder,
but goes first into the stomach. This is showrn by
the fact that the dregs o f dark wine affect the co
lour o f the residual discharge from the stomach ; and
this colouring has often been observed in cases where
the stomach has been wounded. Still, perhaps it is
silly to be too minute in discussing these silly theories.
The windpipe, as we have said, is situated in front, Epiglottis,
and therefore is interfered with by the food. T o deal
with this difficulty, Nature has contrived the epi
glottis. N ot all Vivipara b have this, but only those
which have a lung, and a hairy skin, and are not
covered with horny scales or feathers. Those that
are so covered have, to serve instead o f the epiglottis,
a larynx which closes and opens, just as the epiglottis
does in the others ; it comes down and lifts up again :
it lifts up during the entrance and exit o f the breath,
and subsides w'hile food is being taken, to prevent
a See e.g. Plato, Timaeus 70 c 7, and Taylor ad loc.
^
b Ogle changes the text here to read blooded animals,*
which brings the statement nearer the truth.
229
ARISTOTLE
lo v g t js
30 t t j v
tv a f i r j O e v n a p a p p v f j n p o s 1
in m r v a a o fie v o s y
d p r r jp ia v .
T O L a v T T jv
K iv r ja iv
a va n veva rj
e ip r jT a t .
Si
ia v
Kal
tl
n X r jfifie X r jO r j
n p o a c f r e p o f ie v r js
t l s , p f jx a s
KaL T tv iy fio v s
napa
T r js
t t jv
T p O (f> rjs
noceT, K a O a n ep
Se K a X w s f i e f i r j x a v r j T a i K a l r j T a v r r j s
o vtw
K a l rj T r j s y X (x )T T T )s K i v r j a i s , w a r e T r j s T p o c frrjs i v f i e v
tco
G T o fia T L
X e a L v o fie v r jS i
35 T r j v f i e v o X i y a K i s v n o
t t jv
665 a
a p r r jp ia v
O v k
Sta
t o
tjr jp a s
G K X r jp O V y
fio p io v
e x e i,
r a v r
c fr a v X o r r jr a
a a fie v r j
iv
K tv r ja e w s
t o l s
S e
n X e v fiw v
a v a n v o rj
K a l
/cetrat o v
Sta Te t o v
r jv
ttjs
rj
rj
t o
rj
T r js
(in i
y /
t o
K e tr a i
S
rj
iv
fie a c p
K a l
n a a r js
K a X o v fie v o v
a v r w
K a l
y a p
r r jv
y a p
t w
o n ta O e v ),
/capSta /cat n e p l
2 /cat Sta T r j v d p
v .
r j S a v a n v o r j
t o v
e l
ttjv
fir jx a v r j-
K a l
e fin p o a O e v
o
o
a v a y K ijs .
c o fjs
K iv r ja is '
r a
'
T a
a p r r jp ia s
e/c
T r js
l,w w v
c fr v a ts ,
/capSta i v v n a p x o v a a
R e p o t s Sta r r j s a p T r j p i a s w a r
in
1 npos P Z : napa vulg.
T rj
to lo v t o v
a p r r jp ia s
e \ o v o i
<-s
tc o v
e x e i
S lo tl
c fr a fie v
S ic o p ta r a t
e /c
a v v a y co y rj
e fin p o a O e v
a p x r jv
a ia O r ja ts
t o lo v t o v
T r js
o la o cfra y o v
a la O r ja e c o s
t o v t w
rj
Se p f i a
t o
t o
in ty X w r r tS a .
t o v
K a l
rj
a v
Id rp ev K ev
ttjv
230
K a l
in iy X w r r iS a
K a l
a v r r js
fie v
fj
rj
t o l s
T a
K a X o v fie v r jv
iv
S n o v o r js ,
K a l
fjv
in iy X w r r iS o s ,
r e
e fin p o a O e v
15 X o y w
iy L v e r
O ea ew s
c fr a p v y
T r jv
a v r w v
a a p K o s
aAA
) /
a iT ia v
/capSta
y a p
/cetrat,
fj
a) a
eV K L V T J T O V
e lp r ja O w ,
T r js
T r jv
e fin p o a O e v
fie v
f
o v v
Se
n a p a p p e iv ,
r o ia v r r js
d a o o o v
a v r r jv
a a p K a s
aV
oapK os
T p ix c o T a .
a
%
A t
r jv f i e v
iv
e /c
d S o v r a s 1 n l n r e i v , e l s Se
ev ra
o v v e o T r jK o s ,
o lK e la s
o v k
tl
r a s
OVK
a v T o ls
io x d r c o v
ttjs
10
e lv a i
U )G T
S ep fia r o s
5t c o v
o ird v io v
Se r a Ae x O
e% ei
nap
to vs
r a v r r jv ,
x jjv
ttjv
y lv e r a i
/capStav
h i.
anything coming in by mistake into the windpipe. I f

there is any error in this movement, or i f you breathe
in while you are taking food, coughing and choking
results, as I have said. But the movement o f the
epiglottis and o f the tongue has been so neatly
contrived that while the food is being masticated in
the mouth and is passing over the epiglottis, the
tongue seldom gets in the way o f the teeth, and
hardly ever does any food slip into the windpipe.
I mentioned some animals that have no epiglottis.
This is because their flesh is dry and their skin hard ;
and thus i f they had one, it would not move easily,
because it would have to be made out o f constituents
o f this sort. I t is quicker to contract the edges o f the
windpipe itself than it would be to close an epiglottis,
if, as in the hairy creatures, it were made out o f the
same sort o f flesh as the rest o f their bodies.
This will suffice to show why some animals have an
epiglottis and some not ; how Nature has contrived
it so as to rem edy the unsatisfactory position o f
the windpipe in front o f the oesophagus. Still, the
windpipe is bound by necessity to be in this position
for the following reason. The heart is situated in the
middle o f the body and in the fore part o f i t ; and in
the heart, we hold, is the principle o f life and o f all
movem ent and sensation. Both o f these activities
take place in the direction we call forwards : that is
the very principle which constitutes the distinction
between before and behind. The lung is situated in
the region o f the heart, and surrounding it. Now
breathing takes place for the sake o f the lung and
the principle which is situated in the h e a r t: and the
breath passes through the windpipe. So, since the
* tovtov
SU Y
: tovto
vulg.
231
ARISTOTLE
665 a
^
V
Tols e (ITT p ood V
20 t o v
cfra p vy y a
K c lo O a i
to v
K o iX ia v .
OTTOV
avw
Kal
Kal
iv
Ta
to
n porepov
fie v
f3 e X rio v
Tp O V
to Is
yap
a v a y K a lo v
T T p os
iv
re
a p r r jp ia s
e ip r jr a i, i n o f ie v o v
Io tiv
T o ls
Setov Se /cat a p i a r e p o v i v
Kat n e p l f i e v a v % e v o s
Kal
to Is
e ls
rov
r r )v
rifiiw re p o v ,
ifJ L T T O & l& l,
fia X X o v
O7Tl<J0V
KeloOai, Kai
/capStav, o 8*
t t jv
S aet
fie l^ O V
K a ra )
25 fl7 T p O O 0 V
a p r r jp la v
o la o c fra y o v
oXw s
f lT ] 8 e V
Kal
K a l t t jv
T tvet
n X e v fio v a
n p W T T fV CLV ayK O LO V
TOV
a v a j,
to v
e fin p o a O e v ,
fie v
S
TOV
Se^tofe.
K a l
o la o c fr a y o v
K a l
ia rl nepl a n X a yxvw v
e ln e lv ,
IV . T a v r a S ia r lv tSta rcov iva ifiw v, Kal r o ls

fiev a n av0y vn d p\ ei , t o i s * S oi>x v n a p x ei . rw v S
avalfiw v ovSev e x ei anX ayxvov.
krqfioKpiros S
eot/cev ov KaXws StaAajSetv n epl a v rw v 3 einep wtfOir]
Sta fiiKporrjra ra>v avaifiw v t,wwv a8r]Xa elvai
r a v r a . avviarafievw v ya p ei>0ews rcov ivaificov Kal
n a fin a v ovrcov fiiKpwv evSrjXa y iv er a i /capSta r e Kal
35 fjnap' (fraiverai ya p iv fiev r o ls cools iv lo re r p ira io is
665 b ovai a n y firjs ex o v ra fieyeO os, nafifiiKpa Se /cat iv
r o ls iKôXlfiois rcov ififipvcov, ert S w anep rcov e/cr o s fiopiw v ov n a a i rw v a vrw v XPVGLS> aAA e/cag to is tSta n en op ia ra i n pos r e r o v s fiiovs Kal r a s
6 Kivrjaeis, o v rw Kal r a iv r o s aAAa necfrvKev aXXois.
T a Se an X ayx}a r w v aifiariK w v ia r lv tSta, Sto
Kal avvearrjKev a vrw v eK aarov e aifiariKTfS vXrjs.
SijXov S ev r o ls veoyvols r o v r w v ' aifia rw h ea rep a
ya p Kal fiey ia ra Kara Xoyov Sta t o efvat t o efSos
so
a Limited by Aristotle to blood-like viscera only.
232
iii.-iv .
heart must o f necessity be situated in the front place

o f all, both the larynx and the windpipe, which lead
to the lung and the heart, must o f necessity be
situated in front o f the oesophagus which leads merely
to the stomach. Speaking generally, unless some
greater object interferes, that which is better and
more honourable tends to be above rather than below,
in front rather than at the back, and on the right side
rather than on the left.
W e have now spoken o f the neck, the oeso
phagus, and the windpipe, and our next topic is the
viscera.
IV .
Only blooded animals have viscera. Some, but i n t e r n a l
not all, have a complete set o f them. As no blood- blooded
less animals have them, Democritus must have been a n i m a l s .
wrong in his ideas on this point, i f he really supposed
that the viscera in bloodless creatures arc invisible
owing to the smallness o f the creatures themselves.
Against this w e can put the fact that the heart and
the liver are visible in blooded animals as soon as they
are formed at all, that is, when they are quite sm all:
in eggs they are visible, just about the size o f a point,
sometimes as early as the third day, and very small
ones are visible in aborted embryos. Further, just
as each animal is equipped with those external parts
which arc necessary to it for its manner o f life and its
motion, and no two animals require exactly the same
ones, so it is with the internal parts : they vary in the
various animals.
Viscera, then, are peculiar to the blooded animals, Heart,
and that is why each one o f the viscera is formed o f
blood-like material. This is clearly to be seen in the
new-born offspring o f blooded anim als; in them the
viscera are more blood-like, and at their largest in
233
ARISTOTLE
>b
r r js
v X r js
10 n p w r r j v
r o is iv a lfio is
af/xa f i e v
K a io v ,
to
Kal
n X r jO o s
a v a r a a iv .
e x e iv
to is
c frX e fia s
fila v
n o X X a s ),
yap
Ik
c fr v a is
Se
f)
fj
Kal
c fr v a is '
(o n o v
Se
fj
20 o n i a O e v
<f r a v e a r a r o v
tw v
c frX e fiw v
a v r r js
8 i v t w
iv
K a d lS p V K e v
r o is
fj
Se
n w v,
fio v X e r a i
fie a w
K e ia O a i
nepas
ff r a
to
Se
ro v
Kal
w s
a va y-
ay-
a p x iK r jv
oS
S ta
[i f j
ri
c fr a lv o v r a i
r a v r -q s ,
r o is
Kal
o v a r js .
rrep l
to
K w X vei
io n v
a v a y K a lo v
n e p irr c o fia r a
a p x tf'
fj
fj
exei
fie o o v
K a l e f i n p o a O e v fj
rifiiw re p o is
iv
fie X n o v
x<*>p a v
fj K a r w
X exO ev
Kal
ov
a v a y K a lo v
fila v
o fio y e v o v s
avw
yap
c fr v a is ,
w s
a v a y K a lo v
ro vrw v
S eu rat,
o v a a i1
O e a is
$e
iv
c fr X e fiw h r js
y a p , fia X X o v
S f jX o v
at/xa t o ?
apXVv
yap
K a p S ia
r a v r r js
a v r r js
r r jv
w ra p xei
8 rj K a l c f r a l v e r a i f i e f i r j x a v f j a d a t
y t i o v v n a p x e i v , icfr o
ta s
iv a lfio is
S ovto? t o u
vypov
K a ra
a n a a iv
S i r j v S a i r l a v , e l p r j r a i K a l n p o r e p o v .
yap
15 e t v a i
ific fr a v e a r a r o v
K a p S la f ie v o v v
in i
a X X o is
rifiiw re p o v
fie i^ o v .
rw v
o fio X o y w s
a w fia ro s ,
a n o K p lv e ra r
ifi-
avO pw -
to v to v
ra
Se
iv
Se
KwXa
25 7recfrvKev
aXXois aXXws, Kal o v k e a n rw v npos

r o rjv avayKalwv, Sio Kal acfraipovfievwv waivm
SrjXov S ws ov Se npoanOefieva cfrOelpei.
01 8 iv rfj KecfraXfj Xeyovres t t j v apxvv Tv
cfrXefiwv o v k opOws vneXafiov.
npw rov fiev yap
noXXas apxas Kal Sieonaofievas 2 noiovaiv, ctr iv
1 tovaat Z.
2 8i<77Tapfivas ESUYZ.
The first observer after Aristotle to realize the disparity

in the relative sizes of the parts with time was Leonardo da
Vinci ( a .d * 1452-1518).
234
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iv.

proportion a : this is because the nature o f the material
and its bulk are especially obvious at the first stage
o f a creature s formation. The heart is present in
all blooded animals, and the reason for this has been
already s ta ted ; I t is obviously necessary for all
blooded creatures to have blood, and as blood is a
fluid, there must o f necessity be a vessel to hold
it, and it is evidently for this purpose that Nature
has contrived the blood-vessels. And these blood
vessels must have a source one source (one is
always better than many where it is possible), and
this source is the heart. This is certain, because the
blood-vessels come out o f the heart and do not pass
through i t ; and again, the heart is homogeneous and
in character identical with the blood-vessels. Further
more, the place in which it is set is the place o f
primacy and governance. I t is in a central position,
and rather in the upper part o f the body than the
lower, and in front rather than at the back ; Nature
always gives the more honourable place to the more
honourable part, unless something more important
prevents it. W hat I have just said is seen most
clearly in the case o f man, y e t in other animals the
heart tends in a similar way to be in the centre o f
the necessary body, i.e. the portion o f it which
is terminated by the vent where the residues are
discharged. The limbs vary in the various animals,
and cannot be reckoned among the parts that are
necessary for life, which is why animals can lose
them and still remain alive ; and obviously they could
have limbs added to them without being killed.
Those who suppose that the source o f the blood
vessels is in the head are wrong, because : (1) this
involves holding that there are many sources,
235
ARISTOTLE
665 b
30 t o
77co
ijjv x p c p
Se B v a p i y o s c o v , o Se t t e p l t t j v
S r jX o i
/capStav r o v v a v r i o v .
S eA e 'x # ^ , S ta /xev t c o v
(L a r r e p
<xAAco v o r r X a y x v c o v S i i x o v o i v
/capSta?
fio p io v
Kal
to v t
S taretV et
ov
apxq
evX oycos'
35 O C O fia
T T p os
to
TTpos
ra vrrj
6 af/xa
f io ir r j
avev
to
tt}v
tcov
<f>Xeficov
TOV
rj
r r js
ia r i,
yap
ia n v
10 r a v r a ,
a p x jj
Kal
e/c t o j v
at
oXcos
K iv r ja e is
T r a a r js
tc o v
T r r jy r j
fio p ic o v
/cat t o u t ei5*
[/cat]1 et?
in o x e r e v e r a i
to v
a ifia r o s
Se
yeve'creajv
r jS ic o v
a ia O r ja e c o s
iv
a c o fia r o s
t o v
rj
vrroS oxrj
K a r a h r jX a
e v d ic o s
/xaAAov
yap
ia n v
evat/to? T T p co rr] y i v o f i i v r j r c o v f i o p i c o v a T r a v r c o v .
S
Se
/capStav ou/c a A A o 0 e v - a v r r j
a v a ro fic o v
e/c tcov
Kal
kolXo v
7TVK VO V
aX X cov
e / ca o ro v i v r a i s cfrXeihlv e êt t o af/xa.
T T p c o r r j.
eo r t
Se T iX r jp e S
O e p fio r r jr o s .
T r js
Kal
T a ? (frX e jH a s , e l s Se t t j v
/capSta?
r jp y f iiv c o v ,
tc o v
o tl
/cat
TL
oT rX a yxvcov
A o y a j? * e/c T r j s /capSta? y a p
B r jX o v
/capSta.
a lfia r O S ,
apxyv
S ta Se t t j s
Kal
TTtcfrvK OS,
V T T o h o x ty
c f> v X a a o L V
yap
yap
K O lX o V
cf>Xeficov i v r e v 0 v
tcov
T T )V
( f )X i f i e s ,
o0v
cfrX eficov i a r l v
jiia o v
Kal
7TVK VO V
666 a a i f i a r o s c o s
fl V
tco v
ai
cf)X iifj*
Kal
tco v
iv r e v O e v
X v r r r jp c o v
ap ô /xeva t
vo v T a t /cat Trpo? r a v r r j v T r e p a i v o v a a i .
e rt
Kal
<f>at-
ouVto S eêt
/cat /caTa t o v A o y o v , a p x j j v y a p e fv a t Set f i l a v , ottoi;

is evS exc T a t*
e x x frv io ra ro s
Se r a )v tottcuv o f i i a o s , ev
y a p t o f i i a o v K a l ir r l T ra v ic f> iK ro v o f i o l c o s rj r r a p a T r X r ja l c o s .
ert
eTret
ou re
tcov
a v a lfic o v
ovO kv
1 /cat om. Z.
a Or traverse. The connotation of this term seems to vary*
236
PARTS OF ANIMALS. III. iv.

scattered a b o u t; and (2) it involves placing them
in a cold region (its intolerance o f cold proves this).
The region round the heart, on the other hand, is
warm. And (3) as has been said already, the blood
vessels run all through a the other viscera, whereas
none passes through the heart ; which clearly shows
that the heart forms part o f the blood-vessels and
is their source. Which is reasonable enough : since
the centre o f the heart is a body o f dense and hollow
structure, and this is full o f blood ; it is hollow to
form a receptacle for the blood ; dense to guard the
source o f heat ; and the store o f blood is obviously
there because that is the starting-point o f the blood
vessels. In none other o f the viscera and in no other
part o f the body is there blood and yet 110 blood
vessels ; in each o f the other parts the blood is con
tained in blood-vessels. And this too is reasonable,
as the blood is conveyed and conducted away from
the heart into the blood-vessels, whereas none is
thus conveyed into the heart from elsewhere, for the
heart is itself the source and spring o f the blood, or
the first receptacle o f it. A ll this, however, is more
clcarly brought out in Dissections and Formative
Processes, where it is shown that the heart is the
first o f all the parts to be formed and has blood in it
straightway. Further, all motions o f sensation, in
cluding those produced by what is pleasant and pain
ful, undoubtedly begin in the heart and have their
final ending there. This is in accord with reason ;
since, wherever possible, there must be one source
only ; and the best situation for that is the centre,
because there is only one centre, and the centre is
equally (or nearly equally) accessible from every
direction. A gain, as every bloodless part, and the
237
A R IS T O T L E
666 a
w
a la d r jT iK o v
w s
iv
Ou
outc
a y y e lw
a f/ x a , S r jX o v
to
exov
w s
a v a y K a lo v
n p w T ov \ ov
to
e lv a i
tr jv
f i o v o v Sc K a r a t o v X o y o v o v t w s
20a A A a
K al K ara
evdew s
a io O r jo iv .
t t jv
/capS ta
rj
(f> a t W r a t
iv
apxV v'
< j> a lv e T a i,
y ap
ififip v o is
t o is
K iv o v fie v r j
fio p iw v
tw v
K a O a n e p ct w o v , w s a p X T I T r j s < f> v < rew s t o l s i v a l f i o i s
o S c ra .
Sc t o jv
fia p T v p io v
e ^ c tv
apxyv
t t jv
25 r j n a p
n a a i
a v ro
a ifia r o s .
tov
e fv a t o v r e
tov
a n X r jv a .
tov
30 e x L V e a v T w
X om a
iv
e n
K aO an ep
< j> X efil,
S
rj
to
666 b
oXo v
at
a p ^ a t.
apxyv
fid X ia r
e fv a t, f it ]
ca rt
/ ca pS ta v e t v a t K a t t o u
tw v
a n r jK p ijiw *
w an ep
ovk
Ta
<f>Xeip, S tn
< j> X e p w v e/c T r j s
avayK rj
Sc t o
a ifia r o s
to u
O e a iv ,
a ifia r o s
/ca p S ta , a A A
y ap
ov re
a p x o c iS fj
v n o S o x ty
e7rct o u v
a v r o is
a iw o e ie v
a w fia r o s
t o is
n a a i
to
S c /cat t o
av
Se T e l v e i S i* a v r o v
e n
i K e l v r j s S ouSc/xta* n a a w v
K a p S la s
rov rw v
o v d e ls
/ cetra t y a p o v S a f i w s n p o s
e ^ e t S w a n e p a v r l ^ v y o v i v
fiiv o is
35 y a p
K al
vnapx^ i
i v a l f i o i s ' aAA
t o is
a p x y jv
a ifia r o s '
r r jv
e lp r jfie v w v
i v a l f io is v n a p x ^ iv a v r r jv ' a v a y K a lo v y a p
t o is
fie v
r jn a p ,
a p x tfv .
6 aT epov
avayK rj
to
fie v
<pov a l a O r j a e i w p i a r a i , a l a O r j r i K o v S e n p w r o v
n p w rov
apx>7 t o u
"E o n
e v a i f i o v , T o to u T o v S
a ifia T o s
avrrjs
1 St* T h . :
K al
to
e v a ifio v
K a p S ta * K a t y a p
n p w rov .
aKpov o f u
K at
arepewrepov,
v u lg .; mox ixetvov E U Y Z .
Cor primum vivens ultimum moriens : cf. De gen, an,

741 b 15 If., and Ebstein & al., Afftl. z, Gesch. der Medizin u,
Naturw., 1920, 29, 102, 219, 305.
6 See 655 b 29, n.
238
PARTS OF ANIMALS. III. iv.

blood itself as w ell, is without sensation, it is clear
that the part where the blood is present first, and
which holds it as in a receptacle, must o f necessity be
the source.
This reasoning is supported b y the evidence o f
the senses. In embryos, as soon as they are form ed,
the heart can be seen m oving before any o f the
other parts, just like a living crca tu re a ; which
shows that it is the source o f their nature in all
blooded animals. A nother piece o f evidence to
support this is that all blooded creaturcs have a
h e a r t: why ? because they are bound to have a
source for their blood. A ll blooded creatures, it is
true, have a liver too ; but no one would care to
maintain that the liver is the source either o f the
blood or o f the whole body, because it is nowhere near
the place o f primacy and governance, and, also, in
the most highly finished b animals it has something
to counterbalance it, as it were, viz. the spleen.
Again , the liver has no receptaclc for blood in itself
as the heart has : like the rest o f the viscera, it keeps
its blood in a blood-vessel. A gain, a blood-vessel
runs all through it, whereas no blood-vessel runs
through the h e a r t : all blood-vessels have their sourcc
from the heart and begin there. Since, therefore, o f
necessity the source must be one o f these two, the
heart or the liver, and as it is not the liver, it must o f
necessity be the heart which is the source o f the blood
just as it is o f the rest. A n animal is defined by the
fact that it possesses sensation : and the part o f the
body to have sensation first is the part that has blood
in it first in other words, the heart, which is the
source o f the blood and the first part to have it.
The apex o f the heart is sharp and more solid than
239
ARISTOTLE
666 b K lTCLl
Se 7TpOS TW O T l ]0 e i K a l S X w S I v T O IS n p 6 o 0 e V
o w fia T O S
t o v
5y a p
S eorepa ,
to v
S io
v w t o v
e o n
e\ei
t o v
o t t /O i k o v
Ta
e v c o v v fia
a v io o v v
tt] v
K a T a i/jv t jiv
aXXwv
t w v
K a p S ia
^w w v
oti
K e ir a i, n p o r e p o v
eêt ^
a v o fio lw s ,
S avTTj
to
Eêt ^
npooO ev,
S ta
r o is
Kal
Kal
wE o rt S
c o o is
npos
to
K a r e i/jv y /ie v a
Ix O v
o fio iw s
o iv
Ta
rj
e i p r /T a i , K a l S l o t i c fra lv e ra i
ttjv
to vtt
K e<f>a X rjv
Kal
rj
o ir e o n
K a p S ia ,
Kal
t o v t
K iv r jo e is , n e p a iv o v r a i
at
a v ie v a r
npoT epov,
to
f) K iv r jo is .
/v y a p
n X r jO o s
yap
lo tto s .
rj
Se
o lo v
Set
ovv
r o ia v T r js
K a p S ia ,
K aO anep
w ov
t i
n e c frv K e v
ev
K a l r jfie is re O e a yevovs rivos fiow v

Se Sta t o fieyeOos o t o v e p e i o f i a T O S X^PLV
v n e o n , K a O a n e p K a l t o i s oXois o w f i a o i v .
a v o o re o s
n X r jv
to v to is
oo ro v v
KotAta? S
tw v
n a v rw v
in n w v
e x o v o iv
r p e i s , c lI S e t w v
/card
a X X o is
e x o v o iv .
fie O a ,
r jv
O e p /io v
Tot? S a v O p w n o i s
^xî
t o is
enl
vtt/s
e X K e iv
t o v
v n r /p e o la s
e tn o fie v
Ta
to
a p io r e p w v fia X io r a y a p
T rp os
K0LL v v p w v
15 e v X o y w s * a n o
Se
ev
u ro * n a a i
fie v
n a p e K K X iv o v o a
tcov
Kal
t o is
ron ov,
avO pw nos
Se
T a Se n p a v f j o a p K W
O K e n r /v
S ' rj K a p S i a
e ls
a p io T e p a
20
fxrj K a T a i f j v x ^ o O a i
O T r jO o s ,
n o X X r jv
fie o o v
ro
to
fiiK p o v
kotol
10
npos
aaapK OTpov
at
ooa
Kal
fie v
rw v
fie y a X w v
e X a o o o v w v 8 v o , fila v
o I t I o v , e ip r jT a i.
Set
yap
Sc
w w v
n a o a i*
St
e lv a i T o n o v r t v a r r js
At De respir, 478 b 3. And see the next note.

b Instead of towards the breast. The meaning of this
passage is made clear by Hist, An, 507 a 2 ff. In all animals,
says Aristotle, the 44apex of the heart points forwards, and
in most animals forwards * is towards the breast. Fishes
240

the rest, and it lies towards the breast, and altogether
in the fore part o f the body so as to prevent it from
gettin g cooled : for in all animals the breast has com
paratively little flesh on it, while the back is well
supplied and so gives the heat o f the body ample
protection on that side. In animals other than man
the heart is in the centre o f the region o f the b reast;
in man it inclines slightly to the left side so as to
counteract the cooling there, for in man the left side
is much colder than in other creatures. I have
said already that the placing o f the heart is the
same in fishes as in other animals, though it appears
to be different, together with the reasonsa for the
apparent difference. In fishes its apex is turned to
wards the head 6 ; but in them the head is forwards,
because the head is in the line o f direction in which
they move.
The heart has in it an abundance o f sinews, which
is reasonable enough, as the motions o f the body have
their origin there ; and as these are performed by
contraction and relaxation, the heart needs the sinews
to serve it and to give it strength. W e have said
already that the heart is like a living creature inside
the body that contains it.
In all cases that we have examined the heart is
boneless, except in horses and a certain kind o f ox.
In these, owing to its great size, the heart has a bone
for a support, just as the whole body is supported
by bones.
In the large animals, the heart has three cavities, in
the smaller ones, two o n ly ; and in no species has it less
than one. The reason for this has been given : there
appear to be an exception to this rule, but only because in
them forwards is towards the head.
241
ARISTOTLE
666 b
KapSt'a? K a l
25 Sc
u tto S o ^ v
to v
at/ x aro ? .
rrp w T O v
7T p c u T O v e v T j j K a p S i a y t'v e ra t t o
e lp r jK a fie v .)
S ta Se1 r d r d ?
e lv a i, t t jv
fie y a X r jv
e K a re 'p a ?
<f>op a s
Kal
S2 o v a r js
ix o vc rw v,
Sto7rcp
d p \ T js
w v
apâ? a v T w v
Tag
30 St < f> v o v s
o vto s
ev
to v
apxqyovs
K a X o v f ie v r jv
T rep l
tw v
to vto
/cat
Sv o
a o p T T fV ,
Kal
e p o v fie v ,
S ta -
fS e X r io v
S a v etrj
Kexajptcr/xe'voi/.
e v S e '^ e ra t, S v 9 e l o l v
of?
t t jv
< f> X e fiw v ,
K e x < v p io Q a f
at/xaro?
(j> X e f ia s
Kal
voT epov
(o r t
at/xa, 7roAAaKt?
U TroS oât.
ev-
S e '^ e ra t S ev r o t? f i e y a X o i s ' t o v t w v y a p e \ o v a i K a l
at
/capStat f i e y e O o s .
e r t Se jSeArtov rp e t? e fv a t r d ?
/cotAta?, 077x 0? 77 f i i a
a p x jj
r re p iT T o v
fie y e d o v s
35 a e t ,
a p x tf'
S io n e p
ai
w oTe
fie y io T a i
k o iv t j*
rd
Se f i e o o v
/cat
Set /xet'ovo? a u r a t ?
rp e t? e x o v o i
fio v a i,
667 a
T o u tw v Se 7rAetcrrov /xev af/xa /cat d e p fio T a r o v

e x o v a i v a t Setat (Sto Kat rdiv fie p w v 0 epfioT pa r d
Seta), eAaxto-rov Se Kat ifsvxpoTepov a i aptorepat,
f i e o o v S at f i e o a i t w TrXijOei K a l depfioTrfTi, K a d a pcorarov Se'* Set y a p ttjv a p ^ v ort fia X io T rjp efieiv,
5 r o ia v T T j S av eify K a d a p o v t o v at/taro? o v t o s , t w
TrXqOei Se Kat OepfioTTfT t f i e o o v .
"Eôi/at Se Kat
T r X r fo ia v
t iv o s
rat?
oi5k etot Se
r r X e io v w v o v v d e T o v ,
S ia p O p w o e i
fia X X o v .
10 a p d p w S e o T e p a i ,
at KapStat
S ia p O p w o iv T iv a
p a c j) at?.
t w v
aAAa
fie v
vw dpoTepw v
a lo O r jT iK w v
a v a p O p o T e p a i,
1 Sta 8c E S U Y Z : Stdvulff.
2 8* Peck : yap vulg., om. Ogle.
242
w s
K a O a rrep e ir r o fie v ,
etot Se rd)v
Se
n a pa -
o vva < f> e ts
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IIL iv.

must be some place in the heart which will be a
receptacle for the blood when first formed. (As we
have stated several times, blood is first formed in
the heart.) N ow there are two chief blood-vessels,
the so-called Great Blood-vessel, and the A o r t a ; each
o f these is the source o f other blood-vessels; and
the two differ from each other (this will be discussed
la te r ); hence it is better for them to have separate
sources. This result can be obtained by having two
separate supplies o f blood, and thus we find two
receptacles wherever this is possible, as in the larger
animals which o f course have large hearts. But it is
better still to have three cavities, and then there is
an odd one in the middle which can be a common
source for the other two ; since, however, this requires
the heart to be particularly large, only the very
largest hearts have three cavities.
O f these cavities it is the right-hand one which
contains the most blood and the hottest (that is why
the right side o f the body is hotter than the le ft) ;
the left-hand cavity contains least blood, and it is
colder. The blood in the middle cavity is inter
mediate both in amount and heat, although it is the
purest o f them a l l ; this is because the source must
remain as calm as possible, and this is secured when
the blood is pure, and intermediate in its amount and
heat.
The heart has also a sort o f articulation, which
resembles the sutures o f the skull. B y this I do not
mean to say that the heart is a composite thing,
consisting o f several parts joined together, but an
articulated whole, as I said. This articulation is more
distinct in animals whose sensation is keen, and less
distinct in the duller ones, such as swine. There are
243
ARISTOTLE
7 a
KaOarrep at rw v vwv.
at Se Sta<f>opal rrjs /capSta?
Kara jxeyeOos re Kal ixiKporrjra Kal oKXrjporrjTd re

Kal [xaXaKorrjTa Telvoval tttj Kal
1rpo?
ra rjdrjmr a
/xev yap avatadrjTa OKXrjpav exet rrjv /capStav /cat
15 nvKvrjVy
r a S ataOrjrtKa fxaXaKwrepav, Kal ra fxev
fxeyaXas exovra ra s /capSta? SetAa, r a S eXaooovs

Kal /xeaas dappaXewrepa
vtto
yap av/xfiaivov rrd6os
(t o
(frofieicdai TTpovirdpxei
to v
avaX oyov exetv
ev fieydXots afiavpovodai, Kal
20etvat).
Sta
to v to is
to
fxrj
Oepfxov Trj KapSia, fxtKpov S ov
to
to
alfxa i/jvxporepov
fxeyaXas Se ra ? /capSta? exovai Xayws,
eXaffros,
fxvs,
vaiva, ovos, TrapSaAt?,1 yaXrj,
raXXa crxeSov ttav6'
oaa
<j>avepws SetAa
rj
Kal
Sta
<fiofiov KaKodpya.
IIapa7rAi7crta)?
rw v
25
K o tX iw v
/cat K o i X i a t .
o t K r jf x a T t
fx a tv e t,
to
yap
rrvp
/cotAta.
e/ca oro v t w v O e p f x w v
30 f x a X X o v
Sto
t o jv
j x e y a X o (f )X e f i w v
to
tw v
ev
jx t K p w
to
ev
Kal
to is
em
ev
jx e y a X w
a y y eta
depyap
eVt S a t a X X o T p t a t K t v r j Se r a t s
K a T a if jv x v o iv , e v
T T v e v jx a
rrX eto v
Kal
ovS ev
evta x vet
ovS e
rw v
e o r t /c ara crap/ca, a A A a r r a v r a
7rAetcTTa t w v t o l o v t w v a S r jX 6 <f>Xefia K a l y u K p o -
K o iX ta
< f> a tv e ra i.
M ovov
Se t w v
a rrX a yxvw v
Kal
oXw s
1 7rap8aAi?] SopKaXis P latt.
244
Kal
fie t^ o a t
d e p jx o v
fx e y a X o K o iX tw v
m ov
< f> X efiw v
a t ju e y a A a t </>Xefies
yap
r ja a o v
/cav t o v t o i s
o vtw
evp vx w p ea rep a ts
rj T a
/cat e m
i/jv x p a l
w a rrep
ta o v
K a l r ) <f>Xei[t K a l rj
a ets
Se
e x et
rw v
ev
tw

other differences in the heart ; some hearts are large,
some small, some are hard, some s o ft ; and these
tend b y some means to influence the creatures
temperament. Illustrations o f this are : animals
whose powers o f sensation are small have hearts that
are hard and dense, those whose sensation is keen
have softer ones ; and those with large hearts are
cowardly, those with small or moderate-sized ones,
courageous (this is because in the former class the
affection which is normally produced by fear is
present to begin with, as their heat is not proportion
ate to the size o f their heart, but is small and there
fore hardly noticeable in the enormous space that it
occupies ; so that their blood is com paratively cold).
The following creatures have large hearts : the hare,
the deer, the mouse, the hyena, the ass, the leopard,
the marten, and practically all other animals whose
cowardice is either outright or else betrayed by their
mischievous behaviour.
Similar conditions obtain in the blood-vessels and
the cavities o f the heart : i f they are large, they are
cold. The effect o f the same-sized fire is less in a
large room than in a small one ; and the same applies
to the heat in these receptacles, the blood-vessels and
the cavities.
Further, extraneous motions have a
cooling effect upon hot things ; and the more roomy
a rcceptacle is, the greater the amount o f air (or
pnenma) in it and the stronger its effect. Thus we
find that no animal which has large cavities or large
blood-vessels has fat flesh, and conversely, that all (or
most) fat animals have indistinguishable blood-vessels
and small cavities.
The heart is the only one o f the viscera indeed
C/. 650 b 27.
See also 692 a 20.
245
ARISTOTLE
667 a acofian
fiopicov rj
vnoef>epei, Kal
35 apxys
KapSia xaAe77ov naOos ovSev
to v t 9
euAoyws* cf>6eipofievr)s yap Trjs
v K ea n v {j ov ye volt9 av fiorjOeia
667 b aXXocs k TavTTfs rfprrffilvois.
tols
Se to v
arjfieiov
firjOev iniSexeaOat iraOos Trjv /capStav t o iv firjSevl

tcov Ovofievwv iepeiwv wcf>6ai to io v to v naOos nepl
avTTfV wanep i n i tcov aXXcov anXay^ycov.
o i Te
yap vecfrpol noXXaKLS cf>aivovrai XiOcov fiea rol Kal
5 cfrvfiarwv
Kal SoOirjvwv Kal t o rjnap, waavrws Se
Kal o nXevfxcov, fiaX iara S o anXrjv.
7roAAa Se Kal
erepa naOrjfiara avfifiaivovra nepl avra cfraiverai,

rjKioTa Se to v fiev nXevfiovos nepl ttjv aprrjplav,
to v S rjnaTOS nepl ttjv avvai/jiv r fj fieyaXr) cj>Xefii,
io Kal t o v t 9 evXoycos* r a v ttj yap fiaXioTa kolvcovovol
r fj KapSia.
oaa Se Sta voaov Kal ro ia v ra na9r]
cfraiverai reXevrw vra tw v wwv, to v to ls dvarefivofievois cfraiveraL nepl tt/v KapSiav voawSrj na8rj.
Kat
ev eK ev
n e p l fie v
K al
Toaavr
15
Sta
r r js
tlv
K a p S ia s, n o i a
a i r ia v
vn a pxei
tls,
K al
tols
tw os
)( o v o l v ,
eip rfoO w ,
V . 'E nofievov S av eirj nepl
tw v
cf>Xef}wv elnecv,
Trjs re fieyaXrjs Kal Trjs doprrjs' aurat yap iK Trjs

KapSias n p w ra i SeôvTat to alfia , at Se Xotnal
tovtw v
ano<j>vaSes elaiv.
otl
fiev oSv
tov
aifiaros
Xdpw elai, nporepov etprjrai to tc yap vypov anav
20 dyyeiov
246
Setrat, Kal
to
cf>Xej3wv yevos ayyeiov,
to
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iv.-v.

the only part in the whole body which cannot
withstand any serious affection. This is readily
understood : the other parts depend upon the heart,
and when this source itself is ailing, there is no place
whence they can obtain succour. A proof that the
heart cannot put up with any affection is this : N ever
has the heart in a sacrificial victim been observed
to be affected in the way that the other viscera
sometimes are. V e ry often the kidneys are found
to be full o f stones, growths, and small abscesses;
so is the liver, and the lung, and especially the
spleen.
M any other affections are observed in
these organs ; but in the lung they occur least
often in that portion which is nearest the windpipe,
and in the liver in that portion which is nearest its
junction with the Great Blood-vessel. This is readily
understood: those are the places where they are
most closely in communication with the heart.
Those animals, however, which die as the result
o f disease, and affections such as I have mentioned,
when cut open are seen to have diseased affections
o f the heart.
W e have now' spoken o f the h e a r t: we have said
w'hat its nature is, what purpose it serves, and why it
is p res en t; and that will suffice.
V.
I suppose that the next subject for us to discuss Bloodis the Blood-vessels, that is, the Great Blood-vessel ' essels'
and the Aorta. I t is these into wrhich the blood
goes first after it leaves the heart, and the other
blood-vessels are m erely branches from these. W e
have already said that these blood-vessels are present
for the sake o f the b lo o d : fluid substances ahvays
need a receptacle, and the blood-vessels generally
are the receptacles which hold the blood. W e may
247
ARISTOTLE
667 b
a lf ia
r a v r a i s * 8 l o t i 8c 8Jo K a i a n o
iv
K a O a rra y
T o v
fiia s
fie v
ovv
a in o v
ipv x f y
X v
/car*
iv
Kal
f io r r jr o s
8 ia
aP X V V
a la O r jr iK r jv
a ifia ro s
a ifia ro s
A vo
fie v
and
iv o r r jr a
Kal
fiia s
Kal
n o p e v r iK c b v
e fin p o a O e v
a p ia r e p o v
Se
T i f -i i c b r e p o v
r r js
r o ls
t o v
a o p r r js
o n ia O e v ,
e v a ifia
K e ir a i,
cfra vep cos,
r r jv
iv
Kal
ro ls
r r jv
Kal
8 e v ia
d n a vr
a f i v 8p c b s
ro
K a rco.
to
e f i n p o a O e v , rj
fie v
rcov
Kal
to
rj f i e y a X r j
fie v
rj
to v to is
o n ia O e v
avco
Kal
r r jv
Kal
h ifie p rj
yap
r jy e f io v iK c o r e p o v
roa ovrco
O ep-
fio p ic o
a770 f i i a s .
e lv a i
to
ro
ia r lv
ttjs
S i a Se r r j v r o d
naai
Kal
Kal
Kal
* rj f i e v y a p
o n to O ev
iv
Kar
apxyv
K ai
c f> X e fio jv
a c o fia ra
rd
S v v a fiiv
iv lo is
e lv a i
a p x f js ,
rj r c o v
ro
35 o a c o
evl
and
r a v r r jv
to
r V s O e p f i o r r j r o s
ia r lv
ra
ev
e tv a i a vrrj
iv
K a 'L T V P
Kal
O e p fio v
t o v
v y p o r r jr o s
to
8e i o v
668 a n p o a O e v
Q ,pX?j$
a la O r jn K r jv
K a ra
a v a ific o v
T r jv
ron co
S ic o p ta r a i
Kal
r r js
ovv
S eicri S i a r o
iv a lfic o v
iv a lfio is
Kal
a vrco
T r jv
fio p io v
to
tojv
a ifia n
a v v r e X e lv
n a vra
t o is
S io
tco
rco
Kal
fie v
iv e p y e ia v ,
a p x ty
e x e iv
to a re
(i v
f io v o v ),
a v a y K a lo v
c u r ia
fiia v
fiia v
iv e p y e ta ,
iv e p y e ia v
so r o v
e ls
to
irp c o rc o s
25 K a l
f iia s
o c o f ia B i a r e l v o v a i , X e y c o f ie v .
to
e ficf>Xeifj
8*
exei
e v ia
iv
ra
8*
a (f r a v c o s -
Tov
5
els
cj>Xef3as a in o v
r o alfia , ro ls
to
to
ndv 8ia8e8oa0ai
to
acbfia ra s
navros elvai ro v acofiaros vXrjv

avaifiois t o avaXoyov, ra v ra 8 iv
a And potentially many ; cf. 682 a 4 ff.
248
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.

now go on to explain why there are two o f these blood
vessels, why they begin from a single source, and why
they extend all over the body.
The reason why finally they both coincide in one
source and also begin from one source is this. The
sensory Soul is, in all animals, one actually; there
fore the part which primarily contains this Soul is
also one (one potentially as well as actually in the
blooded animals, but in some o f the bloodless animals
it is only actually one ), and for this reason the source
o f heat also must o f necessity be in the selfsame
place. But this concerns the blood, for this source
is the cause o f the bloods heat and fluidity. Thus
we see that because the source o f sensation and the
source o f heat are in one and the same part, the blood
must originate from one source too ; and because
there is this one origin o f the blood, the blood-vessels
also must originate from one source.
Th e blood-vessels are, however, tw o in number, be
cause the bodies o f the blooded creatures that move
about are bilateral : we can distinguish in all o f
them front and back, right and left, upper and lower.
And just as the fore part is more honourable and
more suited to rule than the back part, so is the Great
Blood-vessel pre-eminent over the Aorta. The Great
Blood-vessel lies in front, while the A orta is at the
back. A ll blooded creatures have a Great Blood
vessel, plainly visible ; but in some o f them the A orta
is indistinct and in others it cannot be detected.
The reason why the blood-vessels are distributed
all over the body is that blood (and in bloodless
creatures, its counterpart) is the material out o f
which the whole body is constructed, and blood
vessels (and their counterparts) are the channels in
24-9
ARISTOTLE
Ba
cfrAefil
Kal
T p e c fre ra i
tco
Ta
avaAoyov
cpa
e/c T r j s
a v a A a fifia v o v o iv
oecos
10
A o y o is
fia A A o v
e in o fie v ,
S ta 7T a v r o s r o v
k o iA la s
a p fio ^ e i
evA oycos
o c b fia T o s
a ifia
S ia
n a vros
p ic o v
e /caoro v k t o v t o v
* Eot/ce
ev
rj
ndv
Kal
to v
oSv
rp on ov
7T pl
to is
tc o v
fie v
T iv a
o K o n e iv
i r e (f > V K e v
Kal n a p a
yeve
A e y e iv .
a ifia r o s
cf>Aeficov
Set y a p
p vo ts
Kal
to
e lv a t, e n r e p r c o v f i o
o v v e o T r j K e v .]1
S c o o n e p e v t t o i s K r jn o is a t v S p a y c o y la i
15 K a T a o K e v a ^ o v r a i
noA A ovs
nebs
Kal
Se r c o v f i o p i c o v
[L v v io r a f ie v c o v
K aO anep
K e lo O a i.
e/c t w o s
Kal
a ito
oxerovs
fie r a S iS o v a i,
Kal
Kal
ev
ap x y s
fiia s
aAAo vs
T a is
del
Kal
n r jy r js
TTpos
o lK o S o fila is
e ls
ro
ito v ttj
napa
na oa v
t i rjv t w v O e f i e A l c o v v n o y p a < f )r j v A l O o i n a p a j 3 e j 3 A r j v T a i ,
S ta r o T a f i e v K r j n e v o f i e v a
rovs
20 a v T o v
Tponov
cbxerevK e
to v to
c f> v e o O a i
e/c r o v
vS a ros>
Se O e f i e A l o v s e K t c o v A l O w v o l K o S o f i e i o O a i , r o v
rov
Kal
rj
(f > v o i s
ro
o c o f ia r o s , e n e iS r j
a lfia
n a vros
S ia
n a vros
v A r j n e c j> v K e
y l v e r a i S e K a T a S r jA o v e v r o i s f i a A i o r a
/ c a ra -
AeAenrvofievois* ovOev yap aAAo âiVerat napa ras

cf>Aefias, KaOanep enl t c o v afineAlvcov Te Kal o v k I v c o v
25 cf>vAAcov Kal o o ' aAAa r o ia v r a Kal yap t o v t c o v
avaivofievcov2 cf>Aef$es Aelnovrai fiovov.
t o v t c o v S
a in o v o t i t o aifia Kal t o avaAoyov rovrco Svvafiei
ocofia Kal oap rj t o avaAoyov e o T iv KaOanep oSv
1 11. 10-13, quae praecedentia 11. 4-7 repetunt, secludenda.
2 avauofxevcov attice Bekker.
This seems to be an unnecessary repetition of the last
sentence but one.
250

which this material is carried.
As regards the
manner in which animals are nourished, the source
o f the nourishment, and the processes by which
they take it up from the stomach, it is more appro
priate to consider these subjects and to discuss them
in the treatise on Generation.
[But since the parts o f the body are composed
out o f blood, as has been said, it is easy to see why
the course o f the blood-vessels passes throughout
the whole body. The blood must be everywhere
in the body and everywhere at hand i f every one o f
the parts is constructed out o f it.] a
The system o f blood-vessels in the body may be
compared to those water-courses which are con
structed in gardens : they start from one source,
or spring, and branch off into numerous channels,
and then into still more, and so on progressively, so
as to carry a supply to every part o f the garden.
And again, when a house is being built, supplies o f
stones are placed all alongside the lines o f the
foundations. These things are done because (a)
water is the material out o f which the plants in the
garden grow, and (b) stones are the material out o f
which the foundations are built. In the same way,
Nature has provided for the irrigation o f the whole
body with blood, because blood is the material out
o f which it is all made. This becomes evident in
cases o f severe emaciation, when nothing is to be
seen but the blood-vessels : just as the leaves o f vines
and fig-trees and similar plants, when they wither,
leave behind nothing but the veins. The explana
tion o f this is that the blood (or its counterpart) is,
potentially, the body (that is, flesh or its counter
part). Thus, just as in the irrigation system the
251
ARISTOTLE
668 a
ev r a is
ox^ reia is at fie y io r a i
twv
racf>pcov Sta-
fiev o v o tv, at S eAa^tarat rrpcbrai Kal rax^cos v n o

rrjs IXvos acfraviôvrai, naXiv S eKXenrovorjs
30 <f>avepal y iv o v ra i, rov auTov rp on ov Kal rcov cf>Xe/3cov
at fiev fie y io r a t Sta/xeVouoxv, at 8* eAa^tarat ytvovrat oapK es evepyeia, Suva/xet S etcrtv ouSev
fjo o o v cf>Xefies Sto /cat ocoôfievcov rcov crap/cwv
KaO7 o n o v v alfia p el Statpovfievcov' /caiVot aveu fiev
cf>Xefios o v k e a n v at/xa, c/>Xefiiov1 S ouSev SrjXov,
35
668 b
cboTrep o v 8 ev rot? oêrois at racfrpoi nplv fj rrjv

IXvv eâtpedijvav,
*E/c /xetovwv S et? iX aooovs at cf>Xefies aet
npoepxovrat ews row yeveodai rovs nopovs eAao-
001;?
rfjs* tou a ifia ros n axvrrjros* St wv to ) fiev

a lfia n SioSos ou/c eoTt, t w Se n ep irrcofia rt rrjs
vypas t/c/taSos, ov /caAou/xev ISpcbra, /cat t o v to
StaOepfiavOevros ro v ocofiaros Kal rcov cf>Xefticov

avaorofjLcodevrcov.
rjSrj Se nocv iSpwoai avvefirj
alfiarcoSei
n e p irrco fia n
Sia
/caê^tav,
tou
fiev
acofiaros pvaSos Kal fiavov yevofievov, tou S atfia ros vypav9evros St* aireijjlav, aSvvarovorjs rrjs
ev ro is cfrXefiiois Oepfiorrjros neooeiv St oXiyorrjra,
10 (eiprjrai yap o n nav r o kolvov yrjs Kal vSaros
n a xvvera i rreooofievov, 17 Se rpocfrrj Kal r o alfia
fiiK rov e aficfroiv.) aSuvaret Se neooeiv rj Qepfiorrjs
ov fiovov Sta rfjv avrrjs oX iyorrjra aAAa /cat Sta
nXrjdos Kal vnepfioXrjv rrjs elocfaepofievrjs Tpocfrrjs*
1 <f)\ep{ov Bekker.
a Could Aristotle have seen a case of haematoporphyria ?
252

biggest channels persist whereas the smallest ones
quickly g e t obliterated by the mud, though when
the mud abates th ey reappear ; so in the body the
largest blood-vessels persist, while the smallest ones
become flesh in actuality, though potentially they
are blood-vessels as much as ever before. Accordingly
we find that, as long as the flesh is in a sound con
dition, wherever it is cut, blood will flo w ; and
although no blood-vessels are visible, they must be
there (because we cannot have blood without blood
vessels) just as the irrigating channels are there
right enough, but are not visible until they are
cleared o f mud.
The blood-vessels g e t progressively smaller as they
go on until their channel is too small for the blood
10 pass through. But, although the blood cannot
g e t through them, the residue o f the fluid moisture,
which w e call sweat, can do so, and this happens when
the body is thoroughly heated and the blood-vessels
open wider at their mouths. In some cases, the sweat
consists o f a blood-like residue a : this is due to a bad
general condition, in which the body has become loose
and flabby, and the blood watery owing to insufficient
concoction, which in its turn is due to the weakness
and scantiness o f the heat in the small blood-vessels.
(W e have already said that all compounds o f earth
and w ater are thickened by concoction, and this cate
gory includes food and blood.) The heat m ay, as
I say, be in itself too scanty to be able to cause
concoction, or it may be that it is scanty in comparison
with the amount o f food that enters the body, i f
See A. E. Garrod, Inborn Errors of Metabolism, Oxford, 1923,
pp. 136 fF. Also H. Giinther, Deutsches Archiv f. klin.
Medizin, 1920, 134, PP- 257 ff.
253
ARISTOTLE
668 b
,
ylvera i Se npos ra vrrjv
15 Sictot)'
K a l yap tw
ofiolw s evnenrov.
, /
oXlyrj.
>
rj S vnepfioXrj
K a l r a t n o iw o v yap n a v
(pel Se fiaX iara r o aifia Kara
noaw
rovs cvpv\ojporarovs tojv nopw v Sionep e/c rw v

(ivKrrjpwv K a l rw v ovXwv K a l rrjs eSpass iv lo re Se
K a l e/c ro v a rofia ros aifioppoiSes anovoi ylvovrai,
oi>x wanep e/c rrjs aprrjpias fiera fiias.)
A iearw aai S avwOev rj re fieydXrj <f>Xeifj
Kal
20
K a l
rj
aoprrj, Karw S evaXXaaaovaai avvexovai to aw fia.

n poiovoai yap a x l& v ra i Kara rrjv Si<f>vtav rw v
k w X w v ,
K al rj /xev e/c ro v efinpoaOev els rovniaOev
npoepx^rai, rj S e/c ro v oniaOev els rovfinpoaOev,
25 K a l ovfifidXXovoiv els ev* wanep y a p ev ro is nXeKOfievois eyylverai r o avvex^S fiaXXov,
ovtw
Kal Sia
rrjs rw v <f>Xefiwv eVaAAafea>s avvSelrai rw v aw fiarw v ra npoaOia rois oniaOev. ofiolw s Se Kal and
rrjs
K a p S ia s
v ro ls avw ro n o is avfifialvei.
to
Se
fie r aKpifielas ws exovaiv a i <j)Xefies npos aXXrjXas,

30 e/c t c tcuv avaro/iwv Sel Oewpelv Kal e/c rrjs wiKrjs
laropias.
K a i nepl fiev cfrXefiwv Kal KapSias elprjaOw,
nepl Se twv aXXwv anXayxvwv OKenreov Kara rrjv
avrrjv fieOoSov.
V I . HXevfiova fiev ovv eêi Sia
to
n etov elvai
ti
yevos rw v wwv. a v a y K a l o v fiev y a p ylveaOai tw

35 Oepfiw Karaiftvtjiv, ra vrrjs Se Selrai OvpaOev rd
669 a evaifia rw v wwv Oepjiorepa yap. ra Se firj evaifia
0
The posterior vena cava.
b Hist. An., especially 511 b 11515 a 26.
254
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.-vi.

this is excessive ; and this excess may be due either
to the quantity of it or (since some substances are
less patient of concoction than others) to its quality.
(Haemorrhage occurs most where the passages are
widest, as from the nostrils, the gums and the
fundament, and occasionally from the mouth. At
these places it is not painful; when, however, it
occurs from the windpipe, it is violent.)
The Great Blood-vessel and the Aorta, which in
the upper part are some distance from cach other,
lower down change sides, and thus hold the body
compact. That is to say, when they reach the place
where the legs diverge, they divide into two, and
the Great Blood-vessel goes over to the back from
the front, and the Aorta to the front from the back;
and thus they unite the body together, for this
changing over o f the blood-vessels binds together
the front and the back of the body just as the cross
ing of the strands in plaiting or twining makes the
material hold together more stoutly. A similar
thing occurs in the upper part of the body, where
the blood-vessels that lead from the heart are inter
changed. For an exact description of the relative
disposition of the blood-vessels, the treatises on
Anatomy and the Researches upon Animals 5 should be
consulted.
We have now finished our discussion of the heart
and the blood-vessels, and we must go on to consider
the remaining viscera on the same lines.
VI.
First the Lung. The reason why any group of
animals possesses a lung is because they are landcreatures. It is necessary to have some means for
cooling the heat of the body ; and blooded animals
are so hot that this cooling must come from outside
255
Lung,
ARISTOTLE
tw
Kal
o v f i< /> v tw
Sc
avdyK T ]
St07rcp t w v
avrt t o v t o v
5 a v a T r v o r js
T r v e v jia n
fie v
8a
ew
Ix O v w v
fip d y x ia ,
n
S vva ra c
8e v r j
ouSct? c^ct
K a r a if ju x ^ iv
K a O d rrep
yap
a e p i.
aAA*
T re p i
to l s
K a r a if jv ijiv
ttjv
ra
r a ava7r v e o v r a c^ct ttAe v f i o v a . a v a r r v e T Sc r a /xcv 7rca

7ravra, evta Sc /cat ra>v cvi/Spwv, o l o v <f>aAatva /cat
ScA^t? /cat r a a v a ( f > v o w v r a k t j t t j T r a v r a * 7roAAa yap
10 rwv wwv 7ra/xôrcptct r r j v < f> v o iv , /cat twv tc
7tcwv K a l rov acpa Scô/xcvwv Sta rqv rov o w f i a r o s
K p a o i v cv uypw StarcAct rov t t X c l o t o v x p o v o v , K a l
r w v cv rw uypw /xcrc^ct toooStov evta ri}? T r e ^ r js
< f> vo e w s w o t
cv rw T r v e v f i a n a v r w v e t v a i t o r e X o s
t o v
77v.
a v a lr v e o v r a
T o v
is
a p x fjv
S*
a v r o v
o o fu fr o r r jr a
e lo p e i
r o Sc
t o
ev
Aovro?,
K e ir a i
fir jh e v
r r js
ro
K a l
fie y e d o s *
a rrex ei
t o
etv a i
e lr r e iv
y iv e o d a i
t* cv rot?
O e o iv
t o
r o v
ttX
e v fio v a
a vO p w rrw
ttjs
r e
r o v
7 toAuv
r r js
T Tpos
/xcv
/cap
cru/x-
Sta t o
r o v
fie
A-
T07r0V /cat
T r X e v fio v o s ,
r r X e v fio v a
ttjv
7 raAiv.
y a p
T r r jh r jo e w s
T T p o o h o K ia
T r X e io r o is
a v w r e p w
o v jifid X X e o d a i
a lp o fie v o v
S c^ c p ^ cra t
t o v
K a l
tto lw v
Sta
T r v e v fia r o s
o v v l o v t o s
/caAw?* cv
X ttlS l
r r jv
ctaoS w
a X o iv
e ip r jr a i
jSatvct /xovov w?
fio v o v
c ^ w v a 7 rd T77 ? /capSta?,
r r v e v fia ,
7 rpo? r r j v
Sta? ou/c
20
r fj
T ra vra
opyavov c a rt, ttjv /xcv
r r X e v fiw v
K iv r jo e w s
e v p v x w p ia v
yap
a e p i,
t w
S a v a 7rvtv o
r r js
Sto77cp
fj
r r X e v fio v a ,
e ip r jr a i
T ro ie ir a i
/carai/ar^ctv.
vS a n
r r jv
w o r e
a X o iv
/capSta?.
A ta ^ c p c t S o
rr X e v fiw v
ttoX v
to l s
<0 1 ?.
r a /xcv
0 See above, on 659 b 17.

b 476 a 6.
6 See above, on 650 b 19 ff.
4 This view is expressed by Timaeus in Platos Timaeus, 70c.
256
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vi.

them, though the bloodless ones can do their own
cooling by means of the connate pneuma. Now
external cooling must be effected either by water or
by air. This explains why none of the fishes has
a lung. They are water-cooled, and instead of a
lung they have gills (see the treatise on Respiration).b
Animals that breathe, on the other hand, are aircooled, and so they all have a lung. All land-animals
breathe ; so do some of the water-animals (e.g. the
whale, the dolphin, and all the spouting cetacea).
This is not surprising, for many animals are inter
mediate between the two : some that are landanimals and breathe spend most of their time in the
water owing to the blend 0 in their bodies ; and
some of the water-animals partake of the nature of
land-animals to such an extent th<at the limiting
condition o f life for them lies in their breath.
Now the organ of breathing is the lung. It has
its source o f motion in the heart, and it affords a
wide space for the breath to come into because it is
large and spongy: when the lung rises up, the
breath rushes in, and when it contracts the breath
goes out again. The theory d that the lung is pro
vided as a cushion for the throbbings of the heart is
not correct. This leaping of the heart is practically
not found except in man, and that is because man is
the only animal that has hope and expectation o f
the future. Besides, in most animals the heart is
a long way off from the lung and lies well above
it, and so the lung cannot be of any assistance in
absorbing the throbbings of the heart.
There are many differences in the lung. Some
e In quadrupeds the lung is above the heart, but not in
man, owing to the difference of posture.
257
ARISTOTLE
669 a
25 ya p
evaifiov e%ei Kai /leyav, r a
8 eX arrw
Kal
oo/i<frov, r a fiev w oroK a Sta ttjv Oep/iorr/ra rrjs

cfrvaews fiel^w /cat rroXvai/iov, r a S w oroK a r/pov
Kal fiiKpov, 8vva/ievov Se /leyaXa SuaraaOai ev r w
e/icfrvaaaOai, w anep Ta rerparroSa fiev a)OTOKa 8e
30
tw v rre^wv, olov ot r e aavpoi /cat at êAajvai /cal

7rav ro rotourov y e v o s , e n Se rrpos t o v t o i s fj tw v
rrnr/vcbv cfrvais /cat KaXov/ievwv opviOwv.
Travrwv
ya p t o v t wv ao/icfros o rrXev/iwv Kal o/ioios acfrpw

Kal ya p o acfrpos e/c ttoXXov /iiKpos y lv er a i a v yx^ ofievos, Kal o r o v r w v rrXev/iwv /iiKpos Kal v/ievcoSr/s
35
Sto /cat aSiifra Kal 6Xiyo7rora r a v r a Travra, Kal

Svvarai ttoXvv ev rw vypw avexeoO ai x p o v o v a re
ya p oXiyov e x o v ra Oep/iov iKavws em ttoXvv xpovov
669 b
Karaifrvx^rai vtt9 avrrjs Trjs r o v rrXev/iovos Kivrja e w s , ov ros aepw Sovs Kal Kevov.1
(Hv/ifiefir/Ke Se /cat r a /ieyeOr] r o v r w v eX arrw rw v
t,wwv w s irrlrrav eiTreiv
to
ya p Oep/iov avr/riKov,
rj Se TroXvai/ila Oep/iorr/ros orj/ielov.

5 ra
aco/iara fiaXXov,
Stomp
e n 89 opOoi
avOpwnos
fiev
rw v
aXXwv opO orarov, r a Se w oroK a rw v aXXwv r e r p a ttoSw v *
ouSev ya p o/iolws rpw yX oSvrei rw v a>o-
tokw v , ovt
arrow o v re Treêvov.)
*0Xws fiev ovv o rrXev/iwv ea n v avarrvoijs x^ P lv>

avai/ios Se Kal ro io v ro s yevovs rivos eveKev wwv
10 aAA
avwvv/iov rd koivov err9 avrw v, Kal oi>x warrep

o v t o s . . k ^ v o v Thurot : o v o t j s K cvrjs vulg.
Cf. 653 a 30 ff.
258
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vi.

animals have a large lung, which contains blood ;
others a small one and spongy. In the Vivipara it is
large and has much blood in it because these creatures
have a hot nature : in the Ovipara it is dry and small,
but it can expand to a great size when inflated :
examples of these are : among land-animals, the
oviparous quadrupeds like the lizards, tortoises, and
all such creatures, and in addition to these the
tribe of winged things, the birds. All these have a
spongy lung, which, like froth, runs together and
contracts from a large volume into a small one. So
it counts as small; and also it is membranous. As a
result, all these creatures are not much subject to
thirst, and drink but little ; and also they can bear to
remain a long time under the water: this is because
their heat is scanty and can therefore be sufficiently
cooled over a long period by the mere motion of the
lung, which is void and air-like.
(Consequently, one may add, in general these
creatures are smaller in size than the majority of
animals, as growth is promoted by heat, and a plenti
ful supply of blood is a sign that heat is present.
Furthermore, heat tends to make the body upright,
which explains why man is the most upright among
the animals and the Vivipara the most upright among
the quadrupeds. And there are no viviparous
creatures, either with or without feet, so fond of
creeping into holes as the Ovipara are.)
The lung, then, is present for the sake of the
breathing : this is its function always. Sometimes,
to serve the purpose of a particular group, it is blood
less, and such as has been described above. There
is no common name which is applied to all animals
that have lungs. But there ought to be : because
259
ARISTOTLE
,b
8 LO W O n e p TO
O OpVIS (bvOfJLCLGTCU 7TL Tl VOS yeVOVS*

o p v iO i
e lv a i
v ir a p x e i
V II.
A oK ei
f io v o < f > v r j,
15 S ifffv r jt
n vo s
Se
<f>avelrj
Kal
w s
o w fx a T O s
v e c fr p o l,
yap
av
Kal
Ta
Svo
S ia o T a o is
e o T iv .
Kal
w s
to
Se
to v to is
25 w o r e
v y e
8O K e iv
v e (f > p o l
Kal
o n X r jv a
a iT io v
to is
exovra
SiT
n a vrl
S iK a lw s
o tl
ev
fie v
fila v
Se
S
K a l a p io r e p o v
fio v X e ra i
S if ie p r js
e x e iv
a vra
n X e v fio v a s .
K a ra
Se
tls
to ls
to
avdyK T]s
oi
f jn a p
a n o p r jo e ie v .
K a ra
be
8lio T r jK e v
to o o vto v
S r jX o i *
av
t t jv
K a l k o ltw , t o
S e i 6v
w o to k o ls
to
eK a rep ov,
ovoa y npos
e y K e c fra X o s
Se
n orep w s
S a i T i o v rj t o v
to
fie v
e tva i
ra
e tva i n d o i K a l t w v
a lo O r jT r jp lw v e K a o T o v .
\
> \ ^ \ /
(
o/
a
\ t
t o v a v r o v o e A o y o v rj K a p b i a T a i s K o i A i a i s .
n X e v fiw v
o v a la
fie v
f i o v o < j> v e s
n a p a n X r jo la v
S k ^ v t js
Kal
Ta
a n o p e iT a i
8 i < j)v a .
om oO ev,
S io n e p
rfj
n X e v fiw v ,
20 o v v T e X o v o a a p x r j v ' t o f i e v y a p a v w
e fin p o o O e v
ev
e n a fiffr o T e p l^ e iv
Kal ya p
iv o s
e K e lv w v
onX ayxvw v
K a p S ia
Se n d v r a
eoTi
Kal
e x e iv .
tc o v
o n X r jV
avO '
< /> v o iv .
io n ,
K aO anep
K aO anep
e \ e i.
fjn a p
Kal
eK
r r X e v fio v a
to
Se
Kal to v
to v to v
exovoi
8*
o n X r jv a
S o ^ e ie v a v o t o v v o O o v e l v a i r j n a p o o n X r j v , i v Se t o l s
fir)
a v a y K T js
e x o v o iv
aAAa
n a fifiiK p o v
w onep
30 o r j f i e l o v x ^ P l v > e v a p y w s S i f i e p e s t o r j n d p o t i v , K a l
t o f i e v ( f i e T ^ o v y e l s t c l S e f i a , t o S e A aT T ov e l s r a p iO T e p a fio v X e T a i t t jv
ev
to ls
w o to k o ls
iv lo is Se
O e o iv
f jT T O V f i e v
e ^ e tv .
rj i n i
f ir jv
aAAa K a l
to vtw v
< j> a v e p o v ,
ov
[/ca/cei w o n e p e v t i o x ]3 w o t o k o l s i m S r j X w s
S ie o T T fK e v , o t o v K a r a t l v a s T o n o v s o i S a o v n o S e s S v o
1 ye Peck: tc vulg.
8
260
seclusi i
2 fielôv conieceram; maior pars L.

coni. Th.
wanep ev tio i om. E Y : KaKctvcov
v i.-v ii.
the possession of a lung is one of their essential

characteristics, just as there are certain char
acteristics which are included in the essence of
a bird, the name which is applied to another such
class.
VII.
Some of the viscera appear to be single why the
(e.g. the heart and the lung) ; others double redouble.
(e.g. the kidneys) ; and some it is difficult to place
under either heading. The liver and the spleen ap
parently are intermediate ; they can be considered
either as each being a single organ, or else as two
organs taking the place of one and having a similar
character. In fact, however, all of them are double.
And the reason for this is that the structure of the
body is double, though its halves are combined under
one source. We have upper and lower halves, front
and back halves, right and left halves. Thus even the
brain as well as each of the sense-organs tends in all
animals to be double ; so does the heartit has
cavities. In the Ovipara the lung is so much divided
that they appear to have two lungs. The kidneys
are obviously double ; but there is fair room for
hesitation about the liver and spleen. This is be- Liver and
cause in those animals which of necessity have a sPleenspleen, the spleen looks rather like a bastard liver,
while in those which have a spleen though not of
necessity i.e. a very small one, as it were by way
o f a tokenthe liver is patently double, and the
larger part of it tends to lie towards the right, the
smaller towards the left. Still, there are cases even
among the Ovipara where this division is less distinct
than in those just described, while in some Vivipara
the division is unmistakable e.g. in some districts
261
ARISTOTLE
669 b
Sokovoiv rjrr a r %XIV> K&0anep rcov IxOvwv erep oi

r e rives Kal o i oeXaxw heis
670 a
A t a Se t o rrjv Oeaiv e%eiv t o rjnap ev r o is Setjiois
/xaAA ov rj r o v onXrjvos y e y o v e cfrvais, c o o t a v a y
Kalov fiev n w s , f i T j A t a v S e t v a t v a a i r o is Repots*
T ov fiev ovv S t cfrvrj rrjv cfrvaiv elvai r w v on X a yXywv a in o v , w anep ein ofiev, ro StT elvai r o 8 e io v
5 K a l rd a p io rep o v * e K a r e p o v ya p t y r e 1 r o ofioiov,
w anep Kal a v ra fiovXerai napanXrjalav Kal S iSvfirjv
e%iv ttjv cfrvaiv, Kal KaOanep1 e/cetva SiSvfia fiev,
ovvrjprrjrai S els e v , /cat t c o v anX ayxvw v ofioiw s
eK aarov.
vE o r t S e an X a yxva r a Karw r o v vn o^ w fia ros
Koivfj fiev n a v ra rw v <frXej3wv % a p tv , on w s o u o a t
10 fierew p oi fievw ai t w
r o v r w v ovvSe'afiw n pos t o
o w fia . KaOanep ayK vpai ya p jSefiXrjvrai n p os t o
aw jia S t a t c o v a n orera fiev w v fio p iw v and fiev rrjs
fieyaXrjs cfrXefios T T p o s t o rjnap K a l ro v onXrjva,
r o v rw v ya p rw v anX ayxvw v rj cfrvais otov rjXoi n pos
rd awfxa n pooX afifiavovoiv avrrjv, els /xev T a
15 nX ayia r o v a w fia ros r o 0 r j n a p K a l o onXrjv rrjv
cfrXefia rrjv fieyaXrjv (ano ravrrjs ya p els a v ra fiovov
S iareivovoi cfrXefies), els S e r a oniaOev o i vecfrpoi.
n pos S eKeivovs ov fiovov a n o rrjs fieyaXrjs
cfrXefios a A A a /cat a n o rrjs a oprrjs reivei cfrXeifi els
35
eK arepov.
T a v r a Srj avfifi a t v e t S ta t o u t c o v rfj o v a r a o et

w w v i<al t o fiev rjnap Kal o onXrjv ftorjOei
npos ttjv neifriv rrjs rpocfrrjs (evaifia ya p o v ra 8ep-
20 t c o v
1 Kal KaOanep P Z : /cat om. vulg.
262
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vii.

hares appear to have a couple of livers ; so do certain
fishes, especially the cartilaginous ones.
The spleen owes its existence to the liver being
placed somewhat over to the right-hand side of the
body : this makes the spleen a necessity in a way,
though not an urgent one, for all animals.
Thus, the reason why the viscera are double in
their formation is, as we have said, that the body
is two-sided, having right and left. Each of the twro
aims at similarity, just as the sides themselves strive
to have a similar nature, and to be as like as twins ;
and just as the sides, though dual, are conjoined
together into a unity, so also it is with the several
\iscera.
The viscera wiiich are below the diaphragm are
all o f them present for the sake of the blood-vessels,
in order that the latter may have freedom of carriage
and at the same time be attached to the body by
means of the viscera, which act as a bond. Indeed,
there are, as it were, anchor-lines thrown out to
the body through the extended parts : e.g. from the
Great Blood-vessel to the liver and to the spleen, for
these viscera act, as it were, like rivets and fasten it
to the b o d y ; that is to say, the liver and the spleen
fasten the Great Blood-vessel to the sides of the body
(since blood-vessels pass to them from it alone), wrhile
the kidneys fasten it to the rear parts. And to the
kidneysto each of themthere is a blood-vessel
passing not only from the Great Blood-vessel but
also from the Aorta.
These advantages, then, accrue to the animal organ
ism from the lowrer viscera. Liver and spleen also
assist in the concoction of the food, since they both
' Sharks, etc.
263
ARISTOTLE
670 a
TTJV (f>1J O lv ) , o l S Ve<f)pol T7pO$ TO TTpl T-
flTJV
T O J f ia T O IS TTJV K V O T IV a n O K p iV O f ie V O V .
K a p S ia
f i e v o v v /cat r j n a p
n a o iv
avay/cata
t o is
t ,w o is , rj f i e v Sta t t j v T r js O e p f io r r jr o s a p x r j v (Set y a p
25 e l v a i T i v a o lo v e a r l a v , ev f j K e l a e r a i ttJs <f>vaew $ to
famupouv, /cat t o v t o e v < f> v X a K ro v , w a n e p a K p o n o X is
o f f o a t o v a w f i a r o s ) , t o 8 s r j n a p T r js n e ip e w s \ a p i v ,
n a v ra
Se S e i r a i Ta e v a i f i a S v o i v
t o v t o iv
, S io n e p
e \ e i n a v r a r a e v a i f i a S v o T a a n X a y ^ v a r aura1* ocra
30 S* a v a n v e t , /cat n X e v f io v a r p l r o v .
*0 Se anXrjv Kara av(ifiefirj k o s e avayKTjs v n apxî t o i s eôuatv, wanep /cat Ta n e p t T T W f i a r a ,
to t
ev T r j KoiXla Kal t o nepl rrjv K iia n v . Sionep
ev ria iv e/cAetVet Kara to fieyedos, wanep rw v re
nrepw rw v eviois, oaa depfirjv eêt t t j v KOiXlav, otov
670 b nepiarepa, tepaf , I k t i v o s , Kal enl t w v w o t o k w v
Se /cat rerpanoSw v ofiolw s (fiiKpov yap nafinav
exovaiv), /cat noXXois rw v Xem Sw rw v anep /cat
K vanv o v k eêt Sta to rpeneadat to n eptrrw fia Sta
fiavwv rw v aapKwv els nrepa Kal XenlSas. o yap
5 anXrjv a vria n a e/c ttJs KoiXlas ra s iKfiaSas ra s
nepirrevovaas, Kal Svvarai a vfin erreiv alfiarwSrjs
wv. av Se to n ep trrw fia nXeiov fj rj oXiyoOepfios o
anXrjv, voaaKepa y lvera i nXrjprjs2 (o v a a Y rpo(j>rjs*
Kal Sia t t j v evravda naXlppoiav t t j s vyporrjros noXAots* at KoiXlai oKXrjpal y lvovra i anXrjviwaiv, wa10 np ro is Atav ovprjriKols, Sta to avnnepianaaOai
1 ravra P : Tavra novov vulg.
8 trXrjpijs E Y Z : irXnpm vulg.
3 (ovaa) Peck.
264,
v ii.
have blood in them and so are hot. The kidneys

assist in connexion with the residue which is excreted
into the bladder.
Now the heart and the liver are necessary to all
animals. The heart is necessary because there must
be a source of h ea t: there must be, as it were, a
hearth, where that which kindles the whole organism
shall reside ; and this part must be well guarded,
being as it were the citadel of the body. The liver is
necessary for the sake of effecting concoction. All
blooded creatures must have these two viscera, and
that is why these two are always present in them.
A third, the lung, is present in those animals that
breathe.
But the spleen, where present, is present o f necessity spleen,
in the sense of being an incidental concomitant, as
are the residues in the stomach and in the bladder.
So in some animals the spleen is deficient in size,
as in certain birds which have a hot stomach, e.g.
the pigeon, the hawk, and the kite ; the same applies
to the oviparous quadrupeds (all of these have an
extremely small spleen) and to many of the scaly
creatures. These animals just mentioned also lack
a bladder, because their flesh is porous enough to
enable the residues formed to pass through it and
produce feathers and scales. For the spleen draws
off the residual humours from the stomach and in
virtue of its blood-like nature can assist in the con
coction of them. If, however, the residue is too
bulky or the spleen has too little heat, the stomach
gets full of nourishment and becomes diseased.
And in many cases, when the spleen is ailing,
the stomach becomes hardened owing to the
fluid which runs back into it. This happens with
265
ARISTOTLE
ra s
v y p o r r jr a s .
K aO arrep
r o is
c ^ c t,
fie y a v
rerp a T rooi
Sc o X l y r / T r e p l r r c o o i s
o ls
o p v e o is
ra
Sc
Kal
r o is
o r jjie lo v
Ix O v o i,
X ^ P LV%
ra
K a 'L
y lv e ra i,
/xcv o v
*v
T0^
Sc r o i s c o o t o k o i s f i i K p o s K a l o n < j > p o s K a l
vecf>pco 8r js o o t t X t j v I o n
S i a t o t o v 7tAe v f i o v a o o f ic f r o v
15 CIVal K a l 6 A iy 0 7 T 0 T lV K a l TO 7T p i y i V O f l V O V T T p lT r c o fia
rp erreoO a i
<X)07Tp
e ls
to
e ls
o c b fia
Kal
ra s
cf>oXl8 a s ,
T a 7r r e p a TO I S o p v i o i v .
*Ev Sc TOl? KUOTIV côuoi /cai tov TrAcu/xova

evaifiov vyp os e o n Sia re rrjv elprjfievrjv a lrla v Kal
Sia to rfjv (f>voiv rrjv rcov apiorepcbv oXcos v y p o 20 repav civai Kai tjjvxporepav. 8vrjprjrai ya p rcov
evavrlcov eKaarov TTpos rrjv ovyyevrj o w T O i ^ i a v ,
oiov Sciov evavrlov apiorepco Kal Oepfiov evavrlov
i/wxpco Kal o v o r o ix a ya p aXXrjXois e lol ro v elprjfievov rpoTTov.
01 Sc vecfrpol ro is exovoiv o v k avayKrjs aAAa
t o v
efi Kal KaXcos eveKev VTrapxovoiv rrjs yap
25 Trepirrcooecos X^PLV r Vs k TVV k v o t i v aOpoiôjievrjs
e lol K a r a rrjv ISlav cfrvoiv, ev ooois irXeiov v t t o o rrjfia ylvera i r o ro to v ro v , oncos fieXnov d7roSi8cp
fj K von s t o avrrjs epyov.
>E 7 x c i
S c
r r js
o v f if ie f ir jK e v
so rrep l
K vorecos
fio p ic o v
a v r r js
e x e iv
vvv,
a p iO fio v
eveK a
ra
<Sa
x p e ia s
K a i
r r jv
v T r e p fia v r a s
nepl
yap
rovs
t c
v e c j> p o v s
k v o tiv ,
A ck tco v
t o v
cf>pevcbv
ecj> e rjs
ovh ev
ttc o
tc o v
Si-
The reference to the columns or double list is

not clear. There was a Pythagorean ovoroixia ; this and
other avaroixtai are mentioned in Rosss note on his trans
lation of Met. 986 a 23.
6 i.e. left and cold are both in the same column ; right and
hot are both in the other column.
266
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vn.

those who make water excessively : the fluids are
drawn back again into the stomach. But in animals
where the amount of residue produced is small, as in
birds and fishes, the spleen is either small or present
simply by way of a token. In the oviparous quadru
peds, too, the spleen is small and compact, and
like a kidney, because the lung is spongy and the
animals drink little, and also because the residue
which is produced is applied for the benefit of the
body itself and of the scaly plates which cover it,
just as in birds it is applied for the benefit of the
feathers.
In those animals, however, which possess a bladder,
and whose lung contains blood, the spleen is watery.
The reason already given partly explains this. An
other is that the left side of the body is generally
more watery and colder than the right. As we know,
the opposites are divided up into two columns, so
that each is classed with those that are akin to it, e.g.
right is in the opposite column to left, and hot to
cold ; and thus some of them stand together in the
same column, as I have just indicated.6
Kidneys are present in some animals, but not
o f necessity ; they are present to serve a good pur
pose ; that is to say, their particular nature enables
them to cope with the residue which collects in the
bladder, in those cases where this deposit is somewhat
abundant, and to help the bladder to perform its
function better.
Since the bladder is present in animals to serve
precisely the same purpose as the kidneys, we must
now say something about it. This will involve a
departure from the serial order in which the parts
actually come, for we have said nothing so far about
267
ARISTOTLE
670 b copiarai,
Se
to vto
> /
eonv.
V III.
e o iK e v
671 a t o v
c fr v a is
n X e v fio v a
8ia
tco
K vo tcv
rj
yap
t t jv
fio p c c o
tcov
cpcov,
aAAa
e v a ifio v
Kal
t t js
8*
T p o c frrjs
ov
ef
<pa,
exovai
c vX o y to s.
e x o v o iv
fio v o v
c o o t*
nX eLovos,
r jv
TaVT* o ti
ra
to c s
to v to ls
c frvo eco s,
8 iifr r jT iK d
8e i T a i
e^t
8 i 8o v a i
an o
jjlo v o v ,
vttep o x ty
K a l T r js v y p a s
7t o v t
ov
fio v X o fie v r j
to vtc o ,
r a OTrXayxva fiopccov
tc tcov n e p l
ev
fia X lO T a
T r js
fy p a s
a v a y K r js
Kal
1 5 7 T p L T T c o fia y i v e o 0 a i 7 t X e i o v K a l f i r j t o o o v t o v f i o v o v
lo
OGOV
V IT O
T r js
fi T a
to v
T a v T r js
etva i
tc
7T T T o 0aC
K O lX c a S
S e K T iK o v
Kal
n e p iT T c o fJ ia T O s .
to v to v
oaa
ttX e v f i o v a
k v o tiv
oaa
8 e fir j t o i o v t o v ,
8c a
n X e v fio v a
to
e v T o fia
Kal
Xem ScoTa
to v
fj
TaVTa
exec
e x e iv
7Torou
15 e \ e c t o v t c o v
to lo v to v ,
aAA*
rocvvv
a n o vt
exec
fj o X iy o n o T a
o o fic fr o v ,
fj
to
oX cos
co ti
vypov
x ^ P lv
Kal
7T p i y i v 6f l V O V
TO
to v
ÂAa T p o c fr r js , o l o v r a
oi
Ix O v e s ,
eri Se n T e p c o T a e o T i v f j
cfro X c S c o T a , T a v T a 8 c o X i y o r r j T a T T r j s
ov
7T p O G c fr o p a s
vypov
K K p iV o O a i
a va yK rj
S io n e p
n p o o c fre p e T a i
Kal
T r e p C T T c o fia r o s .
k v o tiv ,
S ia
TOV
n X r jv
to
TpeneaO ai
T T e p iT T C O fia T O S
a i xeX cbva i t o jv
e ls
o u S ev
c fr o X iS c o -
t c o v , K a l i v T a 6 0 ' f j c fr v a is K K o X 6 j3 c o T a i f i o v o v
a iT io v
S* o t l a i f i e v 0 a X a T T i a i a a p K c o S r j K a l e v a i f i o v e x o v a i
to v
ir X e v fio v a
fie i^ c o
20 K a l
268
Kal
KaTa
7t v k v o v
o fio c o v tc o
Aoyov.
e lv a i
Sia
fia v c b v
o c fr e o i
Kal
vypov
to ls
fj
to
tco v
t o ls
fio e ic p ,
en Se Sia
n e p ie x o v
aapK cbv,
aXXois
ov
ooTpaK cbSes
S ia n v e o v T o s
o to v
to is
a i S e x p o a i a i
to
to is
to v
o p v io i
c fr o X iS c o T o ls ,
Kal
v i ro-
aAA*
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vn.-vm.

the diaphragm, though this is one of the parts that
are near the viscera.
VIII.
The bladder is not present in all animalsBladder.
:
Nature seems to have intended only those animals
which have blood in their lung to have a bladder.
And this is quite reasonable, when we remember that
such animals have an excess of the natural substance
which constitutes the lung, and are therefore more
subject to thirst than any others ; i.e. they need a
larger amount of fluid food as well as of the ordinary
solid food, and the necessary result of this is that a
larger amount o f residue also is produced, too large
in fact for all of it to be concocted by the stomach
and excreted with its own proper residue ; hence it
is necessary to have some part that will receive this
additional residue. This shows us why all animals
which have blood in their lung possess a bladder
too. As for those whose lung is spongy and which
therefore drink little, or which take fluids not as
something to drink but as food {e.g. insects and
fishes), or which are covered with feathers or scales
or scaly plates, not one of these has a bladder, owing
to the small amount of fluid which they take and
owing to the fact that the surplus residue goes
to form feathers or scales or scaly plates, as the
particular case may be. Exceptions to this are the
Tortoises : though scaly-plated they have a bladder.
In them the natural formation has simply been
stunted. The cause o f this is that in the sea-varieties
the lung is fleshy and contains blood, and is similar to
the lung o f the ox ; while in the land-vane ties it is
disproportionately large. And whereas in birds and
snakes and the other scaly-plated creatures the
moisture exhales through the porous flesh, in these it
269
ARISTOTLE
671 a
O T a a is
y lv e ra i
avTCov
e ^ e tv
K V O T IV fl V
tl
co o r e
T ooa vrrj
OVV T O VTO
Set o d a i
SezcTi/cov
fio p io v
fio v o v
/cat
c f r v o iv
ttjv
a y y e tw S e ? .
TCOV T O LO V T C O V
%t S ta
*25 T a v T T j v T r jv a l r l a v 3 r j f i e v d a X a r r i a f i e y a X r j v , a t Se
X e p o a la i
fiiK p a v
7rdfi7TCLv .
IX .
'Ofiotco? S eêt /cat 7repi vecfrpcbv. ouSe ya p
vecfrpovs oure tcov 7TTepcoTcov Kal AemScoTwv ov8ev
eêt oure tcov cf>oXi8coTcbv, ttX rjv a l 0aAcErrtat
êAwvat /cat at êporatat* aAA* co? rrjs et? rov?
so vecf>povs Terayfievrjs oapKos o v k ix o v o rjs ^copav
aAAa 8ieo7Tapfivrjs et? 7roAAa, TrAare'a ve^poetS-fJ ev
eviois tcov opvcOcov e o r lv . rj S e/tu? ouVe k v o t i v
o v re vecfrpovs
TVV P-aAaKOTrjTa ya p t o v
X^Xcovlov evhiairvovv yiveTai t o v y p o v . 7] fiev oSv
ifiv s Sta TavTTjv t t j v arrtav ou/c eêt t w v fiopicov
ouSeVepov* rot? S aAAot? wot? Tot? eôuatv ev35 aifiov, cj07Tp elprjTai, t o v rrXevfiova rrdoi o v fi671 b efirjKev eêtv vec/>povs. KaTaxprjrai ya p rj cf>vois
afia t c o v Te cfrX eficov âptv /cat 7rpo? t t j v t o v
v yp ov
TrepiTTcofiaTOS e/c/cptatv cfrepei ya p et?
auTou? Ttopos e/c rr}? fieyaXrjs (frXefio?.
"E ^ o u o rt S o i ve c fr p o l tta v r e ?
k o lX o v ,
rj
rrX e io v
rj
5 e X a T T O v , r r X r jv ot ttJ? cfrcoK rjs 9 o S t o l S o f i o i o i t o i s

p o e io is
o v re ? o r e p e c i r a r o t 7 ra vT w v e l o i v .
o fio io i
/cat ot t o u a v d p c o iT O V Tot? f i o e i o i s * eto,t y a p

o v y K e lfie v o i
o fia X e is ,
rcov
e/c 7roAAwv
a io r r e p
oi
TeTpa7ToScov.
a Greek, hemys.
270
tc o v
Sto
ve c f> p u )v
fiiK p w v
Kal
7rpo/SaTWV /cat t w v
/cat
to
Se
coorrep
ovx
aAAw v
a p p c o o r r jfia
to is
This description, which does not fit
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vm.-ix.

cannot do so, because the integument which surrounds
them is dense, like a shell ; and so the excretion is
produced in such quantities that the Tortoises need
some part which shall act as a vessel to receive it.
That, then, is why they are the only animals of the
kind which have a bladder. In the sea-tortoise it is
large, in the land-tortoise quite small.
IX.
Much the same may be said of the kidneys as Kidneys,
o f the bladder. Kidneys are not present in any of
the animals that have feathers or scales or scaly plates,
except the two sorts of tortoises just mentioned. In
some birds, however, there arc flat kidney-shaped
objects, as if the flesh that was allotted to form the
kidneys had found no room for its proper function
and had been scattered to form several organs. The
Emys a has neither bladder nor kidneys: this is be
cause it has a soft shell which allows the moisture to
transpire freely through it. But, as I said before, all
the other animals whose lung contains blood have
kidneys, since Nature makes use of them for two pur
poses : (1) to subserve the blood-vessels ; and (2) to
excrete the fluid residue. (A channel leads into them
from the Great Blood-vessel.)
There is always a hollow {lumen), varying in size,
in the kidneys, except in the seal, whose kidneys are
more solid than any others and in shape resemble
those of the ox. Human kidneys too resemble those
of the ox : they are, as it were, made up out of a
number o f small kidneys,6 and have not an even
surface like those of the sheep and other quadrupeds.
Thus, when once an ailment attacks the human
any animal now known as Emys, seems to be that of some
freshwater tortoise.
6 This is not true of the normal adult, but it is true of
the foetus.
271
ARISTOTLE
[b
10
dvOpwnots SvaanaXXaKTOv avTwv
c artv,
av
ana
v oa rfow a tv avfifiaivet y a p (Lairep noXXovs vecfrpovs

voaox)VTWV xaX en w repav elvai
taaiv ^
ttjv
eva
tco v
vooovvtw v,
S a7ro T r j s c frX e fio s
eO
k o iX o v
tco v
nopos
t c iv c o v
ovk
/ c a ra re A e u ra , aAA e ls
v e cfrp cb v
e ls
to
to
a io fia
/caTavaA to/cerat t o j v v e c f r p c b v S i o n e p e v t o i s k o i X o i s
15 a v T c b v
ovk
nopot
a v a tfio i
e ls ,
fie v
to vs
oi
S rj
w s
k v o tis
e tp ry ra i,
tw v
Svo
Tponov
tov
e/c
vecfrp cb v e l s
e x o v a iv
tw v
TeX evcfre p o va i
v e a v ik o i,
to
t c Dv
fie a o v
avTw v
nopw v
eaT
e ls
npos
T e lv o v a i
onw s
v y p o T T fT o s
v e c frp w v
rj
S ta
vypw v
a v p p e r j,
o fi
( Sto /cat S u a tv)* c/c Sc t o v
r r /v
d n o K p L vera t,
ve c frp c b v
la x v p o l
to vto v
T r js
tw v
0 7 rX d yxvw v
tw v
ck t w v
Sc
S ir jO o v f ie v c o v
n e p iT T w fia
nopot
ve c frp w v
n e p iT T W fia
v e c frp o vs,
S ta t o v t w v
25 f i a X X o v
to
n X e iO T O t
w SeaTdTO V t o v t o
t o jv
K v a T iv
S c^ct
vn o a T a a ts
a c b fia T O S
fie a o v
r r jv
e ls
k o iX o v
ou S e T r r j y v v T a i
k o iX o v
aA A o i k T r js d o p r r j s l a x v p o l K a l
c frX e fio s
y iv o fie v q
to
e ls
Kal
T r js
20 jS a S tffl
to v
to v
rau ra
o v v e x e is *
k
Sc
eK aTepov
a f/xa,
e y y iv e T a i
t c J jv t c o v .
K v a T iv
r jS r j
K a O c jp fiio T a i
yap,
w anep
a v T r jv ,
Ot fiev ovv vecfrpol Sta TavTas Tas am a? elai, Kal

Tas Svvafiets e xov a i Tas elprjfievas.
E v n a a i Se t o i s e x o v a i vecfrpovs o Sextos avwTepw
t o v aptoTepov cartv Sta ya p t o t t j v Kivqaiv elvat
so c/c
tw v
Seiwv Kal laxvpOTepav Sta ravT y efvat

The ureters.
272
t t jv
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ix.

kidneys, the trouble is not easily removed, because
it is as though the patient had many kidneys diseased
and not one only ; and so the cure is more difficult to
effect.
The channel which runs from the Great Blood
vessel to the kidneys does not debouch into the
hollow part of the kidneys, but the whole of what
it supplies is spent upon the body of the kidneys;
thus no blood goes into the hollows, and at death
none congeals there. From the hollow part of the
kidneys two sturdy channels lead into the bladder,
one from ea ch ; these contain no blood. Other
channels come from the Aorta to the kidneys;
these are strong, continuous ones. This arrange
ment is on purpose to enable the residue from the
moisture to pass out o f the blood-vessel into the
kidneys, and so that when the fluid percolates
through the body of the kidneys the excretion that
results may collect into the middle of the kidneys,
where the hollow is in most cases. (This explains,
incidentally, why the kidney is the most ill-scentcd
o f all the visccra.) From the middle of the kidney
the fluid is passed off through the aforesaid channels
into the bladder ; by which time it has practically
taken on the character of excremental residue. The
bladder is actually moored to the kidneys : as has
been stated, there are strong channels extending
from them to it.
We have now given the causes for which the
kidneys exist, as well as their character and functions.
The right kidney is always higher up than the left.
The reason for this is that as motion always begins on
the right-hand side, the parts that are on that side are
stronger than those on the other ; and owing to this
273
ARISTOTLE
671 b cfrvaiv
t t jv
tcov
Seuov,
Trpos
Sta
Sei TrpoodoTroirjaaaOai
fiaXXov,
7Tt K a l TTJV OcfrpVV TTJV SetjiaV alpO VO l fiaXXov K al
iTTiKeKafifidvTjv e x o v a i Trjs a p ia r e p a s fiaXXov.
K al
t t jv K ivrja iv
35 S ta r o
" E x o v a i
T r L fie X r jv ,
ot
S e ijio v vecfrpov
K a d a p ov
a ifia T iK r js
v e c f> p o l
a v a y K r js
S ta
Tr e p i T T C O f i a
t o l s
v y p o is *
o v
Tl
K a l
o v
y lv e r a i
a rrX a y x v o v ,
TTi f i e X c o S e a i ,
St a c f r o p a
*E
r r d o iv *
r jp O L S ,
T TV p,
O V T CO
iv
to ls
t o is
eco
iv
avayKr)s
iv
fikv o v v
t o is
7r p
8*
ev r r eifr ia s
ic fr p a ,
y a p
iv
e y K a r a -
TOLS
T T T T flfie V O L S
T r js
e lp y a a fie v r js
iv
to
T r e p iio T a r a i
e ip r jr a i
t o
X e ir r o fie v o v
(co a rrep
X n ra p o v
t o
S ta
v e c fr p o is
a r e a p
t o v t c o v
tl
v y p o i s .)
t o l s
S e
iv
y a p
S io r r e p
r iX o s
ia r lv .
r fj
a n X d y x v co v
S ir jO e ia O a i
y a p
t o
o lo v
K a l
tcov
to
i o n ,
o r e a p
iy K a T a X e lr r e T a i
eT T iT T o X a ^ ei
S ta
vtt ttt6 v
T T ifie X r]
O e p fjL O T T jT O s f i o p i o v .
10
iv
fia X io r a
fie v
v e c fr p c b v
cov
rreT T V p c o fx e v o is
X e iT T T a i
K a l
fio p ia
y a p t o rjrrap.
672a S e ^ to ts
at/xa
Ta
aveaTracrOai a v co rep o v t o v S e tov vecfrpov t o
rjrrap arrTeTai t o v
avco r a v r a 1
to
K o v c fr o v
a v r o is
ttvk vo v
T T ifie X r]
fie v
iv
oS v
etv a i
iv
a r e a r c b S e a iv
o rep o v
io T i
fie v
t o
t o is
rj
h e
t e p o is .
TrifieXcoheis y iv o v r a i
S ta
ravTTjv ttjv a irla v iK tcov avfifiaivovrcov it; avayKrjs

15 t o ls
e x o v a i vecfrpovs, eveKa Se acorrjplas
0epfiT]v elvai ttjv cfrvaiv rrjv tcov vecfrpcbv.
K a l
tov
eaxarol
Te y a p o vre s aXeas S eovrai TrXeiovos' t o fiev ya p

vcorov aapKcbhes i a n v , ottcos fj irpofioXr] t o i s rrepl
1 ravra Peck s navra vulg.

* See Book II. ch. v.
274.

motion they are bound to make their way upwards
before the ones on the left. Thus people raise the
right eyebrow more than the left, and it is more
arched. A result of this drawing up of the right
kidney is that in all animals the liver, which is on the
right side of the body, is in contact with it.
The kidneys contain more fat than any other of the Fat in
viscera. This is partly a necessary consequence upon kidney9*
the percolation of the residue through the kidneys :
in other words, the blood which gets left behind there
is easy of concoction becausc it is pure, and when
blood undergoes complete concoction the final pro
ducts are lard and suet. (A parallel is to be found in
the case of solid substances which have undergone
combustion : e.g. a certain amount of fire gets left
behind in ash. So, in fluid substances which have
undergone concoction : some portion of the heat
which has been generated remains behind. That is
why oily substances are light and come to the top of
fluids.) This fat is not formed actually in the kidneys
themselves, because they are so dense : it collects
outside them. In some it has the form of lard, in
others the form of suet, according to the character of
the animal. (The difference between the two has
been explained already in another connexion.)
This formation of lard, then, about the kidneys is
the necessary consequence upon the conditions which
necessarily obtain in animals that possess kidneys.
But there is another reason for its formation, and that
is, on purpose to safeguard the kidneys themselves
and to preserve their natural heat. The kidneys are
the outermost of all the viscera, and therefore they
need more warmth. Whereas the back is liberally
supplied with flesh, which enables it to act as a
275
ARISTOTLE
20
25
ttjv KapSlav orrX ayxvois, rj 8* oo<f>vs aoapK os

(aaapKOL ya p a i Kafirral T r a v r w v ) a m i aapKOS ovv
rj mfieXrj TrpofiXrjfia ylv era i t o i s vecfrpovs. e n Se
SiaKplvovoi Kal rrerrovoi ttjv vyp orrjra fiaXXov
77 loves o v r e s t o y a p Xirrapov Oepfiov, Trerrei 8* rj
OepflOTTJS.
A id r a v r a s fiev ovv Tas a lrla s o i ve(f>pol m fieX w Seis elolv , ev Traci Se rots* ,wois o Seios am fieX w r ep o s i o n v .
a in o v Se t o t t j v (frvoiv t;rjpav elvai
t t j v t w v Seiwv Kal KivrjriK w repav rj Se k I v t j g i s
evavrla* rrjKei y a p t o t t i o v fiaXXov.
Tot? f i e v o v v a X X o i s t w o i s o v f i c f r e p e i r e t o v s
v e c fr p o v s
e \ e iv
r r lo v a s ,
to
T r e p lr r X e w s '
Se
a in o v
G v fifia lv e iv
errl t w v
to
vypov
K X e io fie v a
T r o X X a K is
r a
G c fr a K e X io fio v
35 O p w r r w v r o t s
K al rraw
to u
672 b r o i s
T r p o fia r w v ,
o n
ttio v , w a r
T r v e v fia r a
to v t
r r o ie i
a in o v
o r ea r w S ea iv
T T p o fia r a
ovx
rov
g tiv
aAA*
tov
to v to
r o is
r r ifie -
fie v
ey K ara-
tto v o v .
S io
to v
K al
rw v
Se
av~
y ap
a v X la v y l v w v r a i T r lo v e s ,
ttv k v o v
r r X r jO e i
ttoXv
r r e p lv e c fr p a
T ravrw v.
r a
av . . .
ov
tw v
to
G reap
ra n cor a
rw v
e y K a r a K X e io fie v r js
post
eicriv 1.
aX X w v
rj
r r p o fia r a
v y p o r r jT o s K a l r w v r r v ev fia r w v S ia r o v
o fiw s
fia X io r a
o fio lw s
o v fifia lv o v o iv .
r jr r o v
K al tw
jS a A A ei* y l v e r a i
276
T raO rj
w o iv ,
7t o v o v g i t o v s v e c f r p o v s s K a l n e p r o v T r i a l -
O a v a r T jc fr o p o i
T r p o fia r o is .
r a
oX ovs
to v to
T r lo v e s
fio v o v
v e o O a i o v fic fr e p o v r o s , o fi w s
oSvvai
% o v o iv
o rav
a v fir j K a r 9 a fic fr o r e p o v s , aAAa K a r a
30 e X X e i T r e i n ,
X w S e a iv
K al
T r p o fia r o v
aAA a v
a T T o O v rjo K e i.
8 e i6 v .x
Se
to is
vn ep w w v
ovv
ttjs
G c fr a K e X io fio v
23 transponit Thurot.

protection for the viscera about the heart, the loin,
in common with all parts that bend, is not so supplied ;
and this fat we have been speaking of serves as a
safeguard to the kidneys in place of flesh. Further,
the kidneys are better able to secrete and to concoct
the fluid if they are fat, because fat is hot and heat
causes concoction.
These are the reasons why the kidneys are fat. In
all animals, however, the right kidney has less fat
than the left. This is because the right-hand side
is dry and solid and more adapted for motion than
the le ft ; and motion is an enemy to fat, because it
tends to melt it.
Now it is an advantage to all animals to have fat
kidneys, and often they are completely filled with fat.
The sheep is an exception : if this happens to a sheep
it dies. But even if the kidneys are as fat as can be,
there is always some portion which is clear of fat, if
not in both kidneys, at any rate in the right one. The
reason why this happens solely (or more especially)
to sheep is as follows. Some animals have their fat
in the form of lard, which is fluid, and thus the wind
cannot so easily get shut up within and cause trouble.
When this happens, however, it causes rot. Thus, too,
in the case of human beings who suffer from their
kidneys, although it is an advantage for them to be
fat, yet if they become unduly fat, pains result which
prove fatal. As for the animals whose fat is in the
form o f suet, none has such dense suet as the sheep
has ; and moreover, in the sheep the amount of it is
much greater ; the fact that they get fat about the
kidneys much more quickly than any other animal
shows this. So when the moisture and the wind get
shut up within, rot is produced, which rapidly kills
277
ARISTOTLE
I
5 a v a ip o v v T a i
cfrX efio s
oi
Se
raêcos** o i a
evO vs
nopoi
T rp os
a n a vra
' '
T ra d os
to
a v v e )(e i $
A
ttjs
yap
ano
>
'
a o p r r js
npos
tovtouv
Kai
cfrX eficbv e l a i
tojv
ve c frp o vs*
t o vs
Y le p l fie v o v v t t js
K a p S ia s K a l n X e v f io v o s
e ip r jT a i,
X. ruy-
K a l T r e p l T j n a T O s K a l a n X r j v o s K a l v e c fr p c b v .
10
âvei
rauTa
Se
fia T i,
to vto
to
to v to
e ip T jT a i,
Tcb
S ia ^ o j-
r o S i a ^ o j f i a K a X o v a l T i v e s c fr p e v a s *
S ia ^ c jjf ia
c fr p e v e s .
K aO anep
15 t o v
Kal
Kal
K a T a X a f if ia v r jT a i S ia
fio T T jT o s .
Kal
in i
Kal
S ie iX e
o a o is
yap
to
iv
to
t t jv
to
yap
n a p o iK o S o f ir jf ia
t t jv
apxTj
ano
t t js
t ijs
avcj
ia n v
oS
eveK ev
eveK ev
Kal
Kal
tj
fiT j
Kal
Kal
TTJS
ra x v
t p o c f r i js y i v o f i e v r j v
in e ia a K T o v
rj
c f r v a is ,
K a l c fr p a y fio v T a s
a vtj
o n
K O iX la v
OTTOJS
fj
S ie X a fie v
T i f i i c I )T e p o v
Kal
avT o,
S a i n o v
T n e p l t t j v
K a p S la v ,
S e v e ra l S ie X e iv t o
to v to v
e v a ifia
to v to v
n X ijO o s
n o iT ja a a a
Ta
a n a O ijs
to v to
K a X e iT a i
iv a lfio is , w a n e p
Se n a v r a
f jT r a p .
nepl
* f r v x f js
a v a O v fila a iv
to is
x ^ P LV * (T T l r v
to v
a lv Q r jT iK T js
ev
e\ei
K a p S la v
S io p io fio v
to tto v
20
aAAÂaw
K e x c o p ia fie v a
Se
S io p l^ e i t o v T e n X e v f io v a K a l t t jv K a p S la v .
Se
ttjs
K a p S la v
ttjv
to
depo to v
c fr p e v a s ,
a n fio T e p o v
Kal
k c x t c jj *
/j4 X t io v ,
a v a y K a lo v ,
to
to
ev
fie v
Se /carco
to
t t js
t p o c f r i js
S e K T lK O V .
vE o r t
Se
to
25 a a p K C j j S e o T e p o v
v f ie v c jjS e o T e p o v
S id ^ t jf ia
Kal
o v tc jj
T a a i v x P r! <Jl'l l<*) T e p o v .
t t jv
278
K aTcoO ev o to v
npos
fie v
la x v p o T e p o v ,
yap
S io ti
npos
Tas
/cara
t t jv
nX evpas
fie a o v
la x v v
Kal
S
t t jv
Se n p o s t t j v O e p f iO T T jT a
n a p a cfrva S es
e la i,
a r jf ie t o v k t c o v
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ix.-x.

the sheep off. The disease makes its way directly to
the heart through the Aorta and the Great Blood
vessel, since there are continuous passages leading
from these to the kidneys.
We have now spoken of the heart and the lun g;
and also of the liver, the spleen and the kidneys.
X. These two sets of viscera are separated from
each other by the diazoma, which some call the
phrenes (diaphragm). This divides off the heart and
the lung. In blooded animals it is called phrenes, as
I have said. All blooded creatures have one, just as
they all have heart and liver. The reason for this
is that the diaphragm serves to divide the part
round the stomach from the part round the heart,
to ensure that the source of the sensory Soul may be
unaffected, and not be quickly overwhelmed by the
exhalation that comes up from the food when it is
eaten and by the amount of heat introduced into the
system. For this purpose, then, Nature made the
division, and constructed the phrenes to be, as it were,
a partition-wall and a fence ; and thus, in those
creatures where it is possible to divide the upper
from the lower, she divided off the nobler parts
from the less noble ones ; for it is the upper which
is better, that f o r the sake o f which the lower ex
ists, while the lower is necessary, existing f o r the
sake o f the upper, by acting as a receptacle for the
food._
Towards the ribs the diaphragm is fleshier and
stronger, vhile in the middle it is more like a mem
brane : this makes it more serviceable as regards
strength and extensibility. An indication to show
why there are, as it were, suckers, to keep off the
heat which comes up from below, is provided by
279
Diaphragm,
ARISTOTLE
672b a v j i f i a i v o v T C O V or a v
Sta
y a p
ttjv
y e v r v la a iv
X k v -
acoaiv v y p o r r jr a OepfiTjv Kal TrepiTTCOfiaTiKTjv, ev9vs
so emSrjXcos T a p a r r e t t t jv 8ta v o ta v Kal ttjv aic9rjaiv,

8to Kal KaXovvrai cfrpeves cos fie r e x o v a a l n r o v
<j>poviv.
al
Se
fie r e x o v a i
/xcv
ou S ev,
eyyus*
8*
o S a a t t<5v /xereôvTouv ttIStjXov tto lo vg l t tjv /xeraftoXrjv Trjs S ta v o ta ? .
8 to /cat Xerrral K ara fieaov
ela iv, o v fiovov avayKrjs, o t l aapKcoSeis o va a s r a
35 tt/)6? r a ? TrXevpas avayK a lov e tv a t aapKcoSeoTepas,

aAA* tv o r t oXiyloTTjs f ie r e x ^ a tv t/c/xaSo?* aapKco673 a Sets* y a p
t/c/xaSa
av
oucrat
tto A A ^ v.
ttIStjXo v
Kal
o rt
TTOLOvai ttjv
el^ o v
8e
Kal
etA/cov /xaAAov
Qepfiaivofievai
aiaOrjaiv,
raêa>s*
arjfialvei
Kal t o
rrepl t o v s yeXcoras a v fifia lv o v y a p ya A t o / x evo t r e

y a p Ta%i> yeXcbai, S ta t o
6 ra ^ u
77pos r o v
ttjv
Kvvrjaiv acf>LKvela9ai
T07T0V r o v r o v ,
9epfiaivofievovx 8*
rjpefia TToielv oficos errlSrjXov Kal Kivelv ttjv S ta v o ta v 7rapa r q v TTpoalpeaiv.
ro O Se y apyaXiêoQ ai
fiovov avOpajTTOv a i r t o v ^ r e XeTTTOTTjs t o v 8epfiaTos

Kal t o
fiovov yeX av tcov cocov av9pcorrov,
y a p y a X io fio s
10 t o v
fio p io v
yd X cos
t o v
rrep l
2u/xj8atveiv Se'
T r X r jy a s
Sta
ttjv
PUY.
e ls
k
t o v
ttjs
eort Sta
ttjv
(fr a a i
K a l
to tto v
t o v
K iv ija e c o s 2
o Se
T o ia v T T js
fia a x a X r jv .
T repl T a s
7rept ra?
T r X r jy r js y i v o f i e v r j v
ev
t o I s
cp peva s
T r o X e fiO L S
ye'Acura
O e p fio T T jT a .
t o v t o
0ep/i,aiv6fj,vov Peck : dcpfiaivovat. vulg. : -ovaa S Z : -ovaav

2
Kvijoecos Langkavel.
0 The Risus Sardonicus: see Allbutt and Rolleston, A

System of Medicine2(1910), viii. 642.
280
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

what actually happens: whenever, owing to their
proximity, they draw up the hot residual fluid, this
at once causes a recognizable disturbance of the
intelligence and of sensation. And that is why they
are called phrenes : as if they took a part in the act
of thinking (phronein). This of course they do not
d o ; but their proximity to those organs which do
so take part makes the change of condition in the
intelligence recognizable. That, too, is why the
phrenes are thin in the middle ; this is not due
entirely to necessity (though as they are fleshy to
begin with, the parts of them nearest the ribs must
of necessity be more fleshy still); there is another
reason, which is, to enable them to have as little
moisture in them as possible, since if they had been
wholly o f flesh they would have tended to draw
to themselves and to retain a large quantity of
moisture. Another indication that it is when heated
that they quickly make the sensation recognizable is
afforded by what happens when we laugh. When
people are tickled, they quickly burst into laughter,
and this is because the motion quickly penetrates to
this part, and even though it is only gently warmed,
still it produces a movement (independently of the
will) in the intelligence which is recognizable. The
fact that human beings only are susceptible to
tickling is due (1) to the fineness of their skin and
(2) to their being the only creatures that laugh. Tick
ling means, simply, laughter produced in the way I
have described by a movement applied to the part
around the armpit.
It is said that when in war men are struck in the
part around the diaphragm, they laugh a on ac
count of the heat which arises owing to the blow.
231
ARISTOTLE
y a p fia X X ov e a n v a ^ i o n l a r w v aK ovcra i X e y o v r w v rj
to
it epl
t t jv
KecfraXrjv,
15 r w v a v 9 p w n w v .
ws
a n o K o n e lo a
cfr9eyyera i
X e y o v c ji y a p r i v e s e n a y o jx e v o i K ai
r o v 0 ji r jp o v , cus S ia t o v t o n o it f o a v r o s
cfr9eyyojjLevrj
apa
rov
ye
Kaprj
Kovirjcriv
ifiix O r],
aAA* ov (j)0 ey-yo jj.vov.

ro
to io v to v
a a v r o 77e p l r i v o s
20
nepl 8e Ap/caStav1 o v t to
S ie n ia r e v a a v
tw v
w ore
K a l K p ia iv
e y x c o p lw v .
rov
yap
e n o i r jle p e w s
r o v o n X o c rjiio v A i d s a n o O a v o v r o s > v (ff o r o v Se dS*Âov
o v r o s , 2 ecfraadv
riv e s
anoKeKojJLfievrjs X e y o v a r js
en
aK ovaai
r r js
KecfraXrjs
n o X X a K is
avSpos avSpa YLepKiSas aneK reivev
8io Kal tprjrrjaavres co ovofxa rjv ev rw ronw

ViepKiSas, eKpivav. aSvvarov Se cfr9eyyeo9ai Ke\wpiafievrjs rrjs aprrjpias Kal avev t t js k t o v nXev25 jxovos Kivrjaews.
napa re ro is Papfiapois, nap
ois anorepivovai rax^ws ra s KecfraXas, ovSev nw
t o i o v t o v ov/JipefirjKev.
e n S enl rw v aXXwv t,wwv
Sia r lv a ir iav ov y lv e ra i; [ t o nev yap ro v ye'Aa>ros nXrjyeiawv rw v cfrpevwv eiKorws, ouSev yap yeAa
rw v aXXwv npoievai Se n o i t o owjxa rrjs KecfraXrjs
80 dcfrrjprjjxevrjs ovSev aXoyov, enel rd y dvaijxa Kal
1 a p K a h la v Z , probat J. Schaefer de Jove apud Cares culto,
pp. 370 s q .: K a p la v vulg.: K a p . . a v E : K a p
P.
2 8 e abiqXov o v r o s P eck : 8 e 8 ^ a S iJ A a )? v u lg . : codd. varia.
a Iliad, x. 457 and Od. xxii. 329. In both places the
text of Homer has ^ d e y y o f i e v o v ( As he spake . .
h The Berlin text here reads Caria, but the Oxford m s .
Z reads 14 Arcadia. * A cult of Zeus hoplosmios is attested
only for Methydrion, a town in Arcadia, and the name
Kerkidas is found in Arcadia, not in Caria. (See A . B.
2 82
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

This may be so ; and those who assert it are more
credible than those who tell the tale of how a mans
head speaks after it is cut off. Sometimes they cite
Homer in support, who (so they say) was referring to
this when he wrote
A s it spake, his head was mingled with the dust
(not
As he spake, his head was mingled with the dust.) a
In Arcadia b this kind of thing was at one time so
firmly believed that one of the inhabitants was
actually brought into court on the strength of it.
The priest o f Zeus hoplosmios had been killed, but
no one knew who had done it. Certain persons,
however, affirmed that they had heard the mans
head, after it had been cut off, repeating the follow
ing line several times
Twas Kerkidas did slaughter man on man.
So they set to work and found someone in the

district who bore this name and brought him to trial.
O f course, speech is impossible once the windpipe
has been severed and no motion is forthcoming from
the lung. And among the barbarians, where they
cut heads off with expedition, nothing of this sort
has taken place so far. Besides, why does it not
occur with the other animals ? [For (a) the story
about the laughter when the diaphragm has been
struck is plausible, for none of the others laughs ;
and (6) that the body should go forward some distance
after the head has been cut off, is not at all absurd,
since bloodless animals at any rate actually go on
Cook, Zeus, ii. 290, who gives the evidence, and J. Schaefer,
De Jove apud Cares culto, 1912, pp. 370 f.)
283
ARISTOTLE
673a f j
%
noX vv
a v rw v
iv
TtVo?
,
xpovov
nepaai
if r X e fiw v ,
tw v
6(7T IV
OVV V K V
t*
S e
yeyove
673 b K a i o v , K a i r a v r r j v
re
Sc
ra
c u r ia s
O T rX d y -
iK jia S a
r js
fie v
to
r a vtyjs iXacfrpas, o 8 vfirjv
anX ayxvw v
o fio ia v
e x o v a i r r jv
a v o fio ia v .
a X X o is
npos
iv
v fie v i
a n a O rj
ia T iv
etvat,
anooreyeiv, aaapKos Se ware
wot
firj 2Xk iv firjS* exeiv IKjiaSa, Xenros S onw s
10
K al
t o io v t o s *
cfrvaiv
ttjv
v t o s
avay-
o v v t o r a f ie v r js
a w fia t w v
onX dyyya
See
yap
fiiv yap
yap
a l f i a r t K r j v , e
c fr v a iv , t o i s
Y la v r a
6 n p o fio X r js
ttvkvos
>/
r r js
KCLOTOV T W V
re
a ifia n K a , K a l a v r o is
a w fia r o s
X I.
nepl
a v a y K r js e n l t o is
i ie v a t
K a l n r jy v v fie v r js y iv e a O a i t o
to v
Se
e re p o t s .]1
fl V
X y w v , e ip r jr a
S io n e p
S e S y jX w r a i
kov-
cfros fj Kal firjSev noifj fiapos.
fieyiaroi Se Kal
laxvpoTaroi
ot
vfievwv
tw v
KapSlav Kal nepl
elaiv
re
nepl
ttjv
iyKecfraXov, evXoyws* Tavra
tov
yap Setrat nXeiarrjs cfrvXaKrjs* rj fiev yap tfrvXaktj

nepl ra Kvpia, ra vra Se Kvpta fiaXiara
X II.
"E x o v a i
S*
a p td fio v a v r w v , ev ta
15
Sta
riv
Se
ra v ra
e v ia fie v r w v
Sta c f r e p o v a t v
K a p S ia s e x o v a i n a v r a
aXXw v
o v n a v r a * n o ia
a ir t a v , e ip r jr a i n p o r e p o v .
cbs e l n e i v
n o X v o x iS e s
io n
ov
ra
ovSev.
r o is
yap
e x o v ra
to
Se
re
ttjs
Se
rov
r a v r a K al
Kal r w v i x o v r w v
o fio ia s
o v re
/capStav,
yap
r jn a p
fio v o c fr v e o r e p o v ,
ra?
o v re tw v
r o is
fie v
n p w ro v
1 codd. edd. varia ; corrupta et inepta seclusi.

284
wrjs*
>wwv n a v r a
x .-x ii.
living for a long time. The reason for these pheno

mena has been explained elsewhere.]
We have now said what is the purpose for which
each of the viscera is present ; but also they have
been formed o f necessity at the inner ends of the blood
vessels, because moisture, i.e. moisture of a blood
like nature, must of necessity make its way out there,
and, as it sets and solidifies, form the substance of
the viscera. That, too, is why they are blood-like in
character, and why the substance of all of them is
similar, though different from that of the other
parts.
XI. All the viscera are enclosed in membranes. Membranes.
Some covering is needed to ensure their safety, and
it must be a light one. These conditions are fulfilled
by a membrane, which is close-textured, thus making
a good protection ; does not consist of flesh, and
therefore does not draw in moisture or retain i t ; is
thin, therefore light, and causes no burden. The
biggest and strongest membranes are those round
the heart and the brain, which is natural enough, as
it is always the controlling power which has to be
protected ; therefore the heart and the brain, which
have the supreme controlling power over the life of
the body, need the most protection.
XII. Some animals possess a full complement of Variation*
viscera, some do not. We have already stated what ^Sce?a.
animals have less than the full number, and the
reason. But also, the same viscera are different in
the various animals that have them. For instance,
the heart is not identical in all the animals which have
a h eart; nor is any other o f the viscera. The liver
illustrates this : in some it is split into several parts,
in some almost undivided. This variation of form is
285
ARISTOTLE
a vrcov
rcov
e v a lp c o v
Kal npos ra vra
20 l ) ( 9 v c o v K a l (
Ta
cootokcov.
yap
tco
evn vova ra ra
e êtv c j> a v X rjv n e p l r r c o a i v .

c o o t o k c o v
Kal
v y le ia v
tovtcov
TeX os,
K a p S la v
tcov
p a ra
< j> a vX rjs

Kal
O n X r jv a
arpoyyvX ov,
yap
tcov
Se
ra
1x0vcov
rervx^JK e
noXvaxiSrj
y ap
tcov
e êt T a
p ev
K aO an ep
a t
to
K al
o lo v
vs
to vtc o v
Kal
.
K al
S t^ a A a
K al
tco v
evav^ earepov
r a
Se
avOpconos
K al
n en ov O ev
K al
ocb-
c f> p v v rjs
n p o fia r o v
p oos
to v
ra
Kal
o to v
peyeOos
et p r j t i S ta
r r jv
n X e la rc o v ,
tcov
coanep
t o io v t c o v
n a v r a p a K p o v , o to v
n X arv v
a cop a ros
p b a X ia ra
K e p a r o c fr o p a
Se p c o v v x a p e r a ^ v
kvcov, r a
Kal
a v p -
rerp a n oS cov Kal
tcov
evcoxpa
K paaecos,
aX X cov
tcov
prjKos,
674 a eêt K a r a
p rj
e v ia
f jn a p
t o v
a ifia n
tco
Se
Kal
S r jn a p a i p a r i K c b r a r o v p e r a
to
aX X cov e K a a r o v ,
opevs
yap
Se K a l c fr a v X a n a v r e X c o s ,
X ^ X c o v r /s
p ev
fie v
c jn X d y \ v c o v .
Kal
cootokcov
30 i v l c o v
ev
to
a in o v
etva i
jS a A A e ra t n o X v p e p o s n p o s e v K p a a l a v
o jo -
e v a ip o v
S io n e p
to
tcov
r o Se
tcov
Kal
K a K e lv c o v .
K aO anep
e ^ et x ^ V v r ) V
o vk
S ia c f> e p e i T a r e
n p o a e p c fre p e s
tovtcov
Se p a X X o v
e n
otokcov
KaOapov
ia n
a cop a ra
n o X X r jv
25
r jn a n *
a vrcov
c o
a X X r jX a
rerp a n oS cov K al
fia X iG T a
ia r lv
X p c b jia
ro
tcovy
o p v lO c o v
tcov
tokcov
Kal
Kal n p os
K al p iK r o v
e ^ e t r f j Se a r e v o v , o l o v
In n os
r fj
K al
ovos
povov Se Siacfrepei ra anXayxya rrjs
aapKOS tco oyKco rov acoparos, a A A a K al rco rrjv2
pev eco ra S eaco rrjv Oeaiv e ^ e tv . ainov S o n
K al
X III.
O i)
<rcDr> Peck.
2 ttjv
a See above, on 650 b 24.

286
ESUVZ: ra vulg.
Cf. 677 a 19 ff.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xn.-xm.

found first of all even among the viviparous blooded
animals ; but it is more noticeable among the fishes
and oviparous quadrupeds, whose livers differ not
only from those of the Vivipara, but also from each
others. In birds, the liver very closely resembles
that of the Vivipara : in both, its colour is pure and
blood-like. The reason for which is, that their bodies
give a very free passage to the breath, which means
that they retain very little foul residue; hence, indeed,
some of the Vivipara have no gall-bladder, and this is
largely due to the very considerable assistance given
by the liver in maintaining a good blend a and healthi
ness in the body. This is because the purpose which
these viscera serve lies chiefly in the blood, and after
the heart the liver contains more blood than any
other of the viscera.
In most of the oviparous
quadrupeds and the fishes the liver is yellowish, and
in some of them it is altogether bad-looking, on a
par with the bad blend of the rest of their bodies.
This happens in the toad, the tortoise, and the like.
As for the spleen : In horned animals that have
cloven hoofs it is rounded : e.g. in the goat, the sheep,
and similar animals ; unless greatness of size has
made it grow out at some point lengthways, as in the
case of the ox. In all the polydactylous animah the
spleen is long, as in the pig, in man, and in the dog.
In animals with solid hoofs the spleen is intermediate
between the two and has the characteristics of both :
in one place it is broad, in another narrow, as exempli
fied in the horse, the mule, and the ass.
X III.
Now the \iscera differ from the flesh not only
in the bulkiness of their mass, but also in their
situation, for the flesh is on the outside of the body,
while they are inside. The reason for this is that
287
ARISTOTLE
TTJV
C^Ct
(fr v G L V
r w v
c frX efiw v
KO LVW VO VO aV
x ^ P LVy
X IV . *1*770 Sc
10 w o i s ,
fie v
t o is
fio p io v ,
t o
a r o fia n *
TO
he
Sc
TOLLS ( f r X e i f r l ,
o v k
V n O ^ W fia
e x o v a iv
t o is
T r js
T (*
a v e v
K a l
TO. fl V
< frX e fiw v
e a n v .
K C tT a t
K O lX la
TJ
o la o c fr a y o v f j r e X e v r a
fir)
e x o v a iv
K o iX la s
evB vs
e x o fie v o v
T O IS
t o vt o
TTpos
t w
K a X o v fie v o v
to
evrep ov,
A C
r jv
eK a a r o v ,
a lr la v
ela eX O o v a a v
15
K a io v
eK T r e fiifr a i,
a n e n r o v
K a l
e l
ev
to tto v
eX d o v a a v
c f ct
w a n e p
a v a y K a lo v
20f i e v
o lK e io r ep o s
r ijs
K a l
a!
K o iX la s
r o v
e a n v
K al
S c
x p o v o s
a v r o v
n e p l
t o
to tto v
t o
r o ls
ttjv
fie v
r e
a v v reX w v
K a l
S c
r o v r w v ,
ttjv
ttjs
e la -
a X P 7] "
aA A a
fio p iw v
r ijs
r iv a
r r jv
r o
e K a r e p o v
y e v e a iv
ttjv
a v a y -
y a p
r o n o is .
h io p ia jio s * n e p l
r w v
w w v
e lv a i
e lv a i
n e p lr r w fia
e r e p o s
K a l
r w v
h e a a 6 a i
e ^ iK fia a fie v r jv
ft c T a /J a A A c t .
r o ls
fio p ia
y a p
n e p n r w fia r o s ,
fio p io v , to
S c
ev
ttjv
fir j
r o v
r a
K al
K a l
h ie iX r jcfr d a i
r o v r w v
r a v r a
tta a iv ,
r p o c frr jv
a r o v
c^ ct
c fr a v e p o v
n ep l
r p o c frr jv
h ia c fr o p a s
v v v
e n i-
a K e n r e o v .
O vre
e x o v a iv
yap
a fic frw h o v ra
25
e^ct
r o ls
fie y e O e a iv o v r e
a X X r jX o is r a
rw v
K O iX la v , o l o v
ro ls
<pa* aAA ocra
e v a lfiw v
Kal
avO pw nos
rw v
Kal
e ih e a iv o fio la s
fie v e a n v
a vrw v
k v w v
o t o k w v
/cat
X ew v
fila v
Kal
/cat ocra f i w v v x a , o t o v
i n n o s , o p e v s , o v o s , /cat o a a StâAa f i e v a f i c f r w h o v r a
h e , o l o v v s , n X r j v ct1 n
Sta f i e y e O o s r o v a w f i a r o s
ra X X a
oaa
n oX vh a K rvX a ,
1 voir\ri rj ei ESUY (rj om. E) : vo7rXrj nXr/v e l P et COIT.

U : vanXrjy^ in ras. et supra Kat xoipos Z2, turn n\f)v et Z1: vs,
e l firj Bekker s vs, nXrjv e l firj Buss.
See De gen. an, Bk. II. chh. 6 and 7.
288
x iii.-x iv .
their nature shares that o f the blood-vessels : some

o f them exist for the sake o f the blood-vessels,
others do not exist apart from the blood-vessels.
X IV .
Below the diaphragm is the Stomach, which stomach
is placed where the oesophagus ends (if there is an intestines,
oesophagus ; i f not, im m ediately next to the mouth).
N e x t after the stomach and continuous with it is what
is called the Gut.
I t must be obvious to everyone why all animals
have these parts. I t is a necessity for them to have
some receptacle for the food they take in, and to
expel it again vvhen its moisture has been extracted
from i t ; and there must be two different places for
these two things the unconcocted food and the
residue ; there must also be another place in which
the change from one to the other is effected. Tw o
receptacles, then, one for the incoming food, one for
the residue which is no more use as there is a
separate tim e for these so there must be a separate
place. How ever, it will be more appropriate to go
into these matters in our treatise on Generation and
Nutrition. A t the present we must consider the
variations that are to be found in the stomach and its
subsidiary parts.
The stomach differs both in size and appearance in
different animals. Those o f the blooded Vivipara
which have front teeth in both jaws have one
stomach ; e.g. man, the dog, the lion, and the other
p olyd a ctyls; so also those that have solid hoofs,
e.g. the horse, the mule, the ass ; and those which
although they are cloven-hoofed have front teeth
in both jaws, e.g. the pig.
These rules apply unless
the size o f the frame and the character o f the food
289
ARISTOTLE
674 a
/cat r f j v
30 aAA*
r r js
r p o c fr r js
aK avd coS rj
K a fx r jX o s ,
S v v a jiiv ,
Kal
coanep
ovaav
Kal
K d f x r jX o s
ov
ova a ,
Sta
\ e iv
r o ia v r r jv
to
tc o v
Sta
a jx c fr c o S o v T c o v
a v a y K a io r e p o v
fj
to vs
evn en rov
n X e io v s ,
K e p a ro c fro p a *
ra
K e p a r o c f r o p a o v k e a n v d [x c f r c o S o v r a .
rj
ovk
e ^ et
ijv X iK T jv ,
yap
Se /cat
to v to
e a r iv ,
etva i
o lo v
ra
a K epa ros
a v r r j t t jv
K o iX ia v
oSovTas*.
n p o a d lo v s
coot
674 b e n e l r a v r r j v o f i o i a v e \ e i t o i s p x j a ji c f r c b S o v o i , K a l r a
nepl to vs
o S o v r a s o jio ic o s
n poepyov.
t t jv
Se
Se
a fia
yX cbrra v
a K X r jp o r r jT a
6 oSovtcov
to v
yecoSet
K a fx r /X o s w a n e p
n X e io v s
\ei
e X a c fr o s ,
Kal
e n e iS r j
a va yK rj
ovpavov
r r js
10 X e i T O v p y t a
rj
Ta
o jn o ia s e \ e i v t o i s
a a p K coS rj
Kal
K e p a ro c fro p a ,
e p y a a ia s
to v
o to v
ra
r p o c f r r jv , rj
o jx e v r jv jx a X X o v ,
e X X e in e i
a ro fx a ro s
ro ia v ra
to jv
15 K a X o v v r a i
e \ iv o s
[x e v
rj
aicov
Se
tc o v
nepl
Sta
npos
n a /x n a v ,
nXeiovs
ra vra
K a l r jv v a r p o v .
rj
t t jv
rj
Kal
rj
tcov
S e ^ r jr a i1
K a r e ip y a -
Kal
S io
ra
jx o p ia .
K e K p vc fra X o s
ov S* e\ei rp o n o v ra v ra
1 8*XVTai Peck: bexofxevr] vulg.

290
r p o c f r r jv
X e ia v .
eêt r o n o v s
/cotAta
a i ,
oncos
evSetav
Se
rj
K o iX ia s
fio v s ,
erep a s
Se
tco v
S*
S e K a a r o v
cocov,
r r jv
a K a rep ya a rov,
Se
Tas
n p o fia r o v ,
o S o v t c o v , rj t c o v k o l X l c o v e r e p a
r r jv
to
to vtc o v
ro tau ra
npos
eK
(i r jp v K a ^ e i
Sta
K e p a ro c fro p o is .
K o iX ia s ,
e tv a i,
/cara/ce'^prjTat t c o
c f r v a is .
TaAAa
rj
eêt a v r r j , cos o v S e v o v r a s
/cat e n e l rj rp o c fr r j a K a v O c o S r j s ,
Kal
npos
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.

m odify them : for instance, i f the food is thorny and
woody and therefore not easy to concoct, in which
case the animal has several stomachs, e.g. the c a m e l;
so also have the horned animals, as they have not front
teeth in both jaws. Thus also the camel has not the
two rows o f front teeth either, although it has no
horns ; this is because it is more necessary for the
camel to have several stomachs than to have all these
front teeth. So, as it resembles the animals which
lack the upper front teeth in that it has several
stomachs, therefore the arrangement o f its teeth
is that which normally accompanies the multiple
stom achs: in other words, it lacks these front teeth,
as they would be no use to it. A nd also, as its food
is thorny, and as the tongue has o f necessity to be
o f a fleshy character, Nature has made use o f the
earthy m atter saved from the missing teeth to make
the ro o f o f the mouth hard. Again, the camel
ruminates as the horned animals do, because it has
stomachs that resemble theirs. E very one o f the
horned animals (such as the sheep, the ox, the goat,
the deer, and the like) has several stomachs ; and the
purpose o f them is this : Since the mouth is deficient
in teeth, the service which it performs upon the food
is d e fic ie n t; and so one stomach after another
receives the food, which is quite untreated when it
enters the first stomach, more treated in the next,
com pletely treated in the next, and a smooth pulp
in the next. A n d that is why these animals have
several such places or parts, the names o f which are
(1) the paunch (;rumen), (2) the net or honeycomb-bag
(reticulum), (3) the manyplies (omasum), (4) the r e e d a
{abomasum). For the relation o f these to each other
Or, true stomach.
K2
291
ARISTOTLE
674 b
aXXrjXa T rj deaei Kal t o l s eiSeaiv, e/c re ttjs iaropias

rrjs nepl ra <pa 8et decopeiv Kal e/c t w v avarofiajv.
A ta
r r jv
yevos
X l
20 f j i o p L o v .
7ret y a p
jJ L a T o s
a n o S iS w a i
ov99 w
S ia ip r ja e i
S ta
a v r r jv
to u to
a lr ia v
S ia c fro p a v
ra
K a X o v fie v o v
nepl
Kal
to
tw v
o p v iO w v
T r js
T p o c frrjs
S c k tlk o v
to
ou Se r a u r a
oAco? T r j v t o v
Aet T o v p y i a v
ovd
jx iv
a)
(a v o h o v T a
Xeavei
npo
T r js
a ro
yap)
Kal
T r j v T p o c frrjv e x o v a i ,
K o iX ia s
T v
exovai
a v r t ttJ? t o u a r o j i a r o s e p y a -
n p o X o fio v
a t a j , o i Se r o v o l a o c f r a y o v n X a r v v , f j n p o T r j s K o i X i a s
25 a u r o u j x e p o s t l o y K w S e s i v
a K a rep ya a rov
iT r a v e o T r jK o s ,
a a pK w h rj
etv K a l
S v v d jie i
r iv e s
npos
yap
T 779
S a v r r jv r r jv
ro
Kal
<S n p o d r j a a v p i ^ o v a i T r jv
K o iX ia s
K O iX ia v
S vvaadai
noX vv
a X e ia v r o v
ovaav
rfj
r r jv
d e p jio r r jr i
ro v
xpovov
t t jv
r r js
a r o jia r o s
a v r r js
la x v p a v
tl
Kal
d r ja a v p i-
r p o c f r r jv r f j
K o iX ia s
fj
e v S e ia v .
c fr v a is
e la l
Se
ot to u t c o v ou S ev e x o u o tv , a A A a r o v n p o X o f i o v 1
jia K p o v ,
oaa
jx a K p o o K e X r j
r p o c f r r js
v y p o r r jr a .
to v to ls
evX ea vros,
tolovtw v
tas
a in o v
w a re
K o iX ia s
Kal
e X e ia ,
S ta
o tl
r p o c frrj
a v jifia iv e iv
etvat
vypas
fj
t^v
ttJs*
naai
S ta T a u r a t w v
[Sta
r r jv a n e ifr ia v
r r j v Tpocfrrjv ].*
Kal
675 a
oi
n e r r e iv
80 a v a X a j i f i a v e i
r)
T p o c fr r jv ,
To S i t w v Ixdvwv yevos eêt f iiv oSovras, r o v S i KapxapoSovras ax^Sov ws elneiv navres9'

oXiyov yap t l e a n yevos t o firj t o l o v t o v , o l o v o
KaXovjievos OKapos, os Srj Kal So/cet jJirjpvKclêiv
tovs
1 7rpoAojSor] urofiaxov Ogle, collato Hist. An. 509 a 9.

2 secludenda.
3 7rdvTS O gle: navras vulg.
a At 507 a 36 ff.
6 The gizzard.
c Ogle reads oesophagus.
292

as regards position and appearance, the Researches
upon Animals and the treatises on Anatomy should be
consulted.
The same reason as has just been described accounts
for the difference which presents itself in birds in the
part which receives the food. Birds, like the other
animals, do not get the full service from the mouth in
dealing with the foodsince they have no teeth at
all, and they have nothing with which to bite up or
grind down the food ; and so some of them have,
before the stomach, what is called the crop, to per
form the work instead of the mouth. Others have
a broad oesophagus ; or their oesophagus has a
bulge in it, just before it reaches the stomach, in
which they keep a preliminary store of untreated
food ; or some part of the stomach itself sticks out.
Others have a strong and fleshy stomach6 which
is thus able to store the food up for a long period
and to concoct it although it has not been ground
down; thus Nature makes up for the deficiency of
the mouth by means not only of the heat of the
stomach but also by its special character. Other
birds have none of these devices, but a long crop,c
because their food is moist: these are the long-legged
marsh birds. The reason for this is that the food
which all of these take is easily ground down, and
the result is that the stomachs of birds of this sort
are moist [owing to the unconcocted and moist state
of the food].
The tribe of fishes have teeth : practically all have
saw-teeth. There is one small group to which this
does not apply, e.g. the Scarus,d as it is called, and
it seems reasonable to suppose that this is why
d The parrot-fish ; see above, 662 a 7.
293
ARISTOTLE
5a
evXoyws 8ta ra v ra fiovos' Kal yap rd firj aficfrdJSovra Keparocfropa Se firjpvKaêi. oeis Se ndi>rasl
exovaiv, ware SieXeiv fiev Svvavrai, cfravXws Se SteXeiv evSiarpifieiv yap ovx *v re xpoviôvras' Sio7rep ouSe nXareis exovaiv oSovras, ovS eVSeêra t Xeaiveiv fidrrjv av ovv eiôi\ ert Se arofiaxov
10 o i fiev oX ojs o v k exovaiv, o i Se fipaxvv. aAAa TTpos
rrjv /?orjdeiav rijs neifrews o i fiev opvidwSeis exovai
ra s KoiXias Kal aapKwSeis, olov Kearpevs, o i Se
7toAAoi napa rrjv KoiXiav anocfrvaSas nvKvas, iv
ev ra v ra is wanep ev npoXaKKiois OrjaavpLôvres
avaarjnw ai Kal n e rrw a i rrjv rpocfrrjv.
exovai 8*
15 evavriws o i ixOves ro is opviai ra? anocfrvaSas* ot
fiev yap ix^ves avw npos rfj KoiXla, rw v 8 opvidwv
o i exovres anocfrvaSas Karw npos tw reXei ro v
evrepov. exovai S anocfrvaSas evia Kal rw v woroKwv ivrepiKas Karw Sia. rrjv avrrjv a ir lav.
To Se rw v IxOvwv yevos dnav, Sta t o evSeearepws
20 exeiv ra. nepl rrjv rijs rpocfrrjs epyaaiav, aAA
dnen ra Siaxwpeiv, Xaifiapyov npos rrjv rpocfrrjv
e a n , Kal rw v aXXwv Se navrw v oaa evOvevrepa*
ra xela s yap yivofievrjs rrjs Siaxwprjaews, Kal Sta
ra v ra fipaxeias ovarjs rrjs dnoXavaews, raxeiav
avayKalov ylveadai naXiv Kal rrjv eniOvfilav.
25 T a 8 aficfrwSovra o n fiev fiiKpav exei KoiXiav
eiprjrai n p o r e p o v eis Siacfropas Se n in r o v a i Suo
7raoat a x e S o v r a fiev y a p rfj rrjs kvvos ofioiav
1 Travras S i itcutcs vulg.
a Probably some kind of mullet.

* Caecal appendages (Ogle), or alimentary sacs/*
c The vermiform appendix.
294

it alone ruminates, for horned animals which have no
teeth in the upper jaw also ruminate. All teeth in fish
are sharp; this enables them to bite up their food,
though somewhat unsatisfactorily; this is because
they cannot spend long over mastication ; hence
they neither have flat teeth nor may they grind
the food down ; therefore it would be idle to have
the teeth. Furthermore, some fishes have no gullet
at all, others have a short one ; but, in order to as
sist the process of concoction, some of them, like the
Kestreus, have fleshy stomachs, similar to those of
birds; the majority, however, have a large number
of appendages b by the side of the stomach, in which
to store up the food as it might be in additional cellars
and there putrefy it up and concoct it. The ap
pendages of fishes are, however, quite different from
those of birds. In fishes they are fairly high up
beside the stomach, whereas when present in birds
they are down below at the end of the gut. Some
o f the Vivipara also have appendages c of this latter
kind, and their purpose is the same.
The whole race of fishes is gluttonous for food,
because their equipment for reducing it is defective,
as a result of which most of it passes through un
concocted. Of all, those which have a straight intes
tine are especially gluttonous, since the food passes
through quickly, which means that their enjoyment
o f it is brief, and therefore in its turn the desire for
food must come on again very quickly.
I have already said that in animals with front
teeth in both jaws the stomach is small. These
stomachs fall into two main classes. Some have a
stomach resembling that of the dog, some that of
295
ARISTOTLE
675 a
exovai KOiXlav, ra Se rfj Trjs vos' ean S9 rj fiev Trjs

vos fiel^cov Kal Tivas exovaa fierplas nXaKas TTpos
to xpovioJTepciv ylveoOai ttjv neifriv, fj Se Trjs kvvos
zojxiKpa to fieyeOos Kal ov noXv tov ivrepov vnepjffaAAoucra Kal Xela ra evros*. fiera yap Trjv KOiXlav
rj tcov ivrepcov eyKetrat cfrvais naai tois cI>ois . e\ei
Se Slacfropas TToAAds*, KaOanep fj KoiXla, Kal tovto
to fiopiov,
to is fiev yap anXovv i a n Kal ofioiov
avaXvofievov, tois S9 avofioiov eviois fiev yap evpv35 Tepov to npos Tjj KoiXla, to Se npos tco reXei
arevorepov1 (Sionep a I Kvves fiera novov npotevrai
675 b ttjv roiavrrjv neplrrcoaiv), tois Se nXeloaiv avcoOev
arevorepov,1 npos ra> reXei S evpvrepov.
Meta> Se Kal avaSmXcoaeis exovra noXXas ra
tcov Keparocfropcov ia r l, Kal o i oyKoi Trjs KoiXlas
tovtois fielôvs Kal tcov ivrepcov Sia to fieyeOos *
5 navra yap tbs elneiv fieyaXa r a Keparocfropa Sia
rrjv Karepyaalav rrjv rrjs Tpocfrrjs, na a i Se ro is firj
evOvevrepois npo'iov2 evpvrepov ylvera i to fiopiov
tovto , Kal to KaXovfievov koXov exovai, Kal ro v
ivrep ov rvcfrXov n Kal oyKcoSes, e lr eK ro v ro v
naXiv arevorepov* Kal elXiyfievov.
r o Se fiera
10 tovto evOv npos rrjv efoSov Starelvei ro v n e p irrcJofiaros, Kal ro is fiev tovto to fiopiov, o KaXovfievos apxos, KviacoSrjs i o r l , ro is S9 anlfieXos*
n a vra Se ra v ra fiefirjxavrjrai r fj cfrvaei npos ras
a pfiorrovoa s ip y a ola s nepl rrjv rpocfrrjv Kal ro v
yivofievov n ep n rcofia ros n p o io v n yap Kal /carap a lvovri r w nepiTTCofian evpvxcopla y lvera i, Kal
15 npos r o fierafiaXXeiv iarafievco ro is evx^Xorepois
1 orcvuiTepov bis vulg.
8 OTl'OTepOV
296
2 irpotov P e c k : rrpolovaw vulg,

SU
OTVO)TpOV
Vulg.

the pig. The pigs stomach is larger than the dogs,
and it has some folds of medium size, so as to prolong
the time of concoction. The dogs is small in size
not much bigger indeed than the gut, and its inner
surface is smooth. The gut has its place next after
the stomach in all animals. Like the stomach, this
part too presents many various forms. In some
animals it is simple and similar throughout its
length, when uncoiled; in others it is not similar
throughout. Thus, in some it is wider near the
stomach, and narrower towards the end (that is why
dogs find difficulty in discharging their excrement) ;
in the majority, however, it is narrower at the topr,
and wider at the end.
In the horned animals, the intestines are longer and
have many convolutions ; and their bulk (as well as
the bulk of the stomach) is greater, owing to the size
of the animal : horned animals being, on the whole,
large in size because of the ample treatment which
their food receives. Except in those animals where
it is straight the intestine gets wider as it proceeds,
and they have what is called the colon and the
blind and swollen part of the gut a ; and then after
that point it gets narrower again and convoluted.
After this, it goes on in a straight line to the place
where the residue is discharged ; and in some this
part (which is called the anus) is supplied with fat, in
others it is devoid of fat. All these parts have been
devised by Nature to suit their appropriate functions
in treating the food and in dealing with the residue
produced. As the residue proceeds on its way and goes
downwards, it finds a wider space where it remains
in order to undergo transformation ; this is what
a The caecal dilatation.
297
ARISTOTLE
>b
tojv
cocov
fie y e d o s
TVO eV
d e p f io r r jr a
ttjv
T T a X lV ,
Se o fie v o is
n X e lo v o s
K a l
fj
V T p O V , OVTCOS
V p v \ c o p ia s
iv
T rj
20 r e p o v 1 p x e r a i
i^ iK jia a jie v o v
Kal
fir j
K a rco
Kal
adpoos
fj
TOV
e /C
K o iX la
e ls
n a jin a v ,
r r jv
K CoXoV
n a X iv
e X iK a
oncos
K a l
e ls
ro
ev-
T ijs
orevo -
n e p lr r c o fia
r a fiie v r jr a i
e fo S o s r o v
fj
etT *
a VCO K O l X l a S S c ^ T a fc
COG7Tp OLTTO TTJS
(7 T C V O T ep O V 1
S ta t o
r p o c f r i js ,
ron cov.
tcov
fj
c fr v a is
n e p ir r c o fia r o s .
*O o a fiev ovv elvai Set rcov cpcov acocfrpovearepa

npos rrjv rrjs rpocfrrjs nolrjaiv evpvxcoplas fiev o v k
ex*1 jêyaXas Kara rrjv Karco KoiXiav, eXiKas S
25 eêt
rrXelovs K a l o v k evdvevrepa ia n v . fj fiev yap

evpvxcopla n o ie t nXrjdovs im O v fila v, rj S evOvrrjs
r a x v r ijr a iniO v fiia s ' Sionep oaa t c o v cocov fj anXas
eêt V vpv\copovs ra s vnoSoxas, r a fiev els nXrjOos
yaarpifiapya r a S els ra x o s ia r lv .
*E7Tt S i v
so etcroSov
r p o c fr r jv ,
r ijs
av co fie v
Se
n p o i o v a a v
a v a y K a lo v
a> f i e r a f i a X X e i
K on pos
S ta
K al
to v to
ov r
85 i v r e p c p r c o X e n r c o t o v t o
f j to a n e n r o v , K a l r i j s
y ap
rt
/cat
rco fie r a
fie r a v
fj r o
298
e f-
fie r a ^ v ,
to
<pa
r r jv
r ijs r
r jS r j
r r jv
K o iX ia v
av co, iv
a x p r ja r o v
r jS r j
n a a i f i e v , S r jX r j S eV r o t s
the stomach.
the large intestine.
a i.e .
r r jv
K al
ro ta v ra
1 oTi'<i)Tpov bis Langkavel.

6 i.e .
n p c o r rjv
e lv a i
n p o a c fr a r o s o v r
r a
K arco, iv
y l v e r a i S iv
r r jv
K on pcohrj
e n
K al iv
K ara
a v a y K a lo v
etv a i
n a v ra
K a X o v f i e v r j v eêt v r j a n v
n e p lr r c o fia .
K o iX la
veapav
K arco
iK fia a fie v r jv ,
iv
r fj
r p o c fr ijs

happens in the animals which need and take more
food owing either to their size or to the heat of these
parts of the body. After this, just as it goes into a
narrower part of the intestine after it leaves the upper
gut, so also it goes into a narrower channel after
the colon or wide part of the low er gut,6 and into
the spiral c o il; into these the residue passes when
its juices have been completely exhausted. In this
way Nature is enabled to keep the material in store,
and the residue is prevented from passing out all at
the same moment.
In those animals, how ever, which have to be more
controlled in their feeding, there are no great wide
spaces in the knver gut, but their intestine is not
straight, as it contains many convolutions. Spacious
ness in the gut causes a desire for bulk of food, and
straightness in the intestine makes the desire come
on again quickly. Hence, animals of this sort are
gluttonous : those with simple receptacles eat at very
short intervals of time, those with spacious ones eat
very large quantities.
Since the food in the upper gut, when it has just
entered, must of necessity be fresh, and when it
has proceeded further downwards must have lost its
juices and be practically dung, the organ which lies
between the twTo must of necessity be something
definite, in which the change is effected, w'here food
is no longer fresh and not yet dung. Therefore all
animals of this sort have what is called the jejunum,
which forms part of the small intestine, wiiich is next
to the stomach. That is to say, it has its place
between the upper gut, where the unconcocted
food is, and the lower gut, where the now useless
residue is. All these animals have the jejunum, but
299
Jejunum,
ARISTOTLE
fielt,oai Kal vrjarevaaaiv aAA* ovk iSrjSoK ooiv r o r e
ya p Srj1 otov2 fiera lx fiio v y lv era i rcov to ttw v ajicfrorep w v , iSrjSoKorwv Se fiiKpos o Kaipos rrjs fie r a f$oXfjs. t o l s fiev ovv OrjXeoi3 y lv era i orrov av rvxft
5 r o v avco iv rep ov fj v rja n s' o l S appeves4 e x o v a i ttpo
r o v rvcfrXov Kal rrjs Karco KoiXlas.
X V . *E x o v a i Se rrjv KaXov/xevrjv river lav r a fxev
ttoXvKolXia n a v r a , rcov Se jiovokoiXIw v Saowous*.
e x e i Se r a e x o v r a rcov ttoXvkolXIcov rrjv rrverlav o v r
iv rfj jxeydXrj KoiXla o v r * iv rco KKpvcf>dXco o v r * iv
10 rco reX evralco tco fjvvarpw , aAA iv rco jxera^v r o v
reX ev ra lov Kal [Suo]5 tcov rrpcorcov, iv rco KaXovfievco ixlvco. e x ei Se r a v r a rrdvra rrverlav Sta rrjv
7raxvrTjTa r o v ydXaK ros' r a Se jiovoKolXia ov k
e x e i, Xe7ttov y a p t o yaX a tcov jjlovokolXIcov . Sto
rcov fiev Keparocfyopcov rryjyvvrai, rcov S aKeparcov
15 ov Trrjyvvrai r o yaX a. r w Se SaovrroSi y lv era i
TTverla Sta r o vejieaOai o 7TwSrj 7roav o ya p r o io v r o s XvfJios avvlarrjaiv iv rfj KoiXla t o yaXa r o is
ijifip vois. S lotl Se rw v ttoXvkolXIwv iv r w ixIvw
y lv e r a i rj rrverla, eiprjrai iv r o ts TrpofiXrjjiaoiv.
676 a
1
Z : 17S17 vulg.
2 otov PZ, om. vulg.
3 OijXeai] reXeiois Z : nAeioci Platt.
4 appeves] xvves Platt.
5 [Svo] secludendum.
This seems to mean that when the animal is fasting the

two receptacles do not bulge, and so the jejunum is visible;
and though after the animal has fed you might expect to see
the jejunum, because it should be full of food which is being
SOO
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.-xv.

it is apparent only in the larger ones, and in them
only when they are fasting, not when they have
recently been eating, for when they are fasting, there
is an interspace between the two receptacles, whereas
when they have been eating, the time taken by the
change is short. In females the jejunum can have its
place in any part of the upper intestine ; in males
it is placed immediately before the caecum and the
lower gut.
XV.
What goes by the name of Rennet is present
in all animals which have a multiple stomach ; the
hare is the only animal with a single stomach which
has it. In the former class the rennet is not in the
paunch b nor in the reticulum, nor in the abomasum (the
last of the stomachs) ; but in the stomach between
the last one and the first ones, i.e. the so-called
omasum (manyplies). All these animals have rennet
because their milk is so thick ; similarly, the single
bellied animals have no rennet, because their milk
is thin. This also explains why the milk of horned
animals coagulates, while that of the hornless does
not. As for the hare, it has rennet because it feeds
on herbs with fig-like juice ; and this juice can
coagulate the milk in the stomach of sucklings. I
have stated in the Problemsd why, in the animals
that have many stomachs, the rennet is formed in
the manyplies.
transmuted inside it (see above, 675 b 32), it is not visible,
because the change is effected so rapidly.
b Lit. the great stomach.
e See above, 674 b 14 ff.
d No such reference can be found.
301
Rennet
A
676 a
T o v a v r o v Se rp o n o v ex ei T a
K a l T r jv K o i X i a v
rots*
o lo v
c fr v a is i o n
fia K p c o 1
7T a v r a
to is
a n o S i.
n X e v fio v o s .
ovk
Ta
Se to jv
Kal
onX ayxya
yap
t o jv
ocf>ecov
oavpcp
Se
fie v
e x o v o iv ,
k v o tiv
^cocov K a l to T s
* o fio la y a p i o n
to v to ls
n a p a n X r jo i a , n X r jv r a
7r e ^ e v e i v , o l
ro v
o c fre o iv .
o v y y e v r js t o v t o i s
Kal
7r e p l
e lp r jfie v c o v f io p ic o v e K a o r o v
r e r p a n o o i fie v c o o to k o ls
25 a i t o o l v ,
to
K a l t o jv
rj
Kal
aAAa
S ou0
ol
to ls
Ix O v o i
7tAe v f i o v a Sta
exei
fip a y x ia
1x0 v e s
a vrl
e x o v o iv
so o v r e t o v t c o v o v S e v n X r j v % e X c o v t j s r p e n e r a i y a p e l s
ra s
c fr o X IS a s
a v a ifio r r jr a
e ls
ra
ro
to v
n rep a .
vypov
6 X iy o 7 r 6 r c o v
n X e v fio v o s ,
Kal
im X e v K a lv e i
n a oi
K a l t o v t o l s , o jo n e p
r o is
exovoi
k v o tiv
ovrcov
K aO anep
Se
Kal to ls
i e X 0 o v r o s
to
r o is
r r jv
o p v io iv
n e p lrrc o fia
o p v io iv ,
ro v
S ia
S io n 2 ev
n e p ir r c o fia r o s
85 v c f r l o r a r a i a X f i v p l s y e c o S y s i v r o i s a y y e l o i s * t o y a p
y X vK tf
ra s
676 b
Kal
n o r ifio v
a v a X lo K e r a i
S ia
K o v c f r o r r jr a
e ls
oapK as.
T(bv S ocfrecov o l XLS Trpbs r o v s aXXovs e x o v o i

avTTjv Siacfropav fjv Kal iv r o ts ixO voi r a
oeXaxr) n pos r o v s aXXovs* cootokovol ya p eco Kal
r a oeXaxT] Kal o l e x eis , iv a v ro is cporoKrjoavra
n p w rov .
fiovoKolXia Se n a v ra r a r o ia v r a i o n ,
ttjv
1 fxaKpu) Y : fiaKpco rj vulg.
302
2 Sloti O g le: Sionep vulg,
BOOK IV
W h a t has been said already on the subject of the
viseera, the stomach, and each of the other parts

mentioned, applies to the footless ereatures (such as
the Serpents) as well as to the oviparous quadrupeds.
Indeed, the Serpents are akin to these : for a serpent
is like a long and footless lizard. A third elass in
which all these parts are similar is the Fishes : the
only difference is that the first two elasses are landereatures and therefore have a lung, whereas fishes
have no lung but gills instead.
Fishes have no
bladder, nor has any of these ereatures (exeept the
tortoise) ; the reason is that they drink little (beeause
their lung is bloodless), and the moisture in them
is diverted to the horny scales, just as in birds it is
diverted to the feathers. And in all these ereatures,
as in birds, the residue a is white on the surface,
since in those animals that have a bladder, when the
residue has been voided an earthy salt deposit
settles in the vessels, the sweet and non-briny por
tion, owing to its lightness, being used up upon the
flesh.
The Vipers have the same peculiarity among the
Serpents as the Selaehia have among the Fishes.
Both of them are externally viviparous, though
they first produce their ova internally. All these
0
See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.
303
ARISTOTLE
ib
*
*
5 KaOanep ra AAa ra aficfrioSovra' /cat anXayxva Se
nafinav fitKpa \et, wanep r a AAa r a firj exovra
K vanv. o i S o<j)ts Sta rrjv ro v acofiaros fiopcfrrjv,
ovaav fiaKpav Kat arevrjv, /cat Ta axrj/iara rcov
anXayxvcov e\ovot Sta Tatrra fJtaKpa Kal rots rcov
aXXcov cocov avofiota, Sta to KaOanep iv rvnco rd
1 a x tffia r9 avrcov nXaaOijvat Sta ro v ron ov.
9EntnXoov Se /cat fieaevreptov Kal r a nepl rrjv
rcov ivrepcov cfrvaiv, e n Se rd Sta^cofia Kal rrjv
KapSlav n a v r e\et rd. evaifia rcov ,cpcov, nXevfiova
Se /cat aprrjplav navra nXrjv tcov I\dvcov. Kal ttjv
Oeatv Se rrjs aprrjpias Kal r o v olaocfrayov navra
15 Ta exovra ofiolcos eêt Sta T a j elprjfievas a lrla s
nporepov.
II. "Exet Se /cat xXrjv ra. 7roAAa rcov ivalficov
cocov, rd fiev i n i rco r jn a n , r a S dnrjprrjjievrjv in i
rots ivrepots, cos ovaav ov\ rjrro v e/c rrjs Karco
KoiXlas rrjv cfrvaiv avrrjs. SrjXov Se fia X ia r i n i rcov
20txOvcov ovrot yap exovai re ndvres, Kal o l noXXol
npos ro ts 1 ivrepots, evioi Se na p9 oXov rd evrepov
napvcfraafievrjv, otov rj a fita ' Kal rcov ocfrecov ot
77Aetarot rov avrov rponov. Sionep o i AeyovTe? rrjv
cfrvaiv rrjs X^V^ alaOrjaecos rtvos etvat X^Plv
KaXcbs Xeyovaiv cfraal yap elvat Sta ro v r o , oncos
25 rrjs *frvX*)S T irepl rd rjnap fiopiov SaKvovaa fiev
ovvia rfj, Xvofievrj S* tXecov n o tfj rd fiev yap oXcos
1
rot? P Y Z et corr. U : om. vulg.
B See 665 a 1 0 ff.

* See 650 a 14.
e This seems to refer to the views expressed in Plato,
Timaeus, 71 d .
S04
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. i .-ii .

creatures have one stomach only, as do the other
animals that have front teeth in both jaws. And
their viscera are quite small, as are those of the
other creatures which have no bladder. However,
on account of the shape of the serpents* bodies,
which is long and narrow, the shape of their viscera
too is consequently long, thus differing from those
of other animals. This is because the shape of them
is fashioned, as though in a mould, on account of the
space available for them.
All blooded animals have an omentum, a mesen
tery, and the whole intestinal equipment; also a dia
phragm and a heart; and all but the fishes have a
lung and a windpipe too. The relative positions of
the windpipe and the oesophagus are the same in all
o f them. The reasons for this have been given
already.
II. The majority of the blooded animals have a Gall-bladder
gall-bladder in addition. In some it is placed up and bll*
against the liver ; in others it is separate from the
liver and placed against the intestines, indicating
that equally in these its derivation is from the lower
gut.6 This is clearest in the fishes, all of which have
one, and in most of them it is placed against the
intestines, though in some it runs along the whole
length of the intestine, like a woven border, as in
the Amia ; a similar arrangement is found in most of
the serpents. Hence, those who assert that the gall
bladder is present for the sake of some act of sensation
are wrong. They say its purpose is as follows :
on the one hand (a) to irritate that part of the Soul
which is around the liver, and so to congeal it c ; and
on the other hand ( b) by running free to make that
part cheerful. This cannot be true ; because some
305
ARISTOTLE
OVK
\'t X ^ V V > * O V <'777rS K a l O p V S K a l o v o s K a l
eX a < f> os
7r p o f *
Kal
ovk
VT rep p a X X ovoa v
fio v a
o ls
ras*
Kal
ra vra
10 e x o v o L
&
v &
K a f i r ]X o s
yap
<j>X efiia
a T r o p p a lv e iv
(f r X e f ia s
Kal
o v fifia lv e i
rd
rd
TTpos r e r o v T r X e v -
TrX evpa .
T rd O r]
rw v
aêSov
voow v,
yap
ovk
x oX yjv, e v r e r a i s a v a r o f i a i s a v i y i v e r o t o v t o
c f> a v e p o v
ert Se
fia a L v V T rd p x o v
aAA
aAAa
exî
ôAwSr ] /xaAAov o v k
eêt 8 oi)S r ] </>w k t] x X r ] v , o v Se r c o v d a X a r r i w v
30 SeA^ts*. ev 8 e rots yeVeot rots a v r o t s rd /xev exeiv
<âtverat r a S ouk eêtv, otov ev rw rw v f i v w v *
rourw v 8 eort /cat o a v O p w T r o s , evtot /xev yap
( j j a i v o v r a i eôvres ôA^v
Tv ^ a r o s , evtot S
ovk
exovres Sto Kat y i v e r a L a f i < l )i a f }r ]T 7 ]< n s T re p l
o X o v r o v y e v o v s * ot yap i v r v x o v r e s o T r o r e p c o G o v v
35 exoi/ot 77/u Travrwv V T T o X a f i f i a v o v a L V w s a T T a v r w v
exovrw v.
c r v f i f i a i v e i Se rotourov Kai T r e p l r a T r p o f i a r a K a l r a s a l y a s * r a /xev y ap 7rAetora rourw v
677 a eêt x X t ] v , aAA i v i a x o v /xev r o c r a v r r f v w o r e SoKeiv
r e p a s etvat t t j v v 7 r e p p o X i j v y o l o v i v N a fw , evtaôu
8 ouk e x o v o i v , o l o v i v XaAk'tSt r^Js* EujSotas K ara
rtva t o t t o v r r js X ^ P ^ a v r w v . ert 8 e', w o r t e p e ip r j6 r a t, 77 rw v t^ u w v a?T r j p r r j r a i ttoX v t o v T jT r a r o s *
o v k o p Q w s 8 i o L K a o i v o i T r e p l A v a a y o p a v v t t o Aa/xjSavetv w j a i r L a v o v o a v r w v o e w v v o o r j f i a r w v '
a 7 T O K K p L f i v r jv ,
e o iK e v
rd
t t X t jO o s
Kal rd
rj x ^ t f >
to
iv
to ls
a rro p p a iv o fie v o v
K a O a T rep
Kal
tj
d p p w o r r j-
d o v fiftX r fr o v .
K ara
rd
aAAo
0
This is true of quite a number of species, and as Aristotle
says, the gall-bladder is specially variable in mice. In man,
its absence is rare; and Aristotles statement may well be
derived from his observation of aborted embryos, in which
the gall-bladder develops somewhat late.
306
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. n.

animals have no gall-bladder at all, such as the horse,
the mule, the ass, the deer, and the roe ; and the
camel has no distinct gall-bladder, but what would
better be described as consisting of small biliary
vessels. There is no gall-bladder in the seal, nor
(among sea-animals) in the dolphin. Sometimes in
the same group there are some animals which look as
if they have one, and some as if they have none :
This is true of the Mice ; and also of the human
species, as in some individuals the gall-bladder is
placed against the liver and is obvious ; while in some
it is missing. The result of this has been a dispute
concerning the group as a whole. Whatever an
observer has found to be the condition of the indi
viduals he happens to have seen, that he holds is true
of every individual throughout the group. The same
has occurred with regard to sheep and goats, most of
which have a gall-bladder ; but, whereas in some
individuals it is so large that its excessive size is
portentous (e.g. in Naxos), in others it is entirely
absent (e.g. in a particular district of Chalcis, Euboea).
A further point, already mentioned, is that in fishes
the gall-bladder is separated from the liver by a good
distance. Moreover, it is safe to say that Anaxa
gorass school is wrong in holding that the gall-bladder
is the cause of acute diseases : they say that when it
gets too full it spurts its liquid out into the lung and
blood-vessels and sides. This must be wrong, because
nearly everyone who suffers from these affections
actually has no gall-bladder, and this would be proved
if they were dissected. Besides, there is no com
parison between the amount of bile which is present
in these ailments and that which is emitted from the
gall-bladder. No ; it seems probable that, just as the
307
ARISTOTLE
ra
acbfJLa yiVOfieVTJ
nepLTTCOfld
Tl
eCJTLV
fj
<JVVT7jlS,
o v rc o K a l fj e n l tco r j n a n x ^ V n e p lr r c o fia etv a i K a l
15 o $ x
ev e K a t i v o s ,
ev t o i s
w anep
ivre p o ts
K al
fj
vn o a ra a ts.
i v l o r e fj cfjvats els r o
K oiX la
K al
K a r a x p f jT a i fie v
ev
Trj
ovv
cbcjjeXtfiov K a l t o i s n e p i r r c o -
o v fifjv Sta t o v t o Set tjt tv n a v r a eveK a

aAAa rt vcbv o v r cov t o l o v t c o v e r e p a i a v a y K r js
o v fifia lv e i Sta ra u ra 770AAd.
fia o iv ,
tiv o s
"O a o is * f i e v
ovv
20 e a r t K a l f j t o v
fj
to v
d n o K p t v o fie v r j, r a v r a
enl
ro v
f jn a r o s ,
yX vK epa
25 x X r j v
ea n v
to
n o t
r jn a r a
cos
vn o
rcov
a ifia ro s
r o v r o v 1 ia r lv
a tfia
etva i
y X v K it
30 e v e K a ,
to
aAA
T0^
Kal
fj
yap
tco
rfj
ea n v
rcov
,rjv
fic o v v x a
ra vra
re
yap
fir j
axoXa
Kal
tfj
ecopafieva v n
rco v
rd
Kadapov
n e p lr -
n e p lrrc o fia
o n
Kat
ov
to
n vo s
X0^7?*
ot
Kat
noX vv
KaL
cfra o K o vre s
to
ra s
firj
e x e iv
iX a c fro v s *
xpovov.
eKelvcov o n
35 xX fjvt
S
Kai
ix o v r c o v
n tK p o v,
x P vov
yX vK vra rov
ovv
fj
enl
ra
fie v
evxpw
to
a p x a lc o v
n X e lc o
rd
ro v
ro
cfra vep o v
to v t
tercet x X f j v
f jr r o v
r p o c /> fj
X o X f j v , f H X e i f ja v r e s
Kal
e lv a i
vy te tvfj
e ls
y iv o fie v o v
yX vK ei
vy ta tvo v.
X eyovat
Kat
f jn a r o s
x ^ V
a n o K a d a p fia
X a p t e c jr a r a
a in o v
re
fj
axoX cov
a v v ta r a fie v c o v
e v a v r lo v
p ovX era i
t o jv
e t7 7 tv ,
x^7?
ia n v .
r c o fia '
a va ra a ts
y X vK e ta
c f r X e filo t s , f j r a
ra
in ln a v
rfj
Se
c fr v a ts
f ie v fj n d f i n a v o v k
fj e v
Sto K at r a
ov.
fjn a r o s
a ifia r o s
ovk
Se
exei
e n
otov SeXcfrls Kal KafirjXos, Kal r a v r a r v y xd vei fiaKpofita ovTa. evX oyov ya p rrjv r o v fjn a ros
1 t ov to v
308
Peck :
tout*
vulg.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. n.

bile elsewhere in the body is a residue or eolliqueseenee, so this bile around the liver is a residue
and serves no purposelike the sediment pro
duced in the stomach and the intestines. I agree
that occasionally Nature turns even residues to
use and advantage, but that is no reason for trying
to discover a purpose in all of them. The truth is
that some constituents are present for a definite
purpose, and then many others are present o f
necessity in consequence of these.
We may say, then, that in animals whose liver is
healthy in its composition, and in which the blood
that supplies the liver is sweet, there is either no
gall-bladder at all by the liver, or else the bile is in
tiny vessels, or else in some these are present and in
some not. This is why the livers of gall-bladderless
animals are, generally, of a good colour and sw eet;
and in those that have a gall-bladder the part of the
liver immediately below it is very sweet. But in those
animals which are formed out of blood which is less
pure, the bile is the residue of this ; since residue
means that which is the opposite of food, and
bitter the opposite of sweet
and healthy blood
is sweet. So it is evident that bile exists for no de
finite purpose, but is merely an oftscouring. So that
was an extremely neat remark which we find made
by some of the old authors, when they say that if you
have no gall in you your life will be longer. This
was a reference to animals with uncloven hoofs and
to deer, which have no gall-bladder, and are longlived. And also, certain other animals are long-lived,
such as the dolphin and camel, which, though un
observed by them, have no gall-bladder. After all,
the liver is vital and indispensable for all blooded
309
A R IS T O T L E
1 J/
> /
c p v a iv ,
e n iK a ip o v
677 b i v a l f i o i s
\ >
ov aav
,c p o is , a l r i a v
e tv a i,
n o ia v
t j j v iX a T T C o tj n X e i c o x p o v o v .
K ara
to lo vto v
ovS ev a
S evera l
a ir X a y x v c o v
fio v o v
X oyov
ftia io v
ia T iv .
rj
ia r i
j r\
Kat
8
o ti
l^ e t
tco
S r jX o v
r o n o is .
o
rov rco
K a p S ia
(o u S e v
ot58ev
aX X cov
8 r jn a p
t .c o o is , t o
K al
K o iX la s ,
K al
/ >
e ip r jr a i,
X om ov
fie r a
a v t l s i S tj
n e p lr r c o fia
x^ V v>
\
fie v
III.
e ln e tv
tco v
K a 'L
ra
a iT ia v
t iv
cocov,
tco v
K a l in in X o o v
ron co
x o A r j s , o ta
fie v
ovk
y ap
x v lJio v
v o fii^ e iv , o n o v
Se
Is
Is
to
T r js
n ep l
fie a e v r e p io v
iv
to
8*
tco v
v n o a T r jfia
o fio ic o s
Te
a v f i j Sa tV et n e p l a v t o f i o v o v .
K a l to vto
to
10 S i a c f r e p e a O a i
ra
o v a a v , tov
t iv
fie v
ttj
o to v
n a O os),
a v a y K a lo v
S io n e p
e tv a i,
ro t?
K a i to to v to v fie v to v
n X r ja id ^ e iv
a T o n o v T e t o fir j n a v r a x o v
c j> X e y fia
->
7 ra a t
e t v a i n e p i r r c o f i a t o l o v t o v , tcov S a X X co v
an X ayxvov
fir jS e v o s ,
5 y ap
a va y/ c a ta v
K ai
H 'V
ex *i
n ep l
fio p ic o v
Se
yap
r a v ra
ea rl
TO VTCO V .
is
vE a r t
ex ov ai
n o la
S9
Se
to
ia r lv
r j p r r j r a t 1 Se t o
K al to Is
ttjv
fie v
in in X o o v
a r e a r c o S r js ,
to Is
o fio ic o s
iv v S p o is
to ls
o fio ic o s r o l s r e fio v o K o iX lo is
K o iX ia s
an o
fie a r js
o to v
p a c fr r jv
K al
iv a lfio is y
to
ev
re
e ip r jr a i
n p orepov.
T r js K o i X l a s K a r a
eV eêt
Se t o
tco v
iv r e p c o v
to Is
n e o ts
re
n X rjO o s
K al
to ls
c o o is .
fio p io v
t o v to v
310
o rea p
tov tcov ,
*H fie v o v v y e v e a i s i
tov
fie v
n ifie X c o S r js *
eK arep a
n o X v K o iX io is
T r js
to Is
n ifie X r jv
in in X o o v
v n o y e y p a fifie v r jv
20 X o m o v
v fir jv
Se
to
a v a y K r js o v fifia lv e i r o ia v r r j
r jp o v
y ap
/cat v y p o v
fiiy fia r o s
8e p fia r c b S e s
ea x aro v
d el
1 TJpKTCLL
SU YZ.
y lv e r a i
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. n.-m.

animals, and so it is quite reasonable to hold that the
condition o f it controls the length of its owners life.
And it is equally reasonable to hold that the liver
produces a residue such as the bile although none of
the other viscera does so. Take the heart : no such
humour as bile could possibly come near the heart,
because the heart cannot withstand any violent
affection. O f the other viscera none is indispensable
to an animal, except the liver only, and that is why
this phenomenon occurs in connexion with the liver
exclusively. And it would be absurd to say that
phlegm and the sediment produced by the stomach
are residues when found in some places but not in
others ; and clearly the same applies to bile : its
locality makes no difference.
We have now spoken of the gall-bladder, and we
have show n why some animals have it and why some
have not. III. It remains to speak of the Mesentery
and o f the Omentum. These are in the same region
and close to the parts we have just described.
The Omentum is a membrane, formed of suet Omentum,
or lard according to the animal in which it is. (We
have already stated which animals contain suet and
which lard.) Whether the animal has one stomach
or many, the Omentum is always fastened to the
middle o f the stomach, on the line marked on it like a
seam ; and it covers the rest of the stomach and most
o f the intestines. This is so in all blooded creatures,
land- and water-animals alike.
As for the necessary b formation of this part, it
occurs as follow's. When a mixture containing solid
substance and fluid is wrarmed up, the surface of
it alw ays becomes skin-like and membranous ; and
At 651 a 26 ff.
* See Introd. p. 22.
311
ARISTOTLE
077 b
\/
/cat vfievcbSes, o Se ron os oSros roiavrrjs nXrjprjs
25 io r l rpocfrijs.
Sirjdovjievov
e n Se Sta nvKvorrjra ro v vfievos ro

rijs
alfiarcoSovs
rpocfrrjs
avayKalov
Xmapov elvai (r o v ro yap Xenrorarov) Kal Sta
ttjv
depfiorrjra rrjv nepl ro v ronov avfinerrofievov avrt

aapKcbSovs Kal alfiarcoSovs ovaraoew s oreap y iveaOat /cat nifieXrjv.
30 nXoov
ovfifialvei
rj fiev ovv yeveais ro v i n i -
Kara rov
Xpijrai S rj cfrvais avrco
Xoyov rovrov,
npos rrjv
Kara-
evneifriav rijs
rpo(f>ijs, on cos paov nerrrj Kal Oarrov r a a>a rrjv

rpocfrrjv to fiev yap Oepfiov n en n K ov, ro Se niov
r\
/
\
uepfiovj r o o
> / \
enm A oov n iov.
a i
Kai o ta r o v r a n o
fieorjs rjprrjrai1 rijs KoiXias, o n r o eneKeiva2 fiepos

napaKeifievov rjnap. /cat n epl fiev
r o v in in X oov eiprjrai.
35 a v fin er re i r o
I V . T o Se KaXovfievov fieoevrepiov e o n fiev vfirjv,

Siareivei Se avvexes ano rrjs rcov ivrepcov napa678 a raaecos els rrjv cfrXefia rrjv fieyaXrjv Kal rrjv aoprrjv,
nXijpes ov cfrXeficov noXXcov Kal nvKvcov, at relvovaiv
ano rcov ivrepcov eis re rrjv fieyaXrjv cfrXefia Kal rrjv
aoprrjv.
rrjv fiev oSv yeveaiv i avayKrjs ovaav
5 evprjoofiev ofioicos ro is aXXois fiopiois8* Sta riva S
a ir iav vnapxei rois ivaifiois, cfravepov i a n v in i aKonovaiv.
in el yap avay/catov r a
cpa rpocfrrjv
Xafifiaveiv OvpaOev, Kal naXiv iK ravrrjs yiveaOai

rrjv iaxarrjv rpocfrrjv, i *qs rjSrj StaStSorat els ra
fiopia (ro v ro Se rois fiev avaifiois avcbvvfiov, rois S
1 tp K T a t
EPSUYZ.
2 7TKLVa Peck :
7
T
* KlVO Vlllg.
3
312
<t o i o v r o i s >
f io p io is
Ogle :
[f io p io is ] v fie o t
Platt.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. m.-iv.

the place where the Omentum is is full of nutriment
of this very sort. Furthermore, owing to the thick
ness of the membrane, that portion of the blood-like
nutriment which percolates through it must of neces
sity be fatty, because that is the finest in texture;
and then owing to the heat in that part it will be
concocted and so become suet or lard instead of some
fleshy or blood-like substance. This, then, is the way
in which the formation of the Omentum occurs.
Nature, however, turns the Omentum to advantage in
the concoction o f the food, so as to enable the animal
to concoct its food more easily and more quickly ;
for the Omentum is fat ; fat things are hot, and hot
things aid concoction. For this reason, too, the
Omentum is fastened to the middle o f the stomach;
since as regards that part of the stomach which is
beyond, the liver which is close by it assists it in
concoction. So much for the Omentum.
IV.
What is called the Mesentery is also a membrane ; and it extends continuously from the line of
extension of the intestines as far as the Great Blood
vessel and the Aorta. It is full of blood-vessels,
which are many in number and closely packed
together ; and they extend from the intestines as
far as the Great Blood-vessel and the Aorta. We
shall find, as with the other parts, that the develop
ment and formation of the Mesentery is the result
of necessity. As for its purpose in the blooded animals,
that is clear enough to those who consider. Animals
must of necessity take in nutriment from without;
and, again, out of this the ultimate nutriment
has to be made ; and from this store the supply is
distributed directly to the parts of the body. (In
blooded animals this is called blood ; there is no
SIS
Mesentery,
ARISTOTLE
*a y r
\
10 ivai/iois af/xa KaAelrai), Set n etvai Si* ov els T as
cfrAefias e/c Trjs KoiAias olov Sia ptwv nopevaerai rj
rpocfr'q. r a /xev oSv cfrvra r a j piâs eêt els rfjv yrjv
(eKeidev yap Aa/xjffavet ttjv Tpocfrrjv), to is Se ^wois rj
koiAla Kai rj tcov ivrepw v Svva/xis yrj ia n v , ii j rjs
Set Aa/xfiaveiv Trjv Tpocfrrjv Sionep rj t o v /xeoev15 repiov cfrvais ia r lv , olov piâs e\ovaa ra s Si* avrrjs1
cfrAefias. ov /lev ovv eveKa t o /xeaevrepiov io r iv ,
eipr/rai* rlv a Se rpon ov Aa/xfiavei rr/v rpocfrrjv, Kal
nws elaepxerai Sia rw v cfrAefiwv ano rrjs ia x d rrjs 2
rpocfrrjs els r a fiopia n a v ra 3 to SiaSiSo/ievov els ras
cfrAefias, iv rots nepl rrjv yeveaiv rcov wwv AexOrj20 a era i Kal rrjv rpocfrrjv.
25
T a /lev ovv evai/ia rcov wwv nws exi ^ X P 1 T>v

Siwpio/ievwv /xoplcov, Kal Sia riva s a lria s , eip rjra i*
nepl Se rcov els rrjv yeveaiv avvreAovvrcov, ois So/cet
Siacfrepeiv r o drjAv ro v appevos, exojievov fiiv i o n
Kal Aoinov rcov elprj/xevcov aAX ineiSrj nepl yeve
oecos AeKreov, ap/xorrov i a r l Kal nepl tovtcov iv rfj
nepl iKeivcov decopia SieAOelv.
V . T a Se KaAov/xeva /iaAa/cta Kal /xaAaKoarpaKa

noAArjv eêt npos ra v ra Siacfropav ev6vs yap rrjv
rw v anAayxywv anaaav ovk exei cfrvaiv. o/ioiws S
so ouSe rw v aXAwv avai/iwv ovSev. e a n Se Svo yevrj
Aoma rw v aval/xwv, rd r oarpaKoSep/xa Kal rd rw v
ivro/iwv yevos*.
it; ov yap avvearr/Kev rj rw v
onAayxycov cfrvais, ovSev rovrw v e'xei af/xa, Sta t o
1 avrrjs P e c k : avrrjs vulg.
* cVâttjs Peck s tiaiovoTjs vulg.
3 navra O gle : ravra vulg. i om. Z .
314
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. iv.-v.

special name for it in the others.) Now there must
be some passage or passages (as it might be roots)
through which this nutriment shall pass from the
stomach to the blood-vessels. The roots of plants
are of course in the ground, because that is the
source from which plants get their nutriment. For
an animal, the stomach and the intestines correspond
to the ground, the place from which the nutriment
has to be derived. And the Mesentery exists to
contain these vessels, corresponding to roots ; they
pass through the inside of it. This completes my
account of its Final Cause. As for the means by
which the nutriment is taken up, and the wray in
which that portion of the ultimate nutriment which
is distributed into the blood-vessels reaches all the
parts of the body through them, these points will
be dealt with in the treatises on the Generation o f
Animals and on Nutrition .
I have now* described the blooded animals as far
as concerns the parts that have been dealt with, and
also the causes that are responsible. It remains,
and would follow' after this, to speak of the organs
o f generation, by which male and female are dis
tinguished. But as we shall have to deal with
generation itself, it is more appropriate to speak of
these organs in our consideration of that subject.
V.
The animals called Cephalopods and Crustacea i n t e r n a l
are very different from the blooded ones. First of all, b l o o d l e s s
they have no visceral structure at all. This is true animals.
of all the bloodless creatures, in which are included
beside Cephalopods and Crustacea tw'o other groups,
the Tcstacea and the Insects. This is because none
o f them has blood, W'hich is the material out of which
L
315
ARISTOTLE
rrjs ovaias avrcov elvat r t ro to v ro v naOos [a v rrjs ]1,
o n yap e a n r a /xev evat/xa r a S avat/xa, ev rco
85 Aoyco ivvnapei rco oplôvn rrjv ova lav avrcov.
en
8* &v eveKev e\ovat r a anAayxva r a evat/xa rcov
cocov> ovSev vnapet ro ts ro to v ro ts ' ovre yap
678 b <frAefias exovaiv ovre Kvartv o v r avanveovaiv, aAAa
/xovov avayKalov \etv avrots r o avaAoyov rfj KapSia* to yap alaOrjrtKov ifrvx^js Kat r o rrjs corjs airto v ( i v ) 2 apxfj rtv i rcov /xoplcov Kat ro v aco/xaros
vrrapxei n aai rots Repots, ra Se 7rpos rrjv rpocfrrjv
5 /xopta e^ct Kat ra v ra et; avayKrjs n a v ra ' ot Se
rp on ot Stacfrepovat Sta rovs ron ovs iv ols Aa/xj8avovat rrjv rpocfrrjv.
" E x o v a i 8c r a / x e v / x a A a K t a n e p l r o K a A o v / x e v o v
a r o / x a S v o o S o v r a s , K a l i v r c o a r o / x a n av r l y A c o r r r js
ti,
aapK coS es
r jS o v r jv .
io t o v s
n pebrovs
n a v ra
ro
15 y e v o s
ro to v ro v
ro v
K al
repov'
a ro /x a n
Se
r r jv
ev ro /x
rcov
Se
ex ei
/x rj
ro
r a
/x ev
exet
r a
r r js
ro ts
iS e a r o ts
t o v to is
avaA oyov
o lo v
/x ev
to
r r jv
re
to io v to v
i to v a a v
tco v
e ip r jr a i
/x o p to v ,
ro to v ro v
a i r la v
a ta O r ja iv .
o to v
erep ov .
aAAo t o r e p o v s Sc,
in t-
/x e A ir r c b v
K al
i/x n p o a O o K e v r p a ,
ia n v
r fj
o a rp a K o S ep /x a
r p o c fr ijs
/x v ic o v , w a n e p
tov tco v ,
1 avrrjs seclusi.
K ai
K al
a ra
fx v p /x T /K c o v y e v o s K a l e t n
S i
iv
e x e i fx o p io v S t a r r jv a v r r jv
a ro /x a ro s,
ro
o a a
r r jv
/x a A a K o a rp a K a
c^ci
e n
n pos
Sc Kai ra
o /x o lc o s
r a
oS ovras
iv a l/x o ts ,
fio a K iS a
K p lv o v a t
K al
aap K w S es.
y A corrrj
r o ls
cL
Sc
o /x o lc o s
iv
to
n p orco
rcov
oS ovras
K aO an ep
3 a> supplevit Th.
a See Introduction, pp. 26 ff.

6 These teeth are the two halves of what might be com
pared to a beak.
316
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, IV. v.

viscera are made ; and the reason for this is that a
condition o f this sort is part of their being : the fact
that some animals are blooded and some bloodless
will be found to be included in the logosa which
defines their being. Further, we shall see that none
of those purposes for whose sake blooded animals
have viscera operate in these other creatures: they
have no blood-vessels and no bladder, they do not
breathe : the only organ they must necessarily have
is the counterpart of the heart, since the sensitive
part of the Soul and the original cause of life is always
situated in some place which rules the body and its
parts. Also, they all have of necessity the parts
adapted for dealing with food and nutrition; but the
manner of these varies according to the places where
they take their food.
The Cephalopods have two teeth around what is
called their mouth b; and inside the mouth, instead of
a tongue, they have a fleshy object, by means of
which they discriminate the savour of things to eat.
Likewise, the Crustacea have these front teeth and
the fleshy counterpart of the tongue. The Testacea
all have this latter part, too, for the same reason that
blooded animals have a tongue, viz. to perceive the
taste of the food they eat. Similarly, too, the Insects
have, some of them, a proboscis which comes out
from the mouth, as with the Bees and Flies (this has
been mentioned earlier6) ; and the ones which have no
sharp protrusion in front have a part such as this
inside the mouth, as Ants, and the like. Some of
these creatures have teeth, though somewhat differ
ent from ordinary teeth (as the Flies,d and Bees) ;
e At 661 a 2 1 ; cf. Hist. An. 528 b 28.
4 Or Ants ** (translating Meyers emendation).
317
ARISTOTLE
678 b
TO T TCOV flV lC O V 1 K a l T O TCOV fie X lT T C O V y e V O S , T<X 8
20 o v k
%X l > a a
iv r o fic o v
tco v
aAA
vyPQ
ov
X P V TCLl T f l
T p o c fr r js
% x l
T P 0<f r f ) '
tt o X X cl
y ap
oS ovras
X ^ P LV T v s
a X K rjs .
T o jv S o o r p a K o h e p f i c o v T a f i e v , c o o r r e p i X e x O i j K a l
ev
to ls
K ar9
y X cbrrav
Ao y o i s ,
ap x as
Icrx v p av ,
8e
o l
25 K a O a r r e p T a f i a X a K o o r p a K a .
eo rt
fia X a K L O L S
fie v o s
K o iX la , K a l
r r js
eo8ov.
tto o lv
30 r r j v
o fio ia
K o iX ia v
o fio ic o s
at
77p o X o j 3 t o 8 ~ s js
h ia c fr e p o v o i
rep a s
7r e p
a v r r js
r a is
K al r o is
r a is
rj
o y r jfia o i
8 ta
to
ov v eorav ai
K al
e lo lv
to vto v
ev rep ov
o r jn ia is
ro ts
r o is
ro
o c b fia
eK
rrep l
SJo f i e v
r jr r o v
c r x r jfic io iv
rrav
fie x p i
7roX v-
a c fr f j r a
r e v d lo i
v n o h o x a i,
K al
e^ d -
ov v ex ^ JS
arrX ov v
K al
K a l r fj
Se K a X o v fie v a is
erep a ,
Svo,
o p v io iv , e l r a
to ls
ovv
K o iX ic b S eis
eêt
oS o vra?
S e t o o r o f i a Tots*
fie r a
e x o fie v o v
fie v
K a X o v fiev r jv
K al
fia K p o s ,
o r o fia ^ p s
7 T p o X o j3 o s o l o s
T r jv
/coÂot
8e
e K e iv c o v
fia X a K c o -
oap K os.
T a v r a S e%et Ta fiopia ro v ro v ro v rponov Sta

rrjv avrrjv a lria v coorrep Kal o l opviOes* ouSe yap
35 t o v t c o v ovSev e v S e ^ e T a t Xeaiveiv rrjv rpocfrrjv, Sionep
o npoXofios e o n npo rijs KoiXias.
n pos fiorjOeiav 8 e /cat ocorrjpiav exei ra v ra rov
679 a KaXovfievov OoXov ev x LT )VL Vfievcohei npoonecfrv
/ co t i,2 rrjv e f o S o v e ^ o v T t /cat t o nepas fjnep acfriaoi
t o n eplrrcofia rrjs KoiXias Kara ro v KaXovfievov
aifXov ovros 8 e a n v ev ro is v n rlo is . exei fiev ovv
5 navra r a fiaXaKia r o v ro r o fiopiov t'S tov, fiaXiara
S rj orjn ia Kal n X e io ro v orav yap cfrofirjOcboi Kal
1
fiviu>v] fivtuiv a>ov E Y : fxvpfjL^Kiov Meyer.
2TTpoane^vKOTt, Ogle :
318
r r p o a n ^ V K O T a V U g l.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

others have no teeth at all : these are the creatures
whose food is fluid. Indeed, in many of the insects
the purpose of the teeth is not mastication of food at
all, but for use as weapons.
Of the Testacea, as we stated in the opening treat
ise, some have a very strong tongue (so-called) ; and
the Sea-snails actually have two teeth as well, like the
Crustacea. In the Cephalopods there is a long gullet
next after the mouth, and contiguous to that is a
crop like a birds. Continuous with this is the
stomach, then immediately the intestine, which is
simple and reaches to the vent. In the Sepias and
Octopuses these parts round the stomach are similar
both in shape and in consistency. The creatures called
Calamaries, like the others, have the two gastric
receptacles,6 but the first of them is less like a crop ;
and they differ in shape from the organs of the
previous classes, and that is because their bodies are
composed of softer flesh throughout.
These creatures have these parts arranged in this
way for the same reason that birds have them: they,
like birds, are unable to grind down their food ; hence
the crop is placed before the stomach.
The Cephalopods, for the sake of self-defence and
self-preservation, have what is called their Ink. This
is contained in a membranous bag which is attached
to the body, and comes to an end in an outlet where
the residue from the stomach is discharged by the socalled funnel. This is on the under side of the body.
All the Cephalopods have this peculiar part, but it is
most remarkable in the Sepia, as well as the largest
in size. When the Sepia is frightened and in terror,
a At Hist. An. 528 b 30 ff.
b Viz. the crop and the stomach.
319
ARISTOTLE
h e io w o iv , olov cfrpayfia n p o r o v a w fia ro s n o io v v r a i
rrjv r o v v y p o v fieAaviav Kal 9 oA w oiv.
a i fiev o vv
rev9 i8 es Kal n o A vn o 8 es e x o v a iv avw 9 ev t o v OoAov

i n i Tjj jiVTiSi /xaAAov, rj Se orjn ia n p o s rfj KOiXia
1 0 /carco n A eiw
y a p exei Sta t o x P V GâL lâAAov.

t o v t o S a vrrj ovfifia ivei Sta t o n p o o y e io v /xev efvat
t o v j8 tov a v r r js , firj eêtv S aAArjv fiorj9eiav, w o n e p

o n o A v n o v s ras* nAeKTavas exei x P rJa ^fJLOVS KaL TV V
to v
xpai/xaToj fierap oA rjv, 17 ovfifia ivei a v r w ,
w o n e p Kal rj t o v 0o A o u n p o e o is , Sta SetAtav.
IB re v9 ls n e A a y io v ecrrt toutcuv fio vo v.
rj Se
n A eiw /xev o5v
eêt 7) orjn ia n a p a t o v t o t o v 9oAov, K a rw 9ev Se Sta

t o n A e i w paStov y a p n p oteo9 a i Kal n o p p w 9 ev a n o
t o v n A eio vo s.
y iv e r a i he [o ôAosr] , 1 Ka9anep to I s
o p vio iv v n o o r r jjia t o A evKov en l t o v n e p ir r w fia r o s

y e w 8 e s, o v t w Kal t o v t o i s o 9oAos Sta t o firj8e r a v r
20 eêtv k v o t i v
a n o K p ivera i y a p t o y e w S io r a r o v els
a v r o v , Kal rfj o rjn ia n A e to ro v Sta r d n A e lo r o v exeiv

yew Ses.
orjfielov Se t o o rjn io v t o i o v t o v o v t o v t o
y a p o fiev n o A v n o v s o vk exe i, a i Se rev9 iS es X o v

opcodes Kai Aenrov .
(ot
rjv 0
aiTiav Ta fiev o vk
exei r a S eêt, /cat 7rotdv t i to v t c o v e x ei eK arepov,

eip rjra i.2)
25
Avat/xtov S ovtcov K a l
K a l (frojirjriKcov, w onep
KOiAia r a p a r r e r a i, r o ls
n e p irrw o is , K a l t o v t o i s
Sta ro v ro K a r eiftvyfiev wv
eviois o ra v Setacoatv rj
S e/c rijs K vo rew s pel
t o v t o ovfifiaivet fiev
1 [o 0o\os] seclusi: o om. P.

2 eiprjrai irporepov P.
0 The mytis, which is the same as the mecon, is an excretory

organ, and corresponds to the liver. See below, 679 b 11.
6 Cf. above, 676 a 32.
320

it produces this blackness and muddiness in the
water, as it were a shield held in front of the body.
Now the Calamaries and Octopuses have this ink-bag
in the upper region of the body, quite near the mytisa\
whereas in the Sepia it is lower down, against the
stomach, since it has a larger supply because it uses
it more. This circumstance is due (1) to its living
near the land and (2) to its having no other means of
defencenothing like the Octopus, for instance, which
has its twining feet, which are useful for this purpose ;
it can also change its colour, and it does so (just as
the Sepia emits its ink) when put in fear. Of all
these, only the Calamary lives well out at sea and gets
protection thereby. Hence, compared with it, the
Sepia has a larger supply of ink ; and because this is
larger, it is lower in the body, as it is easy for it to be
emitted even to a considerable distance when the
supply is great. The ink is earthy in its nature, like
the white deposit on the excrement of birds, and it is
produced by these creatures for the same reason
they, like birds, have no urinary bladder b; so the
earthiest matter is excreted into this ink, especially
in the Sepia, for the Sepia contains an exceptionally
large amount of earthy matter. An indication of
this is its bone, which is earthy. The Octopuses do
not have this bone, and in the Calamary it is cartila
ginous and slight. (We have said why some of these
animals have this part and why some have not, and
what in each case its character is.)
These animals, as they have no blood, are cold and
liable to take fright. While in some other animals
fear causes a disturbance of the stomach, and in some
the discharge of residue from the bladder, in these
creatures its effect is to make them discharge their
321
ARISTOTLE
679 a
avayKrjs a<f>ievai Sia SetAtav, wonep K Kvorews

tols inovpovoiv, rj Se <f>vois afia r a ) toiovtw nepir80 rwjxaTi KaTaxprjTai npos fiorjdeiav Kal owrrjpiav
avrwv.
" K x o v o l Se Kal Ta fxaXaKoorpaKa, r a r e KapajSoetSrj Kal ol KapKivoi, Suo fxev oSovTa? tovs
7rpwrovs, Kal fieraijv rrjv oapKa rrjv yXwoooeiSrj,
wonep eiprjrai Kal nporepov, evdvs S ixojxevov tov
orojxaros OTOfiaxov jiiKpov Kara jxeyeOos tw v
35 owjiarwv [ r a jxel^w npos ra iXarrw J1* tovtov Se
KOiXlav ixofxevrjv, *4* Vs * T KapafSoi Kal evtot
twv KapKivwv oSovTas' exovoiv erepovs S ia t o tovs
679 b avco jirj Stat pew Ikovws , ano Se rrjs KoiXlas evrepov
anXovv Kar ev9v [.iexpt npos rrjv e fo S ov tov
nepiTTwjiaros.
"Eêt Se Kai tw v ooTpaKohepjiwv e/caorov rau ra
r a fiopia , Ta jxev SirjpOpwjiiva fiaXXov Ta S fjr r o v
ev Se rots fxelôoi SiaSrjXorepd i o n v eKaora to v 5 t w v . o l juev ovv ko x Xoi Kal oSovras e'xovoi o k Xtjpovs Kal oijels, wonep eiprjrai nporepov, Kal to
j.ierai;v oapKwSes ojjloIw s to is jiaXaKiois Kal jxaXaKoorpaKOiSi Kal rrjv npofiooKiSa, Kadanep eiprjrai,
jiera ^ v Kevrpov Kal yXw rrrjs, ro v Se o ro fia ro s
eXojxevov olov opvidwSrj n v a npoXofiov, ro v ro v S
10 ixojxevov orojxa xov* r o v ro v S e^ trat rj KoiXla, iv fj
rj KaXovjievrj jxtjkwv, a< rjs ovvexes i o n v evrepov
anXrjv rrjv apxrjv côv a7ro rrjs jxrjKwvos* e o n yap
iv n a o i ro ts oorpaKrjpois neplrrw jxa ro v ro ro
jxaXiora Sokovv etvat iSwSijxov. exei S ojjloI ws rw
1 seclusit Rackham.
322

ink ; and though this is an effect due to necessity,
like the discharge of urine in the others, yet Nature
makes good use of this residue at the same time
for the animals defence and preservation.
The Crustacea as well, that is, both the Crabs and
the Caraboids, have the two front teeth, and between
the teeth they have the tongue-like flesh, as has
already been stated a ; and immediately next to the
mouth they have a gullet which is quite small com
pared with the animals size ; and immediately after
that the stomach ; and on this the Carabi and some
o f the Crabs have another set of teeth, since the
upper ones do not masticate the food sufficiently.
From the stomach a simply formed intestine runs
straight to the vent where residues are discharged.
These parts are present in every one o f the Testacea
as well, more distinct in some, less in others. Th ey
are more clearly marked in the larger animals.
Take the Sea-snails. These have (1) as stated al
ready, the teeth, which are hard and sharp, (2) the
fleshy object in between them, similarly to the
Crustacea and Cephalopods ; (3) the proboscis, as
already mentioned,6 something between a sting and
a tongue ; (4) im m ediately after the mouth is a sort
o f birds crop, and (5) after that the g u lle t ; (6) con
tinuous with that is the stomach, and (7) in the
stomach is what is known as the mecon0\ and (8) at
taching to this is an intestine : this intestine begins
directly from the mecon. This residue (the mecon)
appears to be the most tasty piece in all the Testacea.
The other creatures that have spiral shells (e.g. the
At 678 b 10.
b At 661 a 15 ff.
* The hepatopancreas or liver ; see above, 679 a 9.
L 2
323
ARISTOTLE
15 koxX co
Kal
r d AAa r a
a rp o fifico 8rj, o lov
nopcfrvpai
K a l KrjpvK$.
"E on
Sc
S e p fico v r a
yevrj Kal e i 8rj noXXa
6orpaK O -
rcov
fiev ya p a rp o fij 806877 ia r lv , w anep r a
vvv eip rjfieva , r a Sc 8 l9 vpa , r a 8 c fio v o 9 v p a . rp o n o v

Sc T tm /cat r a orpofi/3w8rj 8 i9 vpois e o iK e v exei y a p
in tn r v y fia r
20 r o ia v r a
ck
i n i rco cfravepw rrjs oapK os n a v r a r a

y everrjs,
otov
ai
re
nopcfrvpai
Kal
KrjpvKes Kal o l v rjp e ira i Kal n d v r o r o io v r o v yevos,

n p os fio r jd e ia v 7; y a p fir) n p ofie fiX rjra i r o o a rp a K ov,
p a 8io v r a v r r j fiX a n re a 9 a i v n o rcov 9vpa9ev n p o o n m ro v rco v .
ra
fiev ovv fiovoB vpa Sta
necfrvKevai a w ^ e ra i rco npaves exe iv r o

25 Kai
y lv e r a i
aAAoTpiw
cfrpayfian
to
npoa-
oa rp a K o v,
rp on ov
r iv a
81-
9vpov, otov a t KaXovfxevai X ena 8es * r a Sc 8 Idvpa,

o lo v Kreves K al fiv e s , rco a vva y eiv, r a Sc a rp o fifiw 8rj
ro v rc o rco in iK a X v f if ia n , w on ep 819vpa y iv o fie v a c/c
fiov o 9 v p w v .
c^ct*
o 8* ix iv o s fia X ia ra na vrcov aXecopav
kvkXco y a p r o oa rp a K o v avvrjpecfres Kal k c -
8 xapaK cofievov
r a is
aK av9ais.
tStov
8*
e xe i rcov
o o rp a K o 8epiicov r o v r o , KaOanep e ip rjra i n p o re p o v .

T cov Sc fiaX aK oorpaK cov Kal rcov o a rp a K o 8epfiw v
avvearrjK ev rj cfrvais r o is fia X a K io is a v n K e ifie v w s *
r o is fiev y a p eco r o oapK w 8es, r o is S iv r o s , iK ro s
35
Sc rd yecdSes. o 8* ix iv o s ovSev e xe i oapK w 8es.

riav ra fiev ovv e x e i, Ka9anep e ip rjra i, K al raAAa
r a o a rp a K o 8epfia a r o fia r e Kal r o yXcorroei8es Kal
K oiXiav Kal r o v n e p irrc o fia ro s rrjv eo 8ov,
$24,
a The operculum.
81acfrepet

Purpuras and the Whelks) are similar to the Seasnails in structure.
There are very many genera and species of Tes
tacea. Some have spiral shells, like the ones just
mentioned ; some are bivalves, some univalves. In
a way, the spiral shells resemble the bivalves, as they
have, all of them, from birth, a covering over the
exposed part of their flesh, e.g. the Purpuras, the
Whelks, the Nerites, and the whole tribe of them.
This covering serves as a protection ; for in any place
where the animal has no shell to protect it, it could
quite easily be injured by the impact of external
objects. The univalves* means of preservation is this:
they cling to some object, and have their shell on the
upper side ; so they become in a way bivalves in
virtue of the borrowed protection afforded by the
object to which they cling. Example, the Limpets.
The bivalves proper (e.g. Scallops and Mussels) get
their protection by closing themselves up ; the spiralshelled creatures by the covering I mentioned, which,
as it were, turns them from univalves into bivalves.
The Sea-urchin has a better defence system than any
o f them : he has a good thick shell all round him,
fortified with a palisade of spines. As I stated pre
viously, the Sea-urchin is the only one of the Testacea
which possesses this peculiarity.
The natural structure of the Crustacea and of the
Testacea is the reverse of that of the Cephalopods.
The latter have their fleshy part outside, the former
have the earthy part outside and the fleshy inside.
The Sea-urchin, however, has no fleshy part at all.
All these parts, as describedmouth, tongue-like
object, stomach, vent for the residueare present
in the rest of the Testacea too, but they differ in
325
ARISTOTLE
680 a Se r f j O e a e L K a l
/x e y e 0 e a iv .
tols
Se r p o n o v e \ e i
ov
TOVTCOV eKaCTTOV, K T TWV loTOpLWV TW V n e p l T a

w a O ew peLaO w K a l ei< t w v a v a r o /x c b v r a
tw
f ie v y a p
X o y w r a Se TTpos t t j v oifsLv a v r w v aacfrrjviêLv Set
/xaX X ov.
S e x o v c jL
'l & l w s
o G T p a K o h e p fJ L W v
t w v
ol
6 K a l t o t w v K a X o v /x e v w v r y 0 v w v y e v o s .
e^ t r o t d S d v T a? / x e v n e v r e
onep
enl
n a vrw v
ea rl
to v to v
O T O f jc a x o v ,
noXXa
S L T jp T ]fjL evrjv,
exovT os.
K o c X ta s
10 n X r jp e L S
C T O fia x o v
ovS ev
w anepavel
Kal reX evrw oL

napa
e 'x o v c r L v , w a n e p
to v
a p L 0 fid v
k vk X w
and
to v
npos
to v
e ls
w ov
e la i
r /p r r /v r a i
Kal
to v
e fo S o v t t j v t o v
Se t t j v K o i X i a v a a p K w h e s f x e v
T a Se K a X o v / x e v a w a
e ip r /r a i,
ev
ovrw v
^copts*
v /x e v L
a r o /x a r o s
is x v h r j v , a v w v v / x a .
fu a v
Se
k o lX lo v
yap
evos
S o l
e x o /x e v o v
t t jv
[l e v
ly iv o i
aapK w bes,
noXXas
K e x c o p c a /x e v a i
n X e lw
ev
e lp r j/x e v w v ,
Se t o u t o i ;
n e p L r r w /x a r o s ,
n e p iT r c o /x a r o s
K at / x e r a ^ v t o
tw v
and
e% ovoL
eK a a rov,
fie X a v * a r r a
Kal
& L e a n a p /x e v a
Se n X e i o v w v y e v w v ( o v y a p
etS o s t w v e x w c o v n a v r w v e o r t ) n a v r e s / x e v e x o v a i
T a vra
ra
K a X o v /ie v a
w a,
n oX a ôvrw v.
20 j8e)Sr /K e
o /x o lw s
Ta
aAA
/x o p L a ,
Kal
oXw s
ovk
/iL K p a
Se r o v r o
Kal
o a r p a K o S e p /x a m K a l
e h c o S c /x o L
n a vrw v,
K a X o v /x e v r j /x t /k w v , e v i w v /x e v
e h c b h i/x o s .
e S c o S c /x a
n d /x n a v
ea rL
Kal
nepl
yap
rd
n a vres
ew
rd
rw v
ra
e m -
AAa a v /x -
at a a p K e s
ovx
n e p lr r w /x a ,
rj
eSc6St/xos e v l w v S o u k
Se t o i s a r p o / x f i w S e a L v e v r f j e X u < r /
Ilist. An. 528 b 10 ff.

6 This seems to imply that diagrams or illustrations accom
panied the treatises.
e These form what is compared to a lantern at Hist. An.
531 a 5, hence the name, lantern o f Aristotle.
326

their position and size. For the details of these, con
sult the Researches upon Animalsa and the Dissections.
Some points are better explained by inspection6 than
in words.
The Sea-urchin and the genus of Ascidians are
peculiar among the Testacea. The Sea-urchin has
five teeth,c and between them it has the fleshy sub
stance (the same as in all the above-mentioned
creatures) ; after that, the gullet, after that, the
stomach, which is divided into several compartments,
so that the animal seems to have several stomachs.
But although they are separated from each other and
are full of residue, they all spring from the gullet and
they all terminate in the residual vent. Apart from
the stomach, these ereatures contain no fleshy snbstanee, as I have said. They have, however, what
are called ova a ; there are several of them and each
is in a separate membrane ; and scattered at random
round the body, beginning from the mouth, are
certain black objects, which have no name. There
are several kinds of Sea-urchin, and in all of them
these parts are present. Not all, however, have
edible/ ova, and, except in the common ? varieties,
they are quite small. There is a similar distinction
among the other Testaeea: the flesh is not equally
edible in all of them, and in some o f them the residue
(the so-ealled mecon) is edible, in others not. In the
spiral shells, the mecon is in the spiral, in univalves
d These are really ovaries (or testes) : gonads.
e These may be the ambulacral vesicles, but the identifica
tion is not certain.
1 See the story of the Spartan in Athenaeus iii. 41.
9 The word translated common may mean living near
the surface.
327
ARISTOTLE
680 a
T O V T O , TO LS
Se fJLO VoBvpO LS CV T O ) n v O f l i v L , OLOV T O L S
Ae7T a O L , TO LS Sc S L O vp O L S n p O S T f j O V V a < f )f j * TO S M O V
25 K a X o v f i e v o v i v
7 T p L T T (b fia T O S
S w ov
o v k
o p Q tb s
S io
Kal
y iv e r a L
iv L a v T o v
iv
o ts
fie r o n c o p c o
iv
n a vra
vo vo l
S vva vra i ra s
in i
iv
rcov
r a is
K aO anep
rep a s
vn o
K a ra
ra
o t
i% L v c o v
av
o vg lv
t o v s
ev
tc
evO vs
re
yap
K aLpovs
t o v
capt
Kal
tco
Kal
<f>epeLV
y iv o fie v o t
S ta
ov
ov
Sc t o c r v f i f i a tv o v
o r jf ie lo v
/xaAAov,
yap
ttlottjs.
T a fe a X e a i s n o -
K a 'L
o o r p a K o S e p fia ,
n a v o e X r jv o L s
t o vt o
e v O r fv c o c L v , rj
ra t
v n e p fio X a s .
K d A eIT C L L
K a X ovvrw v
rovro vs
v O t) v
yap
StfllJpOtS.
TO LS
rcov
iv a lfio L s ,
tols
Sc t o i s i n i O a r e p a r j
S e^LO LS, i v
TOV
io T L V o l o v
30
tols
c t jo S o S
exovoL
to
Kal
v e fie o O a L
Ttves* o t o v r a t /xaAAov, a A A a S ta t o a X e e i v o -
etvat r a s
vvK ra s
S ta
to
<j><jbs
o e X 'q v r j s .
r r js
35 S u a p t y a y a p o W a S t a t o avat/xa etvat S e o vT a t aAe'a?.

Sto /cat cv
B80b n X r jv
ol
iv
tco
tw
O epet
/xaAAov 7ravTaxo> v 07j v o v o l v ,
IT u p p a t w
tJ tto v t o # x t t 'H & w s '
e v p ln a r
oltlov
Se t o
rore
/taAAov, d7roAet7rdvTWv t w v
n ovs
K a ra
r a v r r jv r r jv
iK e iv o L
v o f iijs
Ix O vco v
ou^
evnopeZv
rovs
t o
w pav.
*Exoucri S* ot cxtvot 77avTCS* taa t c t w aptfl/xw Ta

5 w a /cat n e p i r r a ' n e v r e y a p e x o v o i v , roaourous Se
/cat Tois* oSovTas K a l r a s k o l X l o s . a m o v S OTt r o
wov eort, K a O a n e p e i p r j r a L n p o r e p o v , ou/c wov aAAa
tou wou e v r p o < j> t a . y i v e r a L Se r o v r o i n i 0 a r e p a
a This is true of the sea-urchins in the Red Sea, though not
of the Mediterranean ones. The former have a cycle corre
sponding exactly to that of the moon. The five roes0 ovaries, or
testes are large and swollen during the week preceding each
of the summer full moons, and the spawning of the eggs
takes place during the few days before and after full moon.
For a most interesting discussion of this and kindred matters
328

(like limpets) it is in the tip ; in bivalves it is near
the hinge. In the bivalves the so-called ovum is on
the right-hand side, and the residual vent on the left.
Ovum is a misnomer ; actually it corresponds to
fat in blooded creatures when they are in good con
dition ; and that is why it appears only in spring and
autumn, which are the seasons when they are in good
condition. In great cold and great heat all the
Testacea are hard put to i t ; they cannot endure in
ordinate temperatures. The behaviour of the Seaurchins is a good illustration of this : they have ova
in them as soon as they are born, and at the time of
full moon these increase in size a ; and this is not, as
some think, because the creatures eat more then, but
because the nights are warmer owing to the moon
light. These creatures have need o f the heat because
they are bloodless and therefore adversely affected
by cold. That is why they are in better condition
during the summer, and this is true of them in all
localities except the strait of Pyrrha,6 where they
flourish equally well in winter, and the reason for this
is that in winter they have a more plentiful supply of
foodstuff, due to the fish leaving the district at that
season.
The Sea-urchins all have the same number o f ova
an odd number, five, identical with the number of
teeth and stomachs which they have. This is ac
counted for by the ovum not being really an ovum
(as I said before) but simply a result of good nourish
ment. The ovum is found in Oysters too, though
see H. M. Fox* Selene, especially pp. 35 ff., and id. Proc.
Roy. Soc. B.< 1923, 95, 523.
b In Lesbos, leading to the lagoon, one of Aristotles
favourite hunting-grounds i see Hist. An. 544 a 21 (seaurchin), 548 a 9 , 603 a 2 1 , 621 b 1 2 . Cf. Gen. An. 763 b 2 .
329
ARISTOTLE
fio v o v
iv
r o ls
Se t o u t o
t o K a X o v f i e v o v COOV .
o o T p e o is ,
e a r t /cat t o
ev to?? i \ i v o L S .
Ta v r o
7ret
tolvvv
10 ecrrt o c f x i i p o e i S r j s o e u r o s , /cat 01) ^ c o o n e p i m

aX X cov o o T p eco v
ov
T jj
fie v
yap
15 a v c o
o to v
to
t
t o vt o
to
toa7rep
fie o c o
yap
e fv a t t o
fie v
coov
Xo
k v k
ov
Se o v v e \ e s
fio v o v .
a va yK rj
tStov S
in e i
e/cetvou
etvat
to lvvv
a ^ a tp o e tS e V , f i r j etvat a p r t a r a c o a .
o c b fia
av-
tco
o v S e y a p ro ts' a X X o L S a A A i n i
kolvov
Sta/xerp ov y a p
e^ etv
X co
a v T o ls >
a A A a f ir jv
anavT C O v
k v k
O flO L O S
o fio ic o s
to
tcov
S i y i v o s
7TaVTJ)
coov
ff K ecfra X rj n d o L V
t o v
aAAa
a X X o is ,
tols
fio p L o v .
to lo vtov
O aTepa
Xo s e ls , o
y a p ) , a v a y K r j /cat t o
io T iv ,
o fiO L O V * i v
k v k
S o v ,
T jj
to lo vtos
(o c fra L p o e L & rjs

ov
o c b fia T o s
t o v
a v ^ v , S ta r d
/card
Setv e ^ etv r o
o fio ic o s
20 e v O e v /cat e v O e v , e l r j v a p r t a [/cat /c ara Stcfyxerpov]1*

ovtcos
e^dvTCOv
e t^ o v r d a>ov.
7r
t o vto
av
a fic fro T e p a
ro u
S oi)/c 77V o u S i n i
/cu/cAou
a A A cov
tcov
d orp e a> v * e7rt 6 a r e p a y a p T r j s n e p L c f r e p e i a s eôuort r a

ooTpea
to lvvv
Kai
ol
7}
T p ta
26 n e p L T T O V .
K Teves
to
to lo vtov
77
e tvat
nevTe
et /xev ou v r p t a
fio p L o v .
aAA ov
e t^ e , n o p p c o
^ v , et Se n X e i c o t c o v n e v r e , o v v e ^ e s
to
fie v
apa
n evT
A lo l
a vto vs
t t jv
0 \ L 0T a L
eK a a rov
so
a v T r jv
A ta v ( a v ) 2
to vtco v
S ou/c evSeô/xevov.
to
eyeLV T a
a v
a p L 0 fio v
Se
a va yK rj
coa.
atrtav
/cat 17 /cotAta T O L a v T r j
nXrjOos.
cpov ov,
/cat r d rcov oS ovtc ov to c to u to v e a r t

yap
npos ro v
330
jSeA rtov,
ov
a va yK rj
rtv
tcov
Tponov
cocov, o l o v
to v
Trjs
ocbfia
tl
to v
/coiAtas*8 o j i o l o v
secludenda.
2 (av) Ogle.
3 KoiXias O gle: ôjrjs vulg.
e ^ etv

on one side of the body only ; it is the same as that of
the Sea-urchin. Now the Sea-urchin is spherical,
and is not just one flat disk like the Oysters ; thus,
being spherical, it is not different shapes in different
directions, but equiform in all directions ; hence of
necessity its ovum is correspondingly arranged,
since this creatures perimeter is not, as in the others,
non-equiform a : they all have their head in the
centre, whereas the Sea-urchins is at the top.
Yet even so the ovum cannot be continuous,
since no other of the Testacea has it thus; it
is always on one side of the disk only. Hence,
since this is a common property of all species
of Testacea, and the Sea-urchin is peculiar in having
a spherical shape, the result follows of necessity that
the Sea-urchins cannot have an even number o f ova.
If they wrere even, they would have to be arranged in
diametrically opposite positions, because both sides
would have to be alike, and then there would be ova
on both sides o f the circumference ; but this arrange
ment is not found in any of the other Ostreae ; both
Oysters and Scallops have ova on one side only o f
their circumference. Therefore there must be three,
or five, or some other odd number o f ova in the Seaurchin. If there were three, they would be too far
apart; if more than five, they would be quite con
tinuous ; the former would not subserve a good
purpose, the latter is impossible. Therefore the
Sea-urchin must of necessity have five ova.
For the same cause the creatures stomach is cloven
into five and it has five teeth. Each of the ova, being,
as it were, a body belonging to the creature, must
conform to the general character of the stomach,
That is, it is circular in all planes, not in one only.
331
ARISTOTLE
680b
a v a y K a l o v e v T ev O ev y a p rj a v r ja is .
ji i a s fie v y a p
o v a r js fj TToppco a v r ja a v , rj Trav a v / c a r e t^ e
w a r e K al S v o k i v t j t o v etv a i
povoO a i
t rjs
SiaXei/j.ju.aTCOV
tcov
35 7r e v T a x j]
to
Tpocfrrjs
681 a OJJLOLOV
a va y K rj
SirjprjaO a i.
o Sovtco v
tcov
O V TCO S
TJ
ttp o s
ovtcov
eK aaTco
ovcrav
atVtav
ttXrjO os1,
eiTJ
K al
to
yap
a T T o S e S c O K V ia
TO LS
tooovtov
cf)VO lS
ttX tj-
rrevTe
Trjv avTTjv S
Sia
eoTi
aV
a y y e io v
to
to k vto s,
i )f i v o v K a l firj
tov
L p 7 ]fl V O L S fJLOpLOLS.
A lO T L
fiiK p a
r r jv
[liv
OVV TTepLTTOL K a l
o l
Si
jie y a X a ,
a iT io v
T p o c fr r j v
o l
fia X X o v ,
a\ S pcoT oi
T epovs
S io rr e p
fia X X o v .
rj T r js c fr v a e c o s
fie v e iv
to v s
T a
Se
d el t i
c fr v a iv ,
y a p
T r jd v a
o fic o s
T r a fiT r a v
fx e r a fia lv e i
S ta
tco v
w a re
S i
co v tco v
S o k c lv
T r X r jp e is
T rapaoK eva^ ei
k lv tjtlk c o -
7ri t c o v
aK av O cov
arro
T r a fiT r a v
ov k
c fr v T c o v
tcov
to
cos
e x e iv
k lv o v -
S ia c fr e p ei
arroy y cov
Sv v a fi i v .
tco v
fiiK p o v
rj
a ifr v x c o v
o v t cov
is O a T e p o v t c o a v v e y y v s a X X r j X o i s .
1
to v to v
7 tog I T a is a K a v O a is .
tco v
c fr v r o v
fiiv
v ifie a O a i K a i
S i
^ coT L K coT epa
ex ov ai
etv a i
S vvarai
T r e p iT T c b fia T O S
a r jfie io v
fiiK p o v
avvexcbs
O e p fio v
to
O e p fio r r js , c o a r e
e S p a io v s .
to lo v to v s
K al
f i e v o v s 7T V K v a ' x P < * > V T a i y a p
io
TO V d p iO /JL O V
O e p fio r e p o v s
to
c f r v a i v t o v t o v s 7 T T T iv y a p
5 t t jv
fir j
T O O a tJT a
i x l v o s tol c o d , e i p r j r a i 9 S l o t l S o t j i i v T r d j x T r a v
ex ei o
Se
y ap
e ls
S ia c fr e p e iv
o fiiv
c fr v a is
Ta
cpcov,
r r jv
o S tol
a>a
o v tco s
O arepov
ovv arroy y os,
hinc manus recentior E ( = E ).
This is true : but motion is effected mainly by the tubefeet, not noticed b y Aristotle ( vide Ogle).
b The sea-squirts.
332

because growth has its origin from the stomach.
Now if there were only one stomach, either the ova
would be too far away from it, or the stomach would
entirely fill up the cavity, which would make it
difficult for the Sea-urchin to move about and to find
sufficient food to replenish itself. But, as it is, there
are five ova separated by five intervals, and so there
must be five departments of the stomach, one for
each interval. For the same reason there are five
teeth, since this enables Nature to assign one tooth
alike to each ovum and each department of the
stomach.
I have now stated why the Sea-urchin has an odd
number of ova, and why it has five of them. Now
some Sea-urchins have quite small ones, and some
large : the reason for this is that the latter have a
hotter constitution, and the heat enables them to
concoct their food better. This explains why the
uneatable ones tend to be full of residue. This
natural heat also induces the creatures to move about,
and so instead of remaining settled in one place they
keep on the move as they feed. An indication of
this is that Sea-urchins of this sort always have some
thing sticking on to their spines (which they use
as feet), which suggests that they are continually
moving about.
The Ascidians6differ very little in their nature from
plants, but they are more akin to animals than the
Sponges are, which are completely plants. Nature
passes in a continuous gradation from lifeless things
to animals, and on the way there are living things
which are not actually animals, with theresult that one
class is so close to the next that the difference seems
infinitesimal. Now a sponge, as I said just now, is in
333
ARISTOTLE
681 a
coa rrep
e ip r jr a i,
d r r o X v d e ls
Si
Kal
fir j
T ra vreX cbs' T a
Si
fio v e s ,
e n
fiL K p o v
S ia c f> e p e l
20 f i i v
yap
Si
e v ia r o i a v r a
vtto
erep ov
yevos,
av
T T orep cos
vE ^ t
Si
r p o c f f r jv ,
to vto
fj
Kal
i K f i a Sa*
t iv
nTvev-
rco
fiiv
iv
Kal
to
olov
rd
avco
ttj8 v
fiiv
c j> v r a
<f>VTOis
e r e p o is
/c
ir r ir T e r p o v
tlvcov
Kal
ovt
a,
t o v
to vt o
ir r l
Kal
tcov
ei
tl
'n p o a r r e c f r v K o s
e x e iv
a i o 8 r ]o i v
>fjv
aapK cbSes
tl
a S r jX o v
Se
nopovs
Kal
rovro
O ereov.
so S i a l p e o i v ,
ff
r r a X iv
AAa r a
ra
ro vro ,
Kav
el
tl
K a X e iv
85 n e p l r r c o f i a .
K v p io v
f coov
to
S everal
re
T T e p lr T c o fia
w anep
S lK a io v
e x e iv
da X a rrrj
im y e lo is
K p e fia fie v o v
ore
T rj
c jjo r r e p
tols
cf>vrcp T T a p a T r X i f a i o v , r c o
S o ije ie v
S ia
Svo
r r jv
v y p o r r jr a
S ia T T e fn re i
yap
r r jv
ovS ev
aAAo
to lo vtov
ovS i
yap
fie a o v
in a fic fr o r e p l^ e L
e^co
Si
ro vro
o v S iv
c o r js .
rcov
Kal
Kal
cl>cov, c f r v r i K o v
a K a X r fc fr a s , e a n
T rln re L
exov>
S id ^ c o fia ,
r r js
e ls
fia X ia r a
c f> vrcb v
X en rov
evX oyov
K a X o v a iv o l f i i v K v lS a s o l
aAA
rcov
Si
S r jX o v
S io
tcov
fila v
r r jv
v 'T r o X e n r o f i e v r f v
io n
o a rp a K o S e p fia .
v T ra p x e iv
681 b o a r p a K o S e p f i a y
yevcbvy
S9
Sc K a l i v
ol
a n o X e X v a O a i* a io Q r jo iv
tco
xpovov
ea n
c fr v r o is
Kal
iv
K a l t,fj K a l y l v e r a i r a
ttoX v v
to lo vtov
ro ia v r 9
fio v o v ,
tols
o X o Q o v p ia
>rj
K a X o v fie v o v
25 7 r a T T a X c o v .
to
tovtcov
e o n
eêt
o fio ic o s
erepa
ir p o o T r e c f r v K c b s
Sc K a l a i r o X e X v f i e v a ,
U a pvaooov
fio v o v
f jv ,
o v S e fila v
(fr v r o L S y r a
fj
f jv
K a X o v fie v a
Kal
a r r o X e X v fie v a .
yap
rco
exei
iv
as
fie v
cp
Se
o vk
S i r f p r jf i e v c o v
cfrvrcp
Kal
Or sea-cucumbers.
6 The precise reference of this term is not known.
c Sea-anemones, called by the Greeks sea-nettles.
334

all respects like a plant: it lives only while it is
growing on to something, and when it is pulled off it
dies. What are called Holothuria and the Sea-lungsa
and other similar sea-animals differ only slightly
from the sponges in being unattached. They have
no power o f sensation, but they live just as if they
were plants unattached to the soil. Even among
land-plants such instances exist : living and growing
either on other plants or quite unattached : for
example, the plant found on Parnassus, sometimes
called the Epipetron (Rockplant). If you hang this
up on the pegs* it will keep alive for a consider
able time. Sometimes it is doubtful whether these
Ascidians and any other such group of creatures
ought to be classed as plants or as animals : In so far
as they live only by growing on to some other object
they approach the status of a plant; but yet they
have some fleshy substance and therefore probably
are capable of sensation of a kind.
This particular creature (the Ascidian) has two
orifices and one septum; by one orifice it takes in fluid
matter for food, by the other it discharges the surplus
moisture ; so far as can be seen it has no residue like
the other Testacea. And as no plant ever has any
residue this is a strong justification for classing it
(and any other such animal) as a plant. Through its
middle there runs a thin partition, and it is reason
able to suppose that the governing and vital part of
the creature is situated here. As for what are called
Knides or Acalephae,0 they are not Testacea, it is
true, but fall outside the defined groups. In their
nature they incline towards the plants on one side
Those common to the Mediterranean are more virulent in
their stinging powers than those of the north.
335
ARISTOTLE
1b
rrjv cfrvaiv,
rw fiev ya p aTroXvea9ai Kai rrpoa7TL7TTCIV TTpOS TfjV TpOcfrrjV iviaS a vrw v Wt/COV OTt,
5 Kal rw aladaveoOai twv ttpoottitttovtwv eVt Sc rfj
r od a w fia ros r p a x v r r jn XPVTCLL ^P^S rrjv a w rrjp ia v
r w S areXks etvat /cat Trpoacfrvea9ai Taêws* rats*
Trerpais r w yev ei twv cfrvrwv TraparrXifjaiov, Kat rw
rreplrrw fia firjSev eêtv cfravepov, a r o fia S exeiv.
SfiOLov Se r o v r w Kal r o rw v aarep w v e a rl y e v o s
10 Kal ya p r o v r o rrpoarrirrrov e'/cû/nêt 7roAAa rw v
oa rp ew v rots r
aTToXeXvfievois rw v elprjfievwv
wwv, otov r o is r e fiaXaKiois Kal r o is fiaXaKOa rpaK ois. o S a ir 6 s Aoyos /cat irepl rw v oarpaK ohepfiwv.
T a fiev oSv fiopia r a 7repl rrjv rpocfrrjv, arrep
avayKalov rraaiv vrrapxeiv, e x ei r o v TTpoeiprjfievov
15 rporrov, Set Se SrjXovon Kal rw v r o is ivalfiois
vrrapxovrwv Kara r o Kvpiov rw v aladrjaewv exeiv
avaAoyov n fio p io v touto ya p Set rraaiv vrrapxeiv
r o is Swots', eort Se r o v r o r o is fiev fiaXaKiois iv
vfievi Kelfievov vypov, St ovrrep o a r o fia x o s r er a ra i
rrpos rrjv KOiXlav, TrpoarrecfrvKe Se rrpos r a trpavrj
20 fiaXXov, Kal KaXeirai fi v n s vtto n v w v . ro io v r o v S
erepov Kal r o is fiaXaKoarpaKois i a r i , Kal /caAetrat
/ca/cetvo f i v n s . eo n S vypov Kal aw fiarw S es difia
r o v r o to fiopiov, reivei Se St a v r o v , Kadarrep
eiprjrai, Sta fiea ov fiev o a rofiaxos* el ya p tJv
fieratji) r o v r o v Kal r o v rrpavovs, ovk av rjBvvaro
25 Xafifidveiv ofiolw s Siaaraaiv elaiovarjs rrjs rpocfrrjs
Sta rrjv r o v vwtou OKXrjporrjra. eVt Se rrjs fiv n S os
ro evrepov ew 9ev, Kal o OoXos rrpos rw iv rep w ,
That is, dorsal.
336

and the animals on the other. Towards the animals,
because some of them detach themselves and fasten
upon their food, and are sensible of objects that come
up against them ; and also because they make use
o f the roughness of their body for self-preservation.
Towards the plants, because they are incomplete,
and quickly attach themselves to rocks; and further,
because they have no residue that can be seen,
though they have a mouth. The group of Starfish
resembles these creatures; Starfish too fasten on to
their food, and by doing this to oysters suck large
numbers of them dry. But Starfish also resemble
those unattached creatures of which we spoke, the
Cephalopods and the Crustacea. The same may be
said of the Testacea.
The parts connected with nutrition are such as I
have now described. These must of necessity be
present in all animals. But there is yet another part
which every animal must have. These creatures must
have some part which is analogous to the parts
which in blooded animals are connected with the
control of sensation. In the Cephalopods this con
sists of a fluid contained in a membrane, through
which the gullet extends towards the stomach. It is
attached to the body rather towards the upper a side.
Some call it the mytis. An organ just like this, also
called the mytis, is present in the Crustacea. This
part is fluid and corporeal at the same time. The
gullet, as I said, extends through the middle of it.
If the gullet had been placed between the mytis and
the dorsal side, the gullet would not have been able
to distend sufficiently when the food enters, owing to
the hardness of the back. The intestine is placed up
against the outer surface o f the mytis, and the ink-bag
337
ARISTOTLE
881 b *
*
oncos o n
a ir o O
S v a x e p e s
S cart
o tl
so SrjXoi
nXeiarov anexj)
t o
t o v
(o
T r js
Kal
fie X r io v o s
avaXoyov
r o n o s
y X v K v rr js
fj
ev
rrjs elaoSov
KapSia
T jj
yap ea n v
v r o s
v y p o r r jT O S
cos
T r js
t o
a p x r js .
fiopiov,
o s ) Kal rj
t o v t o
t o
a v T
o v a a
K al
n en efifiev rj
K a l
alfiarcbSrjs.
E v Se
to tto v
a p x r jv ,
682 a K a l
fy y r e T v
o a a
35 T p o c f r t f v ,
ttjv
K v p io v
Sc?
n X r jv
fie v
K a l
K al
K e c fr a X r js
TOVTO
S io n e p
^ cocov,
d e l
K a l
Sc
ev
fie v
t o l s
ev 2
rrep l
fie v
t o ls
jj.
n o ie iv
T r js
Trjv
d n O K p lO L V
r w
o a a
fie a c o
r o ia v r r js
n p c o r o is
t o v
TOLS
K a O a n ep
fio v o v
T TJV
ttjv
fio p io v
n e p iT T c o fia r iK r fv ,
t o
ev
S ia r e fiv o fie v a
n a a i
e n iS r jX o v .
r a v r r jv
S e x o fie v o v
T T O ie iT a i
T r jv
e v T O fio is
fie r a ijv
n X e ic o ,
rj
fie a o r r jr a
t o v
a v r o v
t o v
?}
Sc
tcov
a p ia r e p c o v .
co a n ep
KVTOVS.
n e p l
oS
tcov
tcov
fio p io v ,
ev
d e l
St
fie v
a la O r ja e c o s , r jr r o v
fio v ifia ,
7T o p e v T L K a
5 Sc
r js
a n e p fia r iK rjv
Se i c o v
T ot?
cxt
o o T p a K o S ip fio is
t o is
1 to
cA ^ 6 r j
T r jv
T T o X X o iS
io v X c o S e a i
K o iX ia v
t o lo v t o v ,
CV,
ia T L V
K a l
fio v X e r a i fie v
t o
d p x y s
X o y o is ,
TOLS
fia K p o is *
y a p
K a l
cart
rj c fr v a is
S v v a / ie v r j
fiev noiei fiovov ev, ov Svvafievrj Se nXeico.3 SrjXov
8*
> f /
/
cv e r e p o i s e r e p c o v f i a A A o v .
T a Sc n p o s T r j v T p o c f r r j v f i o p
10 aAAa S i a c f r o p a v e x e i noXXrjv.
fia T o s
e v io is
w a n e p a v e l
1
3
fie v
a v v O ero v
e a n
K a l
t o
e% ov
ia
o v
e v r o s
n d a iv
y a p
K a X o v fie v o v
y X c b r r r fs
o fio ic o s ,
t o v
o t o
K ev rp o v ,
K a l % e iX c o v
Rackham : rponov vulg.

2 iv P : om. vulg.
sic SU Y (Svvdfieva bis S ) : Kai Svvafievr/v fiev, ev notei fiovov
tottov
ov Swafievrf Se nXeico Z : ov Svvafihrq S evepyeia noiei fiovov ev,

Svvafiei Se rrXeioj' vulg. (cf. 667 b 25).
338

up against the intestine ; this is to ensure that it and
its unpleasantness are kept as far as possible from the
bodys entrance and from the sovereign and most
noble part. The mytis occupies a place which corre
sponds exactly with that of the heart in blooded
creatures : which shows that it is the counterpart of
it.a Another proof of this is that the fluid in it is
sweet that is, it has undergone concoction and is of
the nature of blood.
In the Testacea the part which rules sensation
occupies the same place but is not so easy to pick out.
But this source of control should always be looked for
around some middle position in these creatures : in
stationary ones, in the midst between the part which
receives the food and the part where the seed or the
residue is emitted ; and in those which move about,
always midway between the right side and the left.
In insects the part where this control is placed, as
was said in the first treatise,6 is situated between the
head and the cavity where the stomach is. In the
majority there is one such part, but in creatures like
the Centipede, that is, which are long in the body,
there are more than one : so if the creatures are cut
up they go on living. Now Natures desire is to make
this part a unity in all creatures, and when she can,
she makes it a unity, when she cannot, a plurality.0
This is clearer in some cases than in others.
The parts connected with nutrition are by no means
alike in all insects ; indeed they exhibit great
differences. For instance : Some have what is
known as a sting inside the mouth a sort of com
bination of tongue and lips,which possesses the
a The heart of invertebrates escaped the notice of Aristotle.
* A t Hist. An. 531 b 34.
c Cf. 667 b 22 ff.
339
ARISTOTLE
682 a
h u v a fiw
a/xa
to ls
Se
firj
troverlv
efinpoaOev
to
KevTpov iaTiv ivT o s tcov oSovtcov t o l o v t o v aiaOrjTOVTOV S e^d/XeVOV 7T&GLV VTepOV vOi) Kal
TTJpLOV.
15 a n X o vv fiexp i TV$ efoS o u t o v nepiTTcbfiaTos* eviois
Se t o u t o efAlktjv eêt.
a 770
T a Se /cotAtav fie ra t o OTOfia,
Se ttJs KoiXias t o
evrepov eiXiyfievov, oncos
oa a f$pcoTLKcoTpa Kal fiei^co t ^ v

*X V nX eiovos Tpocfrrjs.
eêt
IS la v
20
fiopiov
/xaAtcrra
to
toutcov
cfrvaiv
to
avT o
r ^ v Tpocfrrjv and
fiev o v v eVrtv oXiyoTpocfra Ta
tcov vypcov.
n a vT a
evTOfia tcov
>cpcov, o v x
Sta ifrvxpoTrjTa (t o
Sta fiiKpoTrjTa
ovtco
cos
y a p Oepf-iov Kal SetTat Tpocfrrjs

Se xfrvxpdv a -
Kal TreTTei Trjv Tpocfrrjv Taxecos, t o

25
yap
exec OTOfia Kal yXcoTTav avfinecfrvKOS, Si
KaOanepel Sia pLtflS S e v e ra l
ov
cfrvaiv vn oS oxrjv
Se rcuv TeTTiycov y e vo s
Tpocfrov) , fiaXiGTa Se t o tcov TeTTiycov y e v o s ' iKavrj

ya p rpocfrrj tco acofiaTi rj k t o v
nvevfia T o s vtto-
fie vo va a
ecfrrjfiepois Repots
vypoT rjs, KaOanep t o l s
(ytveTat Se r a u r a
fiev
,rj fiias
Trepl t o v I I o v ro v ), nXrjv eKeiva
rjfiepas ^povov, T au T a
Se
7rAetdvajv
fiev rjfiepcov, oXiycov Se to v tc o v ,

so
E77t Se Trepl tcov vtos vnapxovTCov fiopicov to l s

cools etprjTai, n a X iv rrepl tcov Xolttcov tcov ktos
ena viT eov.
aAA
ovk
Siarpifirjv
apKTeov
acfr
a77o
tcov
vvv
eiprjfievcov,
cov an eX in ofiev, oncos a n o
eXaTTCO
to v tc o v
exovTCov en l tcov TeXeicov
Kal
evalficov t,cocov o A oyos axoXatprj /xaAAov.

35
V I.
T a fiev o v v evTOfia tcov ,cocov o v noXvfieprj
fiev t o v apidfiov eaTtv, oficos S e ^ et n p o s aXXrjXa
340
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.-vi.

character of both. Those that have no sting in front
have a sense-organ of that sort behind the teeth.
After the mouth, in all insects comes the intestine,
which is straight and simple right up to the residual
vent. (Sometimes, however, it has a spiral in it.)
And some there are which have the stomach next
after the mouth, wThile from the stomach runs a
twisted intestine ; this gives the bigger and more
gluttonous insects room for a larger amount of food.
O f all these creatures the grasshoppers are the most
peculiar. In them the mouth and tongue are united
so as to make one single part, and through this they
draw up their nourishment from fluid substances as
through a root. All insects take but little nourish
ment ; and this is not so much because they are
small as because they are cold. (Heat needs nourish
ment and quickly concocts i t ; cold needs none.)
This is most marked in the grasshoppers. They find
sufficient nourishment in the moisture which the air
deposits ; so do the one-day creatures which occur
around the Black Sea. Still, they live only for the
space o f a d a y; whereas the grasshoppers live for
several, though not many, days.
Now that we have spoken of the internal parts of
animals, w'e must go back and deal with the remainder
of the external parts. We had better begin with the
creatures o f which we have just been speaking, and
not go back to the point where we left the external
parts. This will mean that we take first those which
need less discussion, and that will give more time for
speaking o f the perfect animals, i.e. the blooded
ones.
VI.
Insects first, then. Though their parts are not e x t e r n a l
numerous, insects differ from one another. They all bloodless
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.

have numerous fe e t; this is in order to make their () insects,
motion quicker, and to counteract their natural slow
ness and coldness. Those which are most subject to
coldness owing to their length (e.g. the Centipedes)
have the greatest number of feet. Furthermore,
these creatures have several sources of control; and
on that account they have the insections in their
bodies, and the numerous feet which are placed in
precise correspondence.
Those that have fewer feet are winged by way of
compensation. Some o f these flying insects live a
wandering life and have to go abroad in search of
food ; so they have a light body and four wings, two
on either side ; such are the bees and the kindred
tribes. The small ones have only two wings all told
like the flies. Those that are heavy and sedentary
in their habits have the larger number of wings like
the bees, but they have shards round their wings
(e.g. the Melolonthae and similar insects) to preserve
them in their proper condition ; for, as these ereatures
are sedentary, their wings arc more liable to be
destroyed than those of the nimbler insects ; and
that is why there is this protection round them.
An insects wing is not divided, and it has no shaft.
In fact, it is not a wing at all, but a membrane of skin,
which being dry detaches itself of necessity from the
creatures body as the fleshy part cools off.
I have already stated some reasons why these
ereatures have " insected bodies : there is another,
viz. it is so that they may curl up and thus escape
injury and remain safe. It is the long ones that roll
themselves up, and this would be impossible for them
if they were not insected. Those that do not roll up
* Perhaps cockchafers (Ogle).
343
ARISTOTLE
682 b
iX iK r d
a v rw v
25 r o j x a s .
enl
o K X r jp v v e r a i fia X X o v a v v i o v r a
Sc
S ijX o v
tw v
K aX ov/xevw v
a K iv r jr l^ e i,
a v a y K a lo v
Kal
y lv e r a i
tovto
to
KavO apw v
o w fx a
e v r o f .io is
r f j over la a v r w v v n a p x e i t o
so r a v r r j
y lv e r a i
a v ro ts
Kal ra v ra
S ia ip o v jx e v a S v v a r a i
ix e x p i r iv o s ,
c/cciva
(fro f i r j 6 e v r a
O K X r jp o v
e tv a i* r o v r o
7roAAas*
t r p o o e o i K e r o t s < j> v r o ts
e ls T a s
Q iy y a v o v r w v , o to v
yap
ev
e % e iv a p \ a s , K a l
w onep yap ra
r j v ,
yap
a v rw v
< fr v r a ,
n X r jv r a v r a f ie v
S e K a l r e X e i a y l v e r a i r r j v c fr v o iv
r o v ap i O f x o v .
S evia rw v evrojxwv Kal Kevrpa TTpos
fiorjQeiav rw v fiXanrovrw v. t o fxev oSv Kevrpov
35 to?? fxev ejxnpooBev e o n rots S omoBev, ro ts jxev
ejxnpooBev Kara rrjv yXw rrav, rots S om odev Kara
to
ovpatov.
wonep yap rots eXecfraoi r o rw v
oo/id)v aloBrjrrjpiov yeyevrjrai xpyoijxov npos re
683 a rrjv aXKrjv Kal rrjv rijs rpocf>ijs X P V a i v > ovrw s rw v
evrojxwv eviois t o Kara rrjv yXw rrav rerayfxevov
aloBavovral re yap ro v rw rrjs Tpocfrrjs Kal avaXafxfiavovoi Kal n p ood yovrai avrrjv. ooa Se fxrj e o n v
avrw v ejxnpooB o Kevrpa, oSovras exei r d fxev
5 eSwSijs X ^ P LV T T 0 ^ Xafxfiaveiv Kal npooayeoBai
rrjv rpocfrrjv, otov o l re jxvpp,rjKes Kal r o rw v jxeXirrw v naow v yevos. oaa S on 108 o Kevrpa e o n , Sia
to
Bvjxov exeiv ottXov exei r o Kevrpov. exovoi Sc
T a fxev ev eavrots rd Kevrpa, Kadanep at fxeXirrai
Kal o l otfrijKes, Sia t o nrrjva etva r Xenra jxev yap
io ovra Kal ew evcfrOapra ( a v ) 1 r jv el Se naxea rjv2
wonep rots OKOpnlois, fiapos av napetxev. rots Se
K al Svo
ev os
1 (av) Ogle#
SU
K a l n X e lw
* Se naxâ fy Platt s 8* ancLxcv vulg.

increase their hardness by closing up the insections.
This is obvious if you touch them e.g. the insects
called Canthari (dung-beetles) are frightened when
touched and become motionless, and their bodies
become hard. But also it is necessary for them to
be insected, for it is of their essential being to have
numerous sources of control; and herein they re
semble plants. Plants can live when they are cut
up ; so can insects. There is a difference, however,
for whereas the period of survival of a divided insect
is limited, a plant can attain the perfection of its
nature when divided, and so two plants or more come
out of one.
Some of the insects have a sting as well, for defence
against attackers. In some the sting is in front, by
the tongue ; in others it is behind at the tail-end.
Consider the elephants trunk : this is its organ of
smell ; but the elephant uses it as a means of exert
ing force as well as for the purposes of nutrition.
Compare with this the sting of insects : when, as in
some o f them, it is ranged alongside the tongue, not
only do they get their sensation of the food by means
of it, but they also pick up the food with it and convey
it to the mouth. Those which have no sting in front
have teeth ; which some of them use for eating,
others for picking up the food and conveying it to the
mouth, as do the ants and the whole tribe of bees.
Those that have a sting at the back are fierce crea
tures and the sting serves them as a weapon. Some
times the sting is well inside the body, as in bees and
wasps. This is because they are winged, and a deli
cate sting on the outside of the body would be easily
destroyed ; on the other hand, a thick one such as
scorpions have would weigh them down. Scorpions
345
ARISTOTLE
683 a
oKopTTiois neôis ovai Kal KepKov1 exovaiv avayKaiov enl ra v rrj 2 exeiv r o Kevrpov, rj firj dev xptfoifiov
etvai 7Tpos rrjv aXktjv.
Sinrepov 8 ovBev eanv
om adoK evrpov Sta r o aadevrj yap Kal fiiKpa etvat
is St'nrepa e a n v t/cava yap ra fxiKpa aipeadai vno
rw v eAarrdvcov t o v dpidfiov. Sia ra v ro Se ro v ro
Kal efinpoaOev exei r o Kevrpov aadevrj yap ovra
fioXis Suvarat rots omadev 3 rv n re iv .
rd Se
noXvnrepa, Sta t o fiei^w rrjv cfrvaiv elvai, nXeiovwv
re rv x V K nrepwv Kal taxvei ro is omadev fiopiois.
20fiiX n o v S evhexofievov firj ra v ro opyavov 67Tt
dvofjLoias exeiv XPVGL^> dXXa to fiev afivvnKov
ovrarov, rd Se yXw rnKov aoficfrov Kal anaariKov
rrjs rpocfrrjs.
onov yap evSeêrat x P V ^ ai
enl 8 v* epya Kal firj ifinoSiêiv rrpos erepov,
ouSev rj cfrvais eitoBe noieiv wanep rj âA/ceim/c^
25 npos evreXeiav ofieXioKoXvxviov aAA onov firj
evSe'xerai, Karaxprjrai rw avrw e7rt nXeiw epya.
Toi>s Se 77oSas rovs npoaOiovs fieiôvs evia r o v
rw v e'xî, onws eneiSrj Sta rd aKXrjpocfrdaXfia etvai
o v k a K p i p f j rrjv oifsiv exovai, rd n p o a n l n r o v r a ro is
npoaOiois anoKaOaipwai a/ceXeaiv onep Kal cfrat80 v o v r a i n oiovaai at re fiv ia i Kal r d fieXirrwSrj r w v
wwv d e l yap x^paKiôvoi ro is npoadiois a/ce'Aeatv.
ra 8 * oniadia fieta> tcov fieawv Sta re rrjv jSaStatv
Kal npos t o aipeadai p a o v a n o rrjs yrjs d v a n e r 1
kpkov
3
Z (coniecerat Ogle) : Kevrpov vulg.

2 ravrr) Ogle : ravr* vulg.
omadev Ogle, Thurot : efinpoaOev vulg.
The principle of division of labour in a living organism,

not stated again until 1827 (by Milne Edwards). See Ogles
note.
346

themselves, being land-creatures and having a tail,
are bound to have their sting on their tail ; otherwise
it would be no use for exerting force. No two
winged insect has a sting at the rear ; these are small
weak creatures, and can be supported by a smaller
number of wings : that is why they have only two.
The same reason explains why they have their sting
in the fron t: owing to their weakness they cannot
well deliver a blow with their hind parts. Many
winged creatures, on the other hand, owe their
greater number of wings to their own greater size,
and so too their hind parts are stronger and bear the
sting. It is better, when it is possible,that one and the
same organ should not be put to dissimilar uses ; that
is. there should be an organ of defence which is very
sharp, and another organ to act as a tongue, which
should be spongy and able to draw up nourishment.
And thus, whenever it is possible to employ two
organs for two pieces of work without their getting in
each others way, Nature provides and employs two.
Her habits are not those of the coppersmith who for
cheapness* sake makes you a spit-and-lampstand
combination. Still, where two are impossible, Nature
employs the same organ to perform several pieces
of work.
Some insects, whose eyesight is not distinct owing
to their eyes being made of some hard substance, have
specially long forefeet, which enable them to clear
away anything that comes down on to the eyes.
Flies and bees and the like are obvious examples :
they are always crossing their front legs. These
creatures hind legs are longer than their middle ones
for two reasons : (1) to assist them in walking, and
(2) to lift them more easily off the ground when they
31
347
ARISTOTLE
683 a
/
o fie v a . oaa Se n rjS rjn K d a vrcov ert fiaXXov r o v r o
cf>avepov, oto v a i r
aKplSes K al r o rw v i/jvXXwv
35 y evos 9 o ra v
yap Kafufravr eKreivrj na X lv, avayK alov
a n o rrjs yrjs rjpOaL.

o v k efinpoaOev S* aAA*
683 b om aOev fiov o v eôi/ai r d nrjSaXLcbSrj a I aK plSes *
rrjv ya p K afinrjv ava yK a lov clow KeKXaaOaL, rw v
Se npoaO lw v k w Xw v ovSev I otl to lo v to v . eanoSa
Se r a r o L a v ra n a v r e a r l o v v tols a X n K o ls fioploLs
V I I . T w v S oaTpaKoSepfiw v o v k e o n r o a w fia
6 7ToXvflpeS.
TOVTOV S aLTLOV TO flOVlfJLOV aVTWV
etvaL
rrjv
cfrvaLV
n oX vfiep ea rep a
yap
ava yK a lov
elvaL rw v cowv r d KLvrjnKa Sia t o (n X e lo v s Y etvaL

a v rw v 7TpaeLsm opyavw v ya p S eirai nXeLovwv r a
n Xeiovw v fie r e ^ o v ra KLvrjaewv. r o v r w v Se r d fiev
aKLvrjra n a fin a v e a r l, r a
io vrjaew s *
Se fiLKpas fisrexeL
kl -
aAA rj cfrvais TTpos o w rrjp ia v a v ro ts rrjv
r w v oorpaK W V a K X rjporrjra nepLeOrjKev.
eon
Se
r a fiev fiovoO vpa r d Se Sldvpa a v rw v , r a Se a r p o f ipcoSrj, KaOanep e ip rjra i n p o r e p o v
K al r o v r w v r a
fiev eXlKrjv e x o v r a , otov KrjpvKes, r a Se acfraLpoeLSrj

fio v o v ,
KaOanep r o
rw v
exw w v yevos.
K al rw v
15 SiOvpwv r d fiev e a n v d v a n rv K ra , otov Kreves Kal
fives (e n l Oarepa yap avyKeKXeLarai, w o re a v oiyeoOaL e n l Oarepa K al ovyKXeUaOaC), r d S en

aficfrw avfinecfrvKev, otov rd rw v awXrjvwv yevos.
a n a v ra Se r a oarpa K oS epfia, KaOanep r a cfrvra,
20 K a rw rrjv KecfraXrjv e x e i .
r o v r o v S a tn o v otl
KarwOev XafifiaveL rrjv
rpocfrrjv,
w anep
rd
cfrvra
r a ts p i^ a is .
o vfij SaiVei ovv a v ro ts r a fiev K arw
#
\
/
/
C / 0 > / 0 >
avw exeiv, r a o avw K a rw .
ev vfievL o e a n , ol
1 (nAetous) Peck: (jroXXas) Platt.
348
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.-vn.

rise in flight. This peculiarity is even more notice
able in the leaping insects, such as locusts and the
various sorts o f fleas, which first bend their hind legs
and then stretch them out again, and this forces them
to rise up from the ground. The rudder-shaped legs
which locusts have are at the rear only and not in
front ; this is because the join t must bend inwards,
and no front limb satisfies this condition. A ll
these creatures have six feet, inclusive o f the parts
used for leaping.
V II.
In Testacea the body is not divided into (6) Testacea.
several parts, owing to their being o f stationary
habits, as opposed to creatures which move a b o u t:
the latter are bound to have more parts to their body
because their activities are more numerous, and the
more motions o f which a species is capable, the more
organs it requires. Now some o f the Testacea are
altogether stationary : others move about but little ;
and so, to keep them safe, Nature has compassed
them about with hard shells. Some o f them are (as I
said earlier 6) one-valved, some tw o-valved ; and some
conical, either spiral like the Whelks, or spherical
like the Sea-urchins. The two-valved shells are
divided into (a) those which open i.e. which have a
joint on one side and can open and shut on the other ;
e.g. the scallops and mussels ; (6) those which are
joined together on both sides, e.g. the group o f razorfishes. In all Testacea, just as in plants, the head is
down below. The reason for this is that they take up
their food from below, as plants take it up by their
roots ; so they have their nether parts above and their
upper parts below. These creatures are enveloped
in a membrane, and through this they strain fresh See note on 693 b 3, p. 433.
At 679 b 16.
349
ARISTOTLE
o$
h irjd e l
eêt Se
fio p ia
ro
n o r ifio v
K e c fra X rjv
n a p a
ro
fiiv
r ijs
K al
X a fifia v e i
r r jv
, T a Se r o v
r p o c fr r js
S k t i k o v
n a v ra
r p o c fr r jv ,
a w fia r o s
a v w v v fia
raX X a.
V I I I . T a Se fiaXaKoarpaKa navra Kal nopevruca,

Sto nohwv eêt nXijOos. ecrrt Se yevrj fiiv rerrapa
ra fieyiar avrwv ot re KaXovfievoi Kapafioi Kal
aoraKol Kal Kapihes Kal KapKivoi* rovrwv 8
eKaarov nXeiw eiSrj earl hiacfrepovra ov fiovov Kara
30 rrjv fiopcfrrjv aA A a Kal Kara ro fieyedos noXv r a
fiiv yap fieyaXa ra 8 e fJAKpa nafinav avrwv eanv,
ra fiiv ovv KapKivwhrj Kal Kapafiwhrj napofioi
earl rw XV^&S i'xLV aficfrorepa,
raiiras S ov
nopeias côucTt X ^ P l v aXXa npos ro Xafieiv Kal
Karaaxelv avrl x CLpcbv. Sto Kal Kafinrovaiv evav35 rlws ravras rois noolv * rovs fiiv yap enl ro koi Xov
ras S enl ro nepicfrepis Kcxfinrovai Kal eXlooovoiv
oilrw yap xpôifiat npos ro Xafiovoai npoacfrepeoBai
684 a rrjv rpocfrrjv.
Aiacfrepovcri S fj o i fiiv Kapafioi exovoiv ovpav,
o l Se KapKivoi o v k exovoiv o v p a v ro is f iiv yap Sta
t o vevoriKols etvat xp^crt/xos rj ovpa (veovot yap
anepeihofievoi otov nXarais a v ra is), rois Se Kap5 k iv o is oi)Sev x P *la ilJLOV ^ 1& To npooyeiov etvai rov
fiiov 1 avrw v Kal etvai rpw yXohvras. ocrot 8 avrwv
neXayioi etcrt, Sta ro v ro noXv apyorepovs exovai
rovs 7rdSas'2 npos rrjv nopelav, otov at re fia ia i
Kal o i 'HpaKXew riKol KaXovfievoi KapKivoi, o n
oXiyrj Kivrjoei xpw vrai, aXX9 rj aw rrjpia avrois
it* rw oarpeiwheis etvai y iv e ra r Sto at fiiv fia ia i
25
1 to
350
fitov Bekker per typothetae errorem.

3 avrwv post 7roSa? v u lg .: om. Y .
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vii.-vm.

water to drink, which is their way o f taking nourish
ment. A ll o f them possess a head, but except for
the part which takes in the food none o f the other
parts has a special name.
VIII.
A ll the Crustacea can walk on land as well as (c) Cru>
swim; and hence they all have numerous feet. There tacea*
are four main groups o f Crustacea, called (1) C arabi;
(2) A sta ci; (3) Carides; and (4) Carcini. Each o f
these contains several species which differ not only
in shape, but also in size, and that considerably, for
some species are large, others extrem ely small. The
Carcinoid and the Caraboid crustacea resemble each
other, in both having claws. These claws are not for
the sake o f locomotion, but serve instead o f hands,
for catching and holding ; and that is why they bend
in an opposite direction to the feet, which bend and
twist toward the concave side, while the claws bend
toward the con vex side. This makes the claws
serviceable for catching hold o f the food and convey
ing it to the mouth.
The two groups, Carabi and Carcini, differ in that
the former have a tail and the latter have not. The
Carabi find a tail useful because they are swimmers :
they propel themselves with it as though with oars.
A tail would be useless to the Carcini, which spend
their lives near the land and creep into holes and
crannies. Those that live out at sea and move about
but little, and owe their safety to their shelly exterior,
have for these reasons feet which are considerably less
effective for locomotion : examples o f this are the
Roughly, these four divisions may be represented by our
own groups, thus: (1) lobsters ; (2) crayfish; (3) prawns and
shrimps; (4) crabs.
351
ARISTOTLE
XenroaKeXeis, ot 8 fHpa/cAewTt/cot uiKpoaKeXets
t
lOlV.
Ot Se nafin a v fiiK po l K apK ivo i, ot aXioKovrai ev

ro is piiKpois l\0vb to is, exovai rovs reXevraiovs
nXareis n o 8 as, iva 7Tpos to veiv avroTs xprjaiixoi
waiv, ajanep nrepvyia rj nXaras eôvres to v s n o 8 as.
15
A t Se KapiSes rcov fiev /cap/ctvoetSwv 8iacfrepovoi

r w eêtv KepKov, rcov Se /capajSoetSwv Sta to firj
*XLV X7) ^ * ' & v K ex o v c r t S t a to nX eiovs exeiv

n o S a s, evTa0a ya p rj eKeiOev avrjX w rai a v rjo is.
nX eiovs 8 exo vai 7rdSas*, o t i ve va riK w re p a e a n v
rj no p e v riK w rep a .
T a S ev t o is vnrlois fiopia /cat nepl rrjv /ce<paXrjv Ta fiev els to Se'fao-ftu to iiSwp Kal acfreivai
20 exovai f3payxoei8rj* nXaKcoSeorepa Se Ta Karw at
OrjXeiai tcov appevcov Kapaficov exovai, Kal tol ev
tw e n m r v y fia n 8aavrepa at OrjXeiai KapKivoi
tw v appevwv, Sta to eKreiveiv Ta w a npos avra,
aAAa fir) anoOev, wanep oi IxOves /cat TaAAa Ta
( w a ) 1 TiKTOvra evpvxcopearepa yap ovra Kal fiel^w
25 x&pav exei t o is wots {jiclXAo v . oi fiev ovv KapajSot

/cat ot KapKivoi navres ttjv Seftav exovai XV^VV
/xetw /cat la xvporepa v t o is yap 8etots navra
necfrvKe ra wa hpdv fiaXXov, rj Se cfrvais ano8i8woiv del rois XPVaâL 8vvafxevois eKaarov rj fiovws
fj fiaXXov, olov xat/AtoSovras /cat oSovras* /cat
80 Kepara Kal nXrjKrpa Kal n a vra rd roia vra fiopia,
oaa npos fiorjOeiav Kal aXKiffv e a n v .2
O t S a a ra K o l fiovoi, onorepav av rv x w a iv
exo va i fie tw t w v x Â w v , /cat at OrjXeiai K a l o l
1 (wa) Peck: rijKOira S : KvtaKOvra PY i wOTOKOvna Ogle.
2 icrnv Peck: elaiv vulg.
352
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vm.

Maiaea (whose legs are thin) and the crabs called
Heracleotic (whose legs are short).
The little tiny crabs, which are found among the
catch with small fishes, have their hindmost feet flat,
like fins or oars, to make them useful for swimming.
The Carides differ from the Carcinoids in having a
tail, and from the Caraboids just mentioned in not
having claws. Claws are absent because they have
more f e e t : the material for their growth has gone
into the feet. And they have more feet because they
swim about more or move about more.
As for the parts on the under 5 surface around the
head, in some animals these are formed like gills so as
to let in the water and to discharge i t ; the lower
parts, however, of female crabs are flatter in formation
than those of male ones, and also the appendages on
the flap are hairier. This is because they deposit
their eggs there instead of getting rid of them, as the
fishes and the other oviparous animals do. These
appendages are wider and larger and so can provide
more space for the eggs. In all the Carabi and in
all the Carcini the right claw is bigger and stronger
than the left. This is because all animals in their
activities naturally use the right side more ; and
Nature always assigns an instrument, either ex
clusively or in a better form, to those that can use it.
This holds good for tusks, teeth, horns, spurs and all
such parts which serve animals for assistance and
offence.
In Lobsters only, whether male or female, it is
a matter of chance which claw is the bigger. The
a Probably the spiny spider-crab.
* That is, ventral.
353
ARISTOTLE
684 a v
ap p ev es*
35 y e 'v e t
Se r o v
a in o v
eta t
684 b X O V O IV
ra>
OTL
fie v
eôvTt
n e n r jp W V T a i
a A A a 7r o p e i a s
n e c fr v K a o iv ,
e x e iv
xqA as*
K ai
T<?
XV^& S
touto
OV
a ra / c r c o s
X PG )V T a L
*4 ?
^ a p tv.
K a 9* eK a a rov Se rc u v fiop iw v, tls rj 9eois a v r w v
Kal riv es 8iacf>opal TTpos aXXrfXa, tcov t

tlvl
S t a cfrepei r a
5 a v a ro fiw v
rrepl r a
9ew peio9w
Kal
I X . T cov
Se
fiaXaKLCOv
7rporepov,
S
k tos
nep l
w a n ep
eêt t o
Kal
re
a S iop ia rov ov, /cat to u to u

rq v
la ro p iw v
tcov
fiev
Trepl
to u
tcov
vtos
tcov
aXXcov
a w fia ro s
k v to s ,
noS a s efinpoa9ev Trepl
KecfraXrjv, evros1 fiev tcov ocf>9aXfiwv, Trepl Se
io t o a ro fia Kal t o v s oSovTas1.

ra
tcov
t,wa.
eip 7]T a i
w w v
aXXcov Kal
appeva tcov 9rjXeia>v, K t c tcov
eôvT a
n oS a s
r a fiev o v v aA A a coa
/xev
ra
eêt
efinpoa9ev
Kal
oniaO ev, r a S k t o v n X a y io v , w a n ep T a noX vnoSa

Kal avat/xa r w v
wwv
to v t c o v n a v r a s
yap
KaXovfievov
is ovvrjKTaL
w onep
efinpoa9ev.
a u ra iv
tw v
oXw s y a p
to ls
to vto
ra
to
Se t o
eôuat t o v s
to v to v
y e vo s
noS a s
tStcos*
en l
to
S*
atrto v
efinpoaOev,
o tl
o m a 9 ev
npos
to
oarpaK ohepfiw v
to l s
arpo/x/JciSeatv.
oarpa/cdSep/xa
fiaXaKOOTpaKOLs,
Tjj
Se
eêt Tjj fiev ofiolw s

r o ls
fiaXaKiois.
fj
fiev y a p ew 9ev t o y ew S es evro s Se t o oapK w hes,

to ls
fiaXaKOOTpaKOLs, t o
Se ax^jfia r o v
a w fia ros
20 ov r p o n o v avvearrjK e, t o l s fiaXaKiois, r p o n o v fiev
a See Hist. An. 525 a 30527 b 34, 541 b 19 ff.

6 At 67S b 24 ff.
c The theory that the cuttle-fish is comparable to a verte
brate bent double was put forward in a paper read before the
Academy of Sciences in 1S30, and was the origin of the famous
354
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV.
v i i i . - ix .
reason why they have claws is because they belong

to a group which has clawrs ; and they have them
in this irregular way because they themselves are
deformed and use the claw's not for their natural
purpose but for locomotion.
For an account of every one of the parts, of
their position, and of the differences between them,
including the differences between the male and the
female, consult the Anatomical treatises and the
Inquiries upon Animals.a
IX.
With regard to the Cephalopods, their internal (J) Cephaparts have already been described, as have those loPds*
of the other animals.6 The external parts include
(1) the trunk of the body, which is undefined, and
(2) in front of this, the head, with the feet round i t :
the feet are not beyond the eyes, but are outside the
mouth and the teeth. Other footed animals either
have some of their feet in front and some at the
back ; or else arranged along the sides as with the
bloodless animals that have numerous feet. The
Cephalopods, however, have an arrangement of
their own. All their feet are on what may be
callcd the front. The reason for this is that their
back half is drawn up on to the front half,6 just as
in the conical-shelled Testacea.
And generally,
though in some respects the Testacea resemble the
Crustacea, in others they resemble the Cephalopods.
In having their earthy material outside and their
fleshy material inside, they resemble the Crustacea;
but as regarding the formation and construction of
their body they resemble the Cephalopods all of
controversy between G. St-Hilaire and Cuvier about unity of
type. This controversy excited Goethe more than the revolu
tion of the same year. (Ogle.)
M
355
ARISTOTLE
684 b
T ra v ra ,
T iv a
e x o v ra
to v
t t jv
rp on ov
f o r m it e r
fia X ic r r a
Z X lk t jv
rj
<f>v<jis l
Se
tw v
a f i (f )O T e p w v
w w v
to vto v
ra
e x e t.
e t p r o p t e r h o c a m b u la n t u n i-
(a A A o u )2 K a O a n e p
reT p a n oS w v
e r r p o fifiw S w v
yap
Kal tw v
a v fip e fir jK e v
em
tw v
h o m o v e ro
avO pw nw v.
25 h a b e t os in c a p it e , s c ilic e t in p a r t e s u p e r io r i c o rp o ris,
to v
to
evrep ov
fie x p i
to u to v
juev
rw fia r o s
a r d fia x o v
, e n e i r a S e t t j v K o i X i a v , a n o Se
e n e ir a
r a v r r js
e v a ifio is w o is ,
fie v o s
TV S
ovv
8 ie o S o v
ro v
ro v
rp on ov
n e p ir
exei
to ls
K a l f i e r a r r j v K e < f> a X r)v e a n v o K a X o v -
O w p a ij, K a l r a
nepl t o v t o v ra
Se X o m a f i o p i a
30 r o v r w v r e x ^ P l v K a 'L e v e K a r r j s K i v r f c r e w s n p o a e O r f K e v
fj
(fa vcris, o l o v
fio v X e r a i
rd
Se
e v r o f i o i s fj y
e x e iv
rp on ov
K iv r jT iK a s
re
Kal
r e n p o c rO ia K w X a K a l r a
Kal
to is
e v O v w p ia
, K a ra
S ia < f> e p e i
Se
rw v
fia X a K o c r r p a K O is
o n ia O e v .
Kal
rw v
e v ro o O iS L w v r o v
ra s
vrrqpeoLa s
e v a ifiw v .
ra s
ro is
a vrov
ew 0ev
Se f i a X a K i a
ra
( r a ) 3 o T p o fijiw S r ) r w v o o r p a K o S e p f i w v e x e i
1 sequitur locus corruptus. quae corrigi possunt sec. vers,

arabicam correxi, suppositicia eieci, amissa e versione latina
Mich. Scot supplevi. text. vulg. habet 17 4>vms cucnrep et tis
VOTj(7 lV
7T*
V0t(XS, KaOanep OVflf}ef}r)KV
i n I TCOV TTpan6So}V
iou)v Kat t o j v avOpatncov, npatrov fiev enl aKpcp
ip avco crrofian
ro A, Irretra </cara addunt PY> ro B t o v

oin. P Y ] T t t j v koiAtav a n o 8e t o v evrepov
fiexpi Trjs SteoSov r o v n e p trrw fia ro s , g ro A.
t o v t o v fiev o vv
t o v r p o n o v eêt ro ts evatfiots <ot?, Kat nepl r o v r o eo rtv r)
K<f>aXri kqx o Qu>pa KaXovfievos (k o X . 0u>pa SU)* rd Se \ o in a ,
evOelas Kara
a ro fia x o v, [ro Se
t tjs
etc. vide et quae p. 432 scripsi.

2 <oAV ou> Peck,
356
3 <ra> Peck.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ix.

them do so to some extent, but most markedly
those conical Testacea which have a spiral shell,
since both these classes have this natural struc
ture ; and therefore they walk with an even gait,
and not as is the case with quadrupeds and man.6
Now man has his mouth placed in his head, vis. in the
upper part o f the body, and after that the gullet, then
the stomach, and after that the intestine which

reaches as far as the vent where the residue is dis
charged. This is the arrangement in the blooded
animals, i.e., after the head comes what is known as
the trunk, and the parts adjoining. The remaining
parts (e.g. the limbs at front and back) have been
added by Nature for the sake of those which I have
just mentioned and also to make movement possible.
Now in the Crustacea too and in the Insects the
internal parts tend to be in a straight alignment of
this kind; though with regard to the external parts
which subserve locomotion their arrangement differs
from that of the blooded animals. The Cephalopods
and the conical-shelled Testacea have the same
The passage which follows has been badly corrupted by
references to a diagram which have ousted the text. The
words in italics have been translated from the Arabic version,
of which Michael Scots Latin translation is given opposite, in
default of the original Greek. See supplementary note on
p. 432.
6 This refers to their uneven progression by moving first
one side of the body and then the other. The Testacea, how
ever, have no right and left (De incessu an. 714 b 9), and
their movement was evidently an awkward problem for
Aristotle. He reserves them until the very end of the De
incessu, and he has to admit that they move, although they
ought not to do so ! They move wapa </>voiv. The mechan
ism of their motion can be detected by the microscope, and is
known as ciliary. See also De incessu, 706 a 13, 33, Hist.
An. 528 b 9.
357
ARISTOTLE
6S5 a a v T o Z s
fie v
fie v c o s *
n a p a T r X r ja L C o s ,
K e K a fin T a i
coan ep
et t v s t t ) v
av
n p o o a y a y o i to
vvv
y ap
f)
S*
t o v to ls
T eX evT rj
d v r e o r p a fi-
n p os
n p os
A.
to
o v tco s
ttjv
a p x ty t
E ]1 K
e v B e Z a v [e< r j s t o
y ap
a fiip a s
K e ifie v c o v
t c o v iv T o o O lc o v n e p i K e i r a i to Z s f ie v fia X a K io is t o
& k v t o s , o K a A e t r a t f . i o v o v e n l t c o v n o X v n o S c o v K e ( f> a X r j m
toZ s S o o T p a K o S e p fio is
S t a < j> ep L
pos
to
e c r r tv o
to lo v to v
ovSev aXXo
n X rjv
o tl
f t a X a K o v t o n e p i l ; , t o Z s S e c r x X r jp o v n e p l t o
O T p S fi-
toZ s
fie v
aapK coS es
n e p ie O r jK e v rj c fr v a is , o n c o s o c o ^ r jT a i S ta t t j v S v o K iv r jc r ta v K a l S ta t o v t o
to e t j e p x e T a i
n ep l
n X rjv t o Z s f i e v
15
T a m r jv
tovtov
fj
a X X o is .
toZs
at
T e v O iS e s
n e p iT T c o fia to Z s T e fia X a K io is
a T O fia
K al
to ls
O T p o fip c b S e o L ,
K a T c o B e v , Tots*
Se
a rp o /x-
n X a y lo v .
/x e v
noSes
to
fia X a K io is
f i c b S e o i v e /c t o v
A ta
to
ovv
T r jv
tov
Xvol S
exovai
toZs
n oX vnoai
at r t a v
T o t? f ia X a K io is o l
T ponov,
Kal
a v o fio ic o s
S ia
to
at
v n e v a v T ic o s
a r jn ia i
v e v o T iK a l
Kal
fio v o v
tovs S e K a l n o p e v T i K o v s . at f i e v y a p tovs
tcov oSovtcov ( e f f i i K p o v s ) 2 e x o v a i , K a l
tovtcov tovs i a x a T O V s S v o f i e i ^ o v s , tovs Se X o m o v s
tcov oktco Suo K a T C o O e v f i e y l a T O V S n a v T c o v .3 & a n e p
y a p toZ
s T e T p a n o a i r a o n ia B ia la x v p o T e p a K coX a,
e lv a i,
avcoB ev
Kal
ra u T a ts
20 (f r o p r i o v
eoxa roi
fie y io T O i
ovtol
Svo
exovai
fie i^ o v s
( n o S e s ) 4* t o
ol
K a rcoB ev
Kal
K iv o v a i
fia X ia T a .
yap
tcov
fie a c o v ,
oti tovtols ovv-
Kal
ol
1 seclusi; post fjs add. Z to o\ov

vid. p. 432.
2 Schneider ex Gazae vers, (senos exiguos) ; sex L ; piKpovs
(sed noScov pro oSovtcov), idem E teste Buss.
3 iravrcov Ogle s tovtcov vulg.
4 <7roe?> Rackham.
358
Z

arrangement as one another, but it differs completely
from that of the others, as the tail-end of these
creatures is bent right over to meet the front,
just as if I were to bend the straight line over
until the point D met the point A. Such
A
CT D
then, is the disposition of their internal parts.

Round them, in Cephalopods, is situated the sac (in
the Octopuses and in them only it is called the head) :
in the Testacea the corresponding thing is the conical
shell. The only difference is that in the one case
the surrounding substance is soft, and in the other
Nature has surrounded the flesh with something
hard, to give them the preservation they need owing
to their bad locomotion. As a result of the abovementioned arrangement, in both sets the residue
leaves at a point near the mouth : in the Cephalopods
under the mouth, in the conical Testacea at the side
of it.
So what we have said explains why the feet of
Cephalopods are where they are, quite differently
placed from all other animals* feet. Sepias and
Calamaries, however, being swimmers merely, differ
from the Octopuses, which are walkers as w ell; they
have six small feet above the teeth, and of these the
ones at each end are larger; the remaining two out
of the total eight are down below and largest of
all. These creatures have their strongest feet down
below, just as quadrupeds have their strongest limbs
at the back ; and the reason is that they carry the
weight of the body and they chiefly are responsible
for locomotion. The two outer feet are larger than
the inner ones because they have to help the others
359
ARISTOTLE
685 a
V 7 T 7 }p T O V (J lV .
/ i e y Lo
to vs
ndSas1 f i e v
at
/ik v
O 8 k n o X v n O V S T O V S v fie O C O TTTOLpCLS
o fiv
o r /n la i
n a vra
Kal
exovoi
a l
7toAu7to8c68t7 / L e y a X o v s .
25
at
/le v
fie y a
a < j> e lX e v
n oScbv
e x o v o iv
ano
7 T p O O 0 7 )K V
no8a>v
X a fio v o a
/le v
fio v o v
ov
to y a p
Se
ra 1
o c o /ia r o s ,
t o v
Tj
to
ro
k vt o s
/iiK p o v ,
v e iv
r /v ^ r /o e v .
x p r /o i/io i
ol
t o is
/ir jK o s
to
TatS S
c f)V O lS ,
ra
aAA
Se
o c b /ia r o s
t o v
d a re
Se
oktco
fip a x e T s ,
npos
o c b /ia
npos
ra vra
Tev9L8es
fie v
rcov
ano
TCOV
S io n e p
to is
noSes
aAAa
K a l n p o s t o j3 a S l e iv , r a i s S a ^ p T /a T o r /i i K p o l y a p ,
so t o Sc k v t o s / l e y a
rovs
e x o v o iv .
K a l /iT j a n o o n a o B a i 2 a n o
fj K a l x ^ i/ic b v , K a l n p o s
S ta
enel
Se f i p a x e l s e x o v o i
n o 8 a s K a l a x p r jo r o v s n p o s r o
r a iJ r a
to
n p o f i o o K 'i S a s
35 o p / i o v o L r e
Kal
d v r iX a /ip a v e o B a i
rcov n erp cb v, o r a v
k X vS cov
a n o O ev n p o o a y e o B a i,
ra
exovoi
a n o o a X e v o v o iv
8vo
/la K p a s ,
w onep
n X o io v
a ts
ora v
685 b xet/xcov f j , K a l r a d n o B e v B r / p e v o v o i K a l n p o o a y o v r a i
ra v ra is
at r e
TroSes
o vk
no8as
a v r o is
Se
o r /n L a i
exovoi
e lv a i
K o r v X r /S o v e s
6 n p o o e io i,
o la v n e p
ra
SaK TvX ovs
8 v v a /iiv
Kal
ra s
npos
npos
a l revB LS es.
n p o fio o K iS a s
ra vra
r o is
e x o v o a i4
n X e y /ia n a
e v e fia X A o v
ol
x P ^ o L /io v s
n ool
Se n o X v -
S ta
Kal
to
.
to vs
e v io is 3
n X eK ra va i
/cat o v v B e o i v
r o ia v r r /v
o ts o l la r p o l o l a p x a io i r o v s
ovrco
Kal
e/c
rcov
Iv c b v
1ra
Peck : ot vulg.
Bekker: a v r i o n d o B a i codd.
3 eviois Peck : oaou vulg.
4 exovaai P : exovoi vulg.
airooT T a oOai
The use of these oavpai or oetpai is described by Hippo

crates, Ilepi apOpcov (Littre iv. 318-320 ; L.C.L. iii. 390 : ** The
tubes woven out o f palm-tissue are satisfactory means o f
360

in performing their duty. In the Octopuses, however,
the four middle feet are the biggest.
And although all these creatures have eight feet,
the Sepias and the Calamarys are short ones, since
their bodies are large in the trunk, and the Octopuss
feet are long, because his body is small. Thus in
one case the substance which she took from the body
Nature has given towards lengthening the feet, and
in the other she has taken away from the feet and
made the body itself bigger. Hence it results that
the Octopuses have feet which will serve them for
walking as well as for swimming, whereas the other
creatures feet will not do so, being small, while the
body itself is big. And inasmuch as these creatures
feet are short, and useless for holding on tightly to
the rock in a storm when there is a strong sea running,
or for bringing to the mouth objects that are at a
distance, by way of compensation they have two long
probosces, with which during a storm they moor
themselves up and ride at anchor like a ship; there
with also they hunt distant prey and bring it to their
mouths. These things the Sepias and Calamaries
do. The Octopuses have no probosces because their
feet serve these purposes. Some creatures have
suckers and twining tentacles as well as fe e t: these
have the same character and function as well as the
same structure as those plaited tubes which the early
phvsicians used for reducing dislocated fingers. They
are similarly made out of plaited fibres, and their
reduction, if you make extension of the finger both ways,
grasping the tube at one end and the wrist at the other.
The oavpa was thus a tube open at both ends. A similar
passage in Diodes ap. Apollonius of Kitium, no doubt taken
from Hippocrates, refers to the otpai which children plait
(L.C.L. iii. 453).
361
ARISTOTLE
>b
nenXeyfievai elaiv, Kal1 eXKOvai r a aapKia Kal
ra evSiSovra. nepiXafifiavei fiev yap xaXapa o v ra
ora v Sc avvreivrj, nieêi /cat cêrat ro v iv ro s
diyyavovros navros*
10 " Q a r e n e l aAAo o v k e a n v w n p o o d o v r a i , aAA*
fj r a
fiiv
r o is
7r p o s
exovoi
n ool
rd
a X k t jv
Si
Kal
r a is
n p o fio o K ia i,
aAAr j v
r r jv
ra vra s
fio r jd e ia v 2
avrt
X ^ ip w v .
T a fiiv ovv aAAa SiKorvXa e a n , yevos Se n noXvnoSwv fiovoKorvAov. a in o v S i r o fifjKos Kal fj Xe7rro rrjs rrjs <f>voecos a vrcov fiovoKorvXov yap avay15 /catov etvai r o arevov. o v k o v v c o s fieX narov exovaiv,
aAA* ws avay/catov Sta rov iSiov Xoyov rrjs ovaias.
U r e p v y i o v S e x o v o i ra u ra n a v r a k v k X c o n e p l r o
k vto s.
r o v r o S e n l f i i v r c o v a X X c o v a v v a n r o f i e v o v
Kal
ai
a v v e fte s
20 r e
ro vro
Kal
ol
Kal
on w s
Kal
exovai
ov
ro
Kal
e X a x io ro v
Se
S io p O o v o d a i
fiiv
ovv
Sta
rw v
o a r p a K o S e p fiw v
nepl
rw v
evros
w anep
a77o
fie o o v
revO w v
r jK ia r a
a r jn la i
e x o v a iv
r o is
to
fiiv
o v p a io v .
e n iS r jX o v
c^ctv
fiiK p o v
k vto s
r o is
/cat
Ik o v w s *
e v r o fiw v
Kal
fio p iw v
at
r jp y f ie v o v ,
ro vro
S
Sto p O o v v , w a n e p
r o i s S I x O v o i r o
Kal
ro
n o a lv
Kal
a revov,
ro
rovro
r o is
fie y a X c o v
n a vros
npos
ea n
rcov
ro v r
o p p o n v y io v ,
25 7roAi;7roatv
Ile p t
ov
Kal
Sta
kvk X co
vew ai
in i
K a X o v fie v a i r e v d tS e s n X a r v r e p o v
Kal
noX vnoSes,
n r r jv o is
so
io n ,
S eAarTOUs* /cat
Kal
fia X a K o o r p a K W v
fia X a K iw v
Kal
rw v
e ip r jr a i,
t o s
Kal
X . IlaA tv S e vnapxfjs nepl rw v evalfiwv Kal
1 K a i Ogle : als vulg.

2 aXXyv xpelav Kal fiorjdttav Y , Ogle.
362
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ix.-x.

action is to draw flesh and yielding substances, as
follows. First they encircle the object while they
are still relaxed; then they contract, and by so doing
compress and hold fast the whole of whatever is in
contact with their inner surface.
So, as these creatures have nothing else with which
to convey objects to the mouth except the feet (in
some species) and the probosces (in others), they
possess these organs in lieu of hands to serve them
as weapons and generally to assist them otherwise.
All these creatures have two rows of suckers, except
a certain kind of Octopus, and these have only one,
because owing to their length and slimness they are
so narrow that they cannot possibly have another.
Thus they have the one row only, not because this
arrangement is the best, but because it is necessitated
by the particular and specific character of their being.
All these animals have a fin which forms a circle
round the sac. In most of them it is a closed and con
tinuous circle, as it is in the large Calamaries (teiithi),
while in the smaller ones called teuthides it is quite
wide (not narrow as in the Sepias and Octopuses),
and furthermore it begins at the middle and does not
go round the whole way. They have this fin to
enable them to swim and to steer their course, and
it answers to a bird s tail-feathers and a fishs tailfin. In the Octopuses this fin is extremely small and
insignificant because their body is small and can
be steered well enough by means of the feet.
This brings to an end our description of the internal
and external parts of the Insects, the Crustacea, the
Testacea, and the Cephalopods.
X. Now we must go back and begin again with
363
ARISTOTLE
^WOTOKWV ,7TLGK7TTOVf dpaflVOLS OLITC TWV V7TOXoinWV Kal 7TpOTpOV elprjfieVWV fXOpiWV TOVTCOV Sc
SlOpiodeVTCOV 7Tpl TCOV ivalflCOV KOI COOTOKCOV TOV
a VTOV TpOTTOV ipOVfieV.
T a fiev ovv fiopia tol Trepl rrjv KecfraXrjv tcov t,wwv
n p orep ov , Kal r a Trepl tov KaXovfievov
av%e'va Kal rpa^yX ov. ex ei Se KecfraXrjv n a v ra ra
686 a evatfia a>a* tcov S avatficov eviois aSiopiorov
tovto to fiopiov, otov tols KapKlvois.
a v xeva ovv
Ta fiev cootoka n d v r e x e i, tw v S wotokwv r a
fiev ex ei r a S ovk e x e i * oaa fiev y a p nvevfiova
5 e x e i, Kal a v xeva e x e i, r a Sc firj avan veovra dvpadev
ovk e x e i tovto to fiop iov.
VE o t l S r j f i e v K ecfraX rj f i a X i a r a t o v i y K e c f r a X o v
35 eiprjrai
X < ip iv
avdyK T]
a ifio is ,
Sta
Kal
Tas
10 c fr v a is
a vrrj
o v jif ie r p o v
T p iT o v
tw v
t t jv
Te
tw v
to
n p orep ov
Kal
e tva i
npos
r r jv
CTt Sc
to v to
fio p io v
a v riK e ifie v w
e lp r jf ie v a s
ev
r r jS e ia v
npos
yap
ev
a la d r ja e w v
r ja v x la v
fio p io v
v n e d r jK e
to
evra vd a
yap
jx e r p w s
fia X ia r a *
K a rw d ev
to
f ir jK o s
K iv o v o r js
rovrw v
364
o v a r js
CTt
ov
K a rw
tfv
to v
d p x r js
yap
rpon ov
etva i
exei
r r js
a w fia ro s ,
r r jv
Kal
e m Kal
a K p ifie ia v .
t t js
Kal
a v fi-
K e la d a i
T r js
K o iX ia v ,
ovre
cVcSc^cro
noppw
rj f i e v
S a v x f j v r r j s
1 av P, om. vulg.
T p o c frrjs
v n e K e ir o
t t jv
vvv
S rj
Sta t o
aXeav
K a p S ia s ' n o X v
K a l n e r r o v o r js .
X ^ P LV e o r l v , o
Kal
a vw dev
cvcSc^cro
v-
eêO ero
e v ia s
K p a o iv
S r jf iio v p y o v v
e ia o S o v
K a p S ia s ,
e y K e c fra X o v
e ia o S o v
15 K a p S i a s K a l T r j s a p x r j s
to is
t t js
a lrla s .
a ifia r o s
to v
ovre
e x e iv
a la d r ja e w v
to v
t t jv
ron co
yap
X ia v
ovv
r r jv
av1
r r js
K ecfraX rj
a p r r jp ia s x ^ P l v '
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

the blooded viviparous animals. Some of the parts
which we have already enumerated still remain to
be described, and we will take these first. This
done, we will describe similarly the blooded Ovipara.
We have already spoken of the parts around the External
head, and what is called the neck, and the throat, blooded"
All blooded animals have a head, but in some of the animals.
bloodless ones the head is indistinct (e.g. in crabs). ^ Vlvipara
All Vivipara have a neck, but not all Ovipara : to
be precise, only those which breathe in air from with
out and have a lung.
The presence of the head is mainly for the sake of Head and
the brain. Blooded creatures must have a brain,
which (for reasons aforeshown) b must be set in some
place opposite to the heart. But in addition, Nature
has put some of the senses up in the head, apart from
the rest, because the blend of its blood is well pro
portioned and suitable for securing not only warmth
for the brain but also quiet and accuracy for the senses.
There is yet a third part which Nature has disposed of
in the head, viz. the part which manages the intake
of food ; it was put here because this gave the bestordered arrangement. It would have been impossible
to put the stomach above the source and sovereign
part, the heart: and it would have been impossible
to make the entrance for the food below the heart,
even with the stomach below the heart as it actually
is, because then the length of the body would be
very great, and the stomach would be too far away
from the source which provides motion and concoc
tion. These then are the three parts for whose sake
the head exists. The neck exists for the sake of the
a At 655 b 27665 a 25.
6 At 652 b 17 ff.
365
ARISTOTLE
686 a
20T T p o fS X ijfia
c fra y o v
K a fiT T T O s
io n ,
to ls
a c fro vS vX o vs
flO V O O T O V V
TO V
t> c o o is
tols
fiiv
avT ov
Kal
Kal
o
Kal
O e iO T C iT O V
so 7toAAou
t o v
(i a p o s
v o e iv
avcoO ev
Svgklvtjtov
kolvtjv
a io B r jo t v .
fia p o v s
Kal
G c o fia T a
r r jv
a v rt (i p a x i o v c o v
35 v r r e d r j K e v
686 b y a p
rj
d T T ia d io v s
T iK o ts
e x e iv ,
S v v a f ie v r js
Kal
c fr v a ts
Svo
Ta
Si
c fre p e iv
to
fld p o s
yap
ecrrtv
K a X o v fie v o s
S ta
to
ov
fiiv
t o
6copa,
ano
yap
r r jv
r r jv
p e r r e tv
noSas
t o v s
fiiv
ro ts1 n o p e v -
*pv X V S *
to v
avco
ra
a o c fr a X e ia v
npooO Lovs
fiiK p o v
T r js
to
t o v
a va yK rj
napa
t o v
y iv o jie v o v
a v ay / ca to v
7r e ^ e v o v
S i
Kal
TTpos
r r js
opO ov
c fr v a iv
ttjv
a c o fia T O S *
t o vs
fiiv
T r p o o d lc o v
S o v p a S to v
T e T p a n o a iv .
ra A A a
epyov
t o vt o
ro tau ra T e rp a n o S a
vavw Ses
Kal
coa re
n a o iv
va vcoS rj
fia p o s
rr X e lo v o s
xetpa>v
coa
to
r a re
6copa
S ta v o t a v
ttjv
tols
ecrrt r a
6 c fre p o v
K e c fra X rjs
Kal
e rr iK e ifie v o v
T T o ie i
y r jv ,
Kal
T r js
O e ia v *
a c o fia r c o S o v s
t o v
npos
etvat
Sto
g t I
e/?A l/f
e ^ et x e t p a s .
c frp o v e t v
Kal
U xO V O LV .
cocov
tcov
o v a ia v
ttjv
to
X vkol
ttoS c j v t c o v
K a X o v fie v a s
tcls
ecrrt f i o v o v
yap
Se
oi
tCTÛV X p T JO L flO V a VTO V
o S v avdpcoT T os a v r l G K eX co v K a l
fip a x lo v a s
a X X o is
a A A a s* f i o r j O e i a s .
avxevos
t o v
K cbX a
ovv
aV \ V a
77 T T p o s r a s
E ô/xeva Se
25 T r p o a d i a
fiiv
excov,
TJ c f r v d S OTTCOS T T p o s r r j v
ex coG L fia X X o v
otcro-
K a l crcoêi r a v r r j v K a l t o v
r r e p ie x c o v .
Kal
X O V TS
y ap
yap
k vk X co
ey e v ero o v
n a vra
fie y a ,
avco
K e c fra X rjs
yap
avO pcon ov
to
Si
S e crn v
fitX P 1 r f s
0 For the general or common sense see De mem.

450 a 10, etc.; and cf. De part. an. 656 a 28, 665 a 12. The
general sense is not another sense over and above the
ordinary five, but rather the common nature inherent in

windpipe : it acts as a shield and keeps the windpipe
and the oesophagus safe by completely encircling
them. The neck is flexible and has a number of
vertebrae in all animals except the wolf and the lion
whose neck consists of one bone only, for Nature's ob
ject was to provide these with a neck that should be
useful for its strength rather than for other purposes.
The anterior limbs and the trunk are continuous Limbs, and
with the head and neck. Man, instead of forelegs relative
and forefeet, has arms and hands. Man is the only sizes*
animal that stands upright, and this is because his
nature and essence is divine. Now the business of
that which is most divine is to think and to be intelli
gent ; and this would not be easy if there were a great
deal of the body at the top weighing it down, for
weight hampers the motion of the intellect and of the
general sense.0 Thus, when the bodily part and the
weight of it become excessive, the body itself must
lurch forward towards the ground ; and then, for
safetys sake, Nature provided forefeet instead of
arms and handsas has happened in quadrupeds.
All animals which walk must have two hind feet, and
those I have just mentioned became quadrupeds be
cause their soul could not sustain the weight bearing
it down. Compared with man, all the other animals
are dwarf-like. By <f dwarf-like I mean to denote
that which is big at the top (i.e. big in the trunk,*
or the portion from the head to the residual vent),
and small where the weight is supported and where
them a ll; thus Aristotle (De somno) argues that their simul
taneous inactivity during sleep is not a mere coincidence but
is due to the inactivity of the central perceptive faculty of
which they are differentiations. Among the functions of the
general sense are : discrimination between the objects of
two senses, and the perceiving that we perceive.
367
ARISTOTLE
688b
efoSou
rov
ro v ro
TT pog
eAar r o v
10 (Sto
r a
K al
T rp corov
y ap
ro
e a n
v a v r lo v
r e X e to v fie v o is '
avco
e p n o v a i,
r a
r a
eVt
15 n c b X o i
K al
r r js
r a
ro
in n c o v
fie v
fie v
r a
ea n v ,
20n p o s
r a
ro
K arco
ro v -
fiiK p o v
fj
fiiK p o v
d ty y a v o v a i
he
K al
n oX v h aK rv X a
Se
fjr r o v
avco
r a
rov rcov '
K arco
ov
etat,
ovceAet
h v v a v rat.
rov rov
e\ et
K al
aK ep ara
Sto
K al
K ara
r r js
v x fr e t o i
om ad ev
ov res
h ix rjX a
n o
eX arrovs
rco
n p e a fjv r e p o t
fic b v v x a
T rp corov , n p o t o v r a
S eart r o a
Sto K a l r c o
ro v ro
ovhev
ov res
ovv
rp on ov ,
fie y ia r a
avco,
K e c fra X rjv k v t o s .
K e c fra X rjs ,
fie v
K arco
r r jv
rcov
veoi
Se
ro
n oX X cp
o S c jl
S o v h v v a v r a t , r o Se
aAA* a K L v r j r t ^ o v a t v ) ' v a v o c
travra. n p o i o v a t Se rot? f i e v
a K a r c o d e v r o l s Se r e r p a n o a t
n a th la
r o v v a v r io v
en l
fie y a X a ,
K al
v eo ts
fia h i^ e tv
av ^ erat
eh p as
o S v a v O p co n o ts
e p n o v a iv ,
a v Q p c o n o is
av erat
fie v
a v fifie r p o v ,
K arco
fx ev
ov
eta t
rot?
n e p ir r c b fia r o s .
r r jv
X oyov
rov
v av cbh rj
a v r ja iv
n o te lr a i
r r js
e X X e iifr e c o s .
"E o rt Se /cat t o
yevos
K al n av
ro
rcov
o p v id c o v
K al ro
Sto /cat
a c fr p o v e a r e p a
n a v ra
e a riv .
/cat
avdpcon cov,
n p os
rov s
25 v a v c o h e i s
e\ coai
r r js
K al
rcov
avhpas
r r jv
a in o v
*frv X V s
K al
c fr v a iv ,
n e p ir r r jV y
X e tn o v a iv .
rj
y ap
^PXV
a c o fia r c o h r js .
e n
avrcov
ia v
aAAa
S , w
a>a
r a
K at
rco
an ep
n o X X o ls
rcov
Ix d v co v
e ip r jr a i, v a v c o h es.
e v a tfio v , c o a n e p
rcov
o to v
rcov
avdpcon cov
r d
re
ev
r jX iK ia
aAAr j v
n v
rov
vovv
n a ih ta
e \ e iv
e ip r jr a i n p o r e p o v ,
h r j1
h v o K L v r jr o s
eX arrov os
y iv o fie v r js
1 7roAAot? hy Peck: 7roAAa> 8^ vulg.: add.

et insuper addit (/8apeT auifian Karafepofievrj}.
368
ot
h v v a fitv
IX o n
e a n
r r js
Y , Platt, qui

locomotion is effected. In man, the size of the trunk
is proportionate to the lower portions, and as a man
grows up it becomes much smaller in proportion.
In infancy the reverse is found : the upper portion is
large and the lower is small (and that is why infants
cannot walk but crawl about, and at the very be
ginning cannot even crawl, but remain where they
are). In other words, all children are dwarfs. Now,
in man, as time proceeds, the lower portion grows:
Not so with the quadruped animals : their lower
portion is biggest at the beginning, and as time
proceeds the top portion grows {i.e. the trunk, the
portion between the head and the seat). Thus foals
are quite or almost as high as horses, and at that age a
foal can touch its head with its hind leg, but not when
it is older. What has been said holds good of the
animals that have solid hoofs or cloven. The polydactylous, hornless animals are indeed dwarf-like
too, but not so markedly, and so the growth of their
lower portions compared with the upper is propor
tionate to the smaller deficiency.
The whole groups of birds and fishes are dwarf-like;
indeed, so is every animal with blood in it, as I have
said. This is why all animals are less intelligent than
man. Even among human beings, children, when
compared with adults, and dwarf adults when com
pared with others, may have some characteristics in
which they are superior, but in intelligence, at any
rate, they are inferior. And the reason, as afore
said, is that in very many of them the principle of the
soul is sluggish and corporeal. And if the heat which
a These observations are entirely correct. Cf. Ogles
quotation ad loc. from T. H. Huxley. See also Hist. an.
500 b 26 ff.
369
ARISTOTLE
686 b
a lp o v a r js
so
re
O e p fx o r r jr o s K a l r o v
a c o fx a r a
eX arrov a
r e ' X o s S a 7 ro S a y l v e r a i
S o v r c o
n p o fia lv o v r a
K arco,
K al
K ara
a K iv r jr o v
35 e x o v
r a
p l a i
fie v
r o is
687 a S v v a f i i v ,
in
e o n
to
a K p o is
K al
avco
c fr v r o is
Sc
r r jv
K arco,
ap fflv
K e c fra X rjv
rd
a r o fx a r o s
r o is
n p o s r r jv y fjv .
K a l r r jv
a v a la d r jr o v ,
a n e p fx a
y lv e r a i
ea rl K al n oX vn oS a,
K al r e r a fx e v a
fx iK p o v
ro
y e w S o v s n X e lo v o s , r a
a\ w v
rw v
Se
K al
fx o p io v
y lv er a i
K arco
K al
a v w
avco
reX os
c fr v r o v ,
a l
K e c fr a X r js
r o v v a v r lo v '
ex ov ai
y ap
ex ov oi
y ap
K al
n r o p d o is .
H i r j v f x e v o v v a i r i a v r a f i e v oi 7rooa r a b e n o A v O
\
y
^
A
y /
/
\
p
\
/ 1
nooa r a 0 anooa rcov l,cocov e a n , Kai 01a n v
a ir lav rd fxev cfrvra rd Se wa yeyovev, eiprjrai,
5 Kal S io n fiovov opdov e a n rcov wwv o avdpconos
opQco S o v n rrjv cfrvaiv ovSefxla XPta OKeXwv tojv
ifxnpooOlcov, aAA d vrl rov rw v fipaxlovas Kal êtpa?
anoSeSwKev rj cfrvais. *Avaâyopas fxev ovv cfrrjai
Sia t o x ^pas ^xeiv cfrpovifxwrarov elvai rw v wwv
avdpw nov evXoyov Se Sia t o cfrpovifxwrarov elvai
10X?pas Xafxfiaveiv. a l fxev yap X*Pes> opyavov
elaiv, rj Se cfrvais del Siave/xei, Kadanep avdpwnos
cfrpovifxos, eKaarov rw Svvafievco xpfjoBai (n p oa rjKei yap rw o v n avXrjrfj Sovvai fiaXXov avXovs
fj rw avXovs e x o v n npooOeivai avXrjriKrjv)' rw yap
fxelôvi Kal Kvpiwrepw npooedrjKe rovX a rrov, aAA*
15 ov rw eAarTovi t o rifxiw repov Kal fie i& v . el ofiv
ovrw s fieXnov, fj Se cfrvais k rw v ivSexofxevwv
0 With the terminology used in 11. 2S-29 cf. Hippocrates,

Uepl Biaittjs, i. 35.
6 That is, it answers to residue in animals; c/. 655 b 35.
370

raises the organism up wanes still further while the
earthy matter waxes, then the animals bodies wane,
and they will be many-footed ; and finally they lose
their feet altogether and lie full length on the ground.
Proceeding a little further in this way, they actually
have their principal part down below, and finally the
part which answers to a head comes to have neither
motion nor sensation ; at this stage the creature
becomes a plant, and has its upper parts below and its
nether parts a loft; for in plants the roots have the
character and value o f mouth and head, whereas the
seed counts as the opposite,6 being produced in the
upper part of the plant on the ends of the twigs.
We have now stated why it is that some animals
have two feet, some many, some none at a ll; why
some creatures are plants and some animals ; and
why man is the only one of the animals that stands
upright. And since man stands upright, he has no
need of legs in fron t; instead of them Nature has
given him arms and hands. Anaxagoras indeed
asserts that it is his possession of hands that makes
man the most intelligent of the animals ; but surely
the reasonable point of view is that it is because he
is the most intelligent animal that he has got hands.
Hands are an instrument; and Nature, like a sen
sible human being, always assigns an organ to the
animal that can use it (as it is more in keeping to
give flutes to a man who is already a flute-player
than to provide a man who possesses flutes with the
skill to play them ); thus Nature has provided that
which is less as an addition to that which is greater
and superior; not vice versa. We may conclude, then,
that, if this is the better way, and if Nature always does
the best she can in the circumstances, it is not true
371
ARISTOTLE
7TOiei
T O jSe'AnOTOV, O V Sia T a j Xip<XS* O T W O

avOpwnos (frpovifxcbrarog, aAAa Sia r o <j>povtixwra ro v etvat rw v a>wv exet XWa$- yî <f>povt/xwraros nXelarots av opyavots ix p tfv a ro KaXws,
2077 Se x LP eotKev etvai ovx ev opyavov aAAa noXXa'
(7Ti yap wanepel opyavov npo opyavwv. t c o ovv
n\elora$
Svvafievw $eaaOat rexâs t o
em
TrAei(j t o v t w v opyavwv x/77cnf tov r Vv XWa ^ n o Se'SajKev rj cfrvats.
AAA* o l Aey ovres cog avvearrjKev ov KaXws o
avOpwnos aAAa x ^Pi(JTa T )V latyw {a vvn oh rjrov
25 re yap a v ro v etva i (f>acri Kat yvfxvov K al o v k
e x o v r a o t t X o v 7rpos rrjv aX K T jv ) o v k opOws Xeyovatv.
r a fxev y a p aAAa fila v exet fiorjOetav, K al f ie r a fiaXAeaOai a v r l ra v r r js erepav o v k e a n v , aAA
avayK alov w anep vnoSeBepievov ael KaOevSeiv Kal

na i*ra n p d r r e tv , Kal rrjv n ep l t o atop,a aXewpav
[xr}$7TOT KaraOeaOat, puqSe pLerafidXAeaOai o Srj
so e rv y x a v e v 1 07tAov eôv2, t w Se avOpwnw ras* re
687 b fjo r) 0elas noXXas exeiv /cai rauras' aei e ^ e a n
fterafidXXetv, e n S* oVAov oto v av p o v X rjra t Kal
o t t o v avs fiovXrjTat exeiv.
f) yap x LP Kal ovv Kal
X^Xtj Kal Kepas y lv e ra i K al Sopv
K al l<fros
Kal aAAo 07T o l o v o v v onXov Kal o p y a v o v n a v r a yap
6 eo ra i r a v r a Sia t o n a v ra SvvaaOat AafijSaveev Kal
exeiv a v r r j v ev 4 Se a vfJtfJL ejA rjxd v rjT a i5 Kal r o etSos*
r f j (frvaei
372
t t J s
XLPs> Siaipe rrj
yap Kal n oX va xiStfs *
er U 1 : Tuyâi'ct *v Th. ; hie alia omnino i..

2 ôi/ Z , et corr. U : xCt)V vul&
3 o7rov av] ottotolv Ogle.
4
*XLV avrrjv eu P : cxîv ravrrj vulg.
'xrvfLfifxrjxdvrjTat Ogle : avfifj(.fir]xavrj(T9ai vulg.
6 elBos Kal vulg. : ctSoy P S U Y Z .
PARTS OF AN IM ALS, IV. x.

to say that man is the most intelligent animal because
he possesses hands, but he has hands because he is the
most intelligent animal. We should expect the most
intelligent to be able to employ the greatest number
of organs or instruments to good purpose ; now the
hand would appear to be not one single instrument
but many, as it were an instrument that represents
many instruments. Thus it is to that animal (viz.
man) which has the capability for acquiring the
greatest number of crafts that Nature has given that
instrument (viz. the hand) whose range of uses is the
most extensive.
Now it must be wrong to say, as some do, that
the structure of man is not good, in fact, that it is
worse than that of any other animal. Their grounds
are : that man is barefoot, unclothed, and void of
any weapon of force. Against this we may say
that all the other animals have just one method of
defence and cannot change it for another : they are
forced to sleep and perform all their actions with
their shoes on the whole time, as one might say;
they can never take off this defensive equipment of
theirs, nor can they change their weapon, whatever
it may be. For man, on the other hand, many
means of defence are available, and he can change
them at any time, and above all he can choose what
weapon he will have and where. Take the hand :
this is as good as a talon, or a claw, or a horn, or again,
a spear or a sword, or any other weapon or to o l:
it can be all of these, because it can seize and hold
them all. And Nature has admirably contrived the
actual shape of the hand so as to fit in with this
arrangement. It is not all of one piece, but it
branches into several pieces ; which gives the possi373
ARISTOTLE
evt
iv
10
yap
iv
ih cecvo
/cat Suotv /cat

Sa/CTuAa>v
Kal
oX cos,
7 rAaytoi
ol
vetv,
o u to s
et /xe'AAet
Sta r e
tva
t t jv
t a l
tcrûv /cat
Se
k c o ttt)
fie y a s
aXXoi
ol
XPVa
T r jv
T r js
X p v fo e is
y a p
tcov
K a fn r a l
T p o < f> fjs
t o i s
y a p
cos*
fip a x v s
Kal
fie o o s
y ap to
r re p iX a fi^ a v e o d a i
cov,
tol
a x p r jc r r o i
eu Se
K a l
r r o a iv )
iv
T a
fj
f<pa
exet
em -
a v O p c o r r o is
e x o v a i
rrp os
r e r p a T T o a iv .
K a fir r r e iv
tcDv
a K p c o r r fp lc o v
fip a x io v c o v
cos
/cat t o
aA A a
yap
tcov
kvkX co
/cat Sta t o u t o
.)
o ti
fie v
T T p o a a y c o y r jv
iv a v r lc o s
m eet,
la x v p o v
Kal
opQ cbs,
to v to v
17 V
o c fr e X o s e l [ i a K p o s
tv a u r o J s , rots S
avay/catov et'oxo
(X p c o v T a i
auva/x/xa
ip y a a ta s
25 K a X v T T T r jp i a a/ceVaa/xa y a p
At Se
fir ]
a v fip a l-
f i e a o v e c o s 2* f i a X i a r a
fiiK p o s
f ie jir fx a v r jr a r
npos
el
to v to
tto A A o is .
/xt/epos
avev
/cat
fip a x y s
K aTCoO ev avco
tort ouSev
TTpos T a s
e lrre tv
X r ji / je i s
/cav et /x^ e/c
Set Se
to o ir e p
cov
avayK T)
fie a o v
K a X e ir a i
Kal
coorrep
to
ovvxcov
e ls
rcDv
yap
ovrco
yap
e v l1
K a firra l
o vto s
coorrep
e lv a i,
x p r jo Q a i
ra?
ets*, /cat
K a rco*
la x v p c o s
lo a lfl
20 X a f i f i a v o f i e v o v
K a ra
outo?
ea xa ros
fia K p o s ,
7 r/oo?
fia K p o s *
a vcoB ev
o v v O e rrfv
/cat
/cat at
X r ji f ji s ,
77 V.
erep oi
(juvSetv,
eôu at
ot)/c a v
Kal
eo rtv.
7 rAaytou
aAA oi5
TTayys
V o O ir e p
e/c
Kal
e lv a i
ecrrtv.
ovk
rroX X a xcos
/caAdis
m e a e is .
Xetp
Stat p e r r j v
tc o
to v to )
e la iv .
T Tpos
r a s
iK e iv o is
ifir r p o a O ia
x p tfo ifia
r e
aAAa?
fie v
K coX a
rrp os
ttjv
1 cn] /zia Ogle.

2 /xeaovecu? Schneider: fieoov vecos vulg.
3 <Ls P, om. vulg.
That is, the pieces. Ogles suggested emendation
would be translated use the hands singly. The two
transpositions suggested for this passage by Ogle seem un
necessary.
374

bility of its coming together into one solid piece,
whereas the reverse order of events would be im
possible. Also, it is possible to use them singly, or
two at a time, or in various ways. Again, the joints
o f the fingers are well constructed for taking hold
of things and for exerting pressure. One finger is
placed sideways : this is short and thick, not long
like the others. It would be as impossible to get
a hold if this were not placcd sideways as if no hand
were there at all. It exerts its pressure upwards
from below, whereas the others act downwards from
above ; and this is essential for a strong tight grip
(like that of a strong clamp), so that it may exert
a pressure equivalent to that of the other four. It
is short, then, first, for strength, but also because it
would be no good if it were long. (The end finger
also is smallthis is as it should beand the middle
one is long like an oar amidships, bccause any object
which is being grasped for active use has to be
grasped right around the middle.) And on this
account it is called big although it is small, be
cause the other fingers are practically useless without
it. The nails, too, are a good piece of planning. In
man they serve as coverings : a guard, in fact, for the
tip of the fingers. In animals they serve for practical
use as well.6
The joints of the arms in man bend in the opposite
direction to those of quadrupeds : this is to facilitate
the bringing of food to the mouth, and other uses to
which they are put. Quadrupeds must be able to
bend their fore limbs inwards c so that they may be
serviceable in locomotion, since they use them as
6
That is, as tools.
e See note on 693 b 3, p. 433.
375
ARISTOTLE
687 b
30 7 T O p ia V , 67761 O e X t l y K a K L V C O V T O IS T T o A v h c L K T v A o iS
OV
flO V O V
TTpos
irp o o O e v
T r jv
< f > a iv e r a i
T T O p e la V
aAAa
O K e X r ],
x P ^ fie v a *
Kal
Kal
688 a v o v r a i TO LS T T p o a d lO L S .
ov yap
e v ta
Kal
T a ts
S ta
Kal
x P G l v *
Kal
t o vt o
T r ifin r o s
[ 7TfJLTTTOS].*
to vs
w anep
Se
TOL
o m a O lo v s
Kal vn ep
MeTau Sc
S aAAo l? T W V
o r r jO o s
A o y a js
Kal
a fiv -
tols
T roX vh a K rvX w v
exei
r v s
Se
K vves
T r js
fllK p O L
K a l T T a p S a X e is
X lP $
T O JV
y lv e r a i
Kal
Sta
to
T revra S a K rvX ovs

T o ts
paov
ow i
a vepn rj
fie y a s
TToX vhaK TvX w V
n X e io a iv
TTpos
to
o v a iv
fie r e w p o
K < /> a X i]s .

t o jv
a yK w vw v
e fin p O o B L O J V
e a n , ro ts
(o v
Kal
T revra h a K rvX ovs
onw s
io a v n X a f i f i a v o f i e v a
re pov
fl~
S o T T io O tv r e r p a S a K r v X o v s ,
exei
etvat,
ip T T V O T L K a
X a f ijH a v o v o i
r &v
Ae o v r e s K a l X v k o l, e n
yap
Ta
T a Se f L W V V X a T O LS O T T L o d io L S '
5 T r p o a d lo v s T io h a s , t o v s
o to v
yap
e lv a i
xetpcuv, w a r t e p
r a r r p o a d l a f jK e X r j a m A o y o v
exei a vro ts
ayKw oL
X P V 01^
a m i
yap
fie v
a v d p w n o is
k w X v o v o iv
TTpOOKLfJLVOL T O V T O V
to Is
ol
e lv a i
a v d p w n o is ,
T o ts
K a X 0 VfJLV0V
O K eX tJ V , TO
eôv
tt X 6 .t o s
ayK w ves
e ti-
n X a y lo v
7rAaTUv), TO LS
T O V TOTTOV
15 S T T p a T T O C L S ta TTJV t t I T O T T p O d O lO V TO JV K w X w V
KTaOLV
TW
r o rro v a r e v o v
Ta
fie v
TW
rerpa n o& a
TOTTW
Xw pLav
20 K a p h i a v ,
K w hovs
r o ls
T T O p V (T 0 a i
t o u t
fie v
T O V T O )'
Kal
to
S ta
oi
ea rl
tw v
T o ts
Kal
w w v
fia a r o l
ovk
Kal
exei
S ta t o v t o
fia a ro v s
iv
S* a vO p W T T O L S S ta TTJV V p V ~
Setv
vn a p xovros
S ir fp B p w v r a i,
S ta r r j v
ra
ro v
rrep l
to tto v
a a p K w B e is
e lp r jfie v r jv
1 7Tfi7iTos seclusi.
376
TOV
fie r a fia X A e iV
fio p io v .
a/ce7raea0at
ro vro
appeal
to
a lr ia v ,
rrfv
a a povres
ir r l
Se

fe e t; though even among quadrupeds the poly
dactylous ones tend to use the fore limbs not only for
locomotion but also instead of hands ; and this can
actually be seen happening : they take hold of things
and defend themselves with their fore limbs. (Solidhoofed animals, on the other hand, do this with their
hind limbs, as their forelegs have nothing that corre
sponds to elbows and hands.) This explains why
some polydactylous quadrupeds actually have five
toes on their forefeet (lions, wolves, dogs and leo
pards, for instance), although there are only four on
their hind fe e t: the fifth one, like the fifth a digit
on the hand, is a big one.& However, the small
polydactylous quadrupeds have five toes on their
hind feet too, because they are creepers ; and this
gives them more nails, and so enables them to get a
better hold and creep up more easily to greater
heights and above your head.
Between the arms in man (in other animals be- Breast
tween the forelegs) is what is known as the breast. In
man the breast is broad, and reasonably so, for the
arms are placed at the side and so do not in any way
prevent this part from being wide. In the quadru
peds, however, it is narrow, because as they walk
about and change their position the limbs have to be
extended forwards. And on this account, in quadru
peds, the mammae are not on the breast. In man,
on the other hand, as the space here is wide, and the
parts around the heart need some covering, the
breast is fleshy in substance and the mammae
are placed on it and are distinct. In the male they
are themselves fleshy for the reason just given. In
Now generally called the first.
b And needed when the foot is used as a hand.
377
ARISTOTLE
tw v
fj
O r jX e t w v
(f r v O l S ,
r id e r a i y a p
S 9 e la iv
T ra p a K exp ^ra t
OTTp
(fr a fl V
evra vQ a
o i fia a ro l
a p ta rep o v
Kal
S '
e lv a t
fie v
r r jv
ra )
e x e iv
yap
ff
av
c fr v a iv
a r r jd e i
r p o T T o v s .3
r r jv
ra
ev
Kal
rovrovs
Svo,
fie v
7r e p l t t j v
vs
Kal
o X ty o T O K O V ,
T T oX vyaX aK T ov
a a p K O cfra y o v
0 S
f ir jp o ls
ro ts
3
378
o X iy o r o K a
T roX vroK a
rrore
a va X tO K et
fj
Kal
fia a ro v s ,
T T o X v a x iS fj
tto X X o vs,
a in o v
e ls
Se
fie v r o t
ovx
ro
o n
o n
a w fia
a r r d v io v
ra
o to v
Suoiv, aAA
ttX e lw
yap
fie v
tto X X o vs
tte p l fie a r jv
S9
ev
ea n v
fiw v v x a
rovs
Kal
fio v o v s ,
r jS r j
Kal
exovai
r rX a y io v s
R ep o ts
a S vva rov
{e f ir r o S i^ o ie v
exovai
ro vro v
, fir j t t it t o v o v
S* aAAo t s
O K eX w v
r p o c f r r jv , X a f i f i d v e i
e X e c fra s S v o
fio v o v e x e t, r o v r o v s
ifiT T p o a O lw v O K e X w v .
e x ^ iv o n
o n
fie v ,
r r jv
S ta
ro
etva t.
fia a x a X a ts r w v
fie v S v o
S vo
X ew v.
errel t L k t l
Aaf i / 3 a v o f i e v r )v
ev
Se
ra
o to v
to v to v
fia a r o v s
Se
ra
S vo
e lv a t, r o
o K X r jp o r e p o t
ro ls
fir jp o t s
ya a rep a
k vw v,
ya a rep a ,
ov
rw v
yap
ro ls
<X7rO-
r p o c f r r jv .
Tas ttX e vp a s a vva T rrea O a i
r r o p e i a v ),
fie v
K ep a ro c fro p a
epyov
T T O ie tv
fio p ia
Kal
a vrcov.
fie r a v
ra
to tto v
xaX enov2 ro vs
TTpos
Svo
/cat
rov
erep ov
y e v v w fie v o is
to
to
f i e v a X X r jX a t s 1 K a r a
TTpos
T T oX X a K LS
S e t6 v.
Se Sta
S iw p ia fie v o i
ro ts
S ta
ro
Kal
a V T T jV
j io v o t o k o v
T T o X v a x iS e s
f i T jp o t s ),
avw
e a ri, r o v
(ouSev y a p
Se r r p o s
vtto
ra ts
Se
Se
ev ro ts
exet
ra ts
S*
a in o v
fir j
t o v
T r o X v a x iS e s
fia a x a X a ts ,
1 aAAi}Aas Bekker per typothetae errorem.

2 fj xaAerrov P : vulg1. non habet.
fort. t67tov$ Rackham (sic etiam E teste Buss, et Z \

the female, Nature employs them for an additional
function (a regular practice of hers, as I maintain),
by storing away in them nourishment for the off
spring. There are two mammae because the body
has two parts, the right and the left. The faet that
they are somewhat hard and at the same time two in
number is accounted for by the ribs being joined to
gether at this plaee and by the nature of the mammae
not being at all burdensome. In other animals it is
either impossible or difficult for the mammae to be
situated upon the breast, i.e. in between the legs,
since they would be a hindrance to walking ; but, ex
cluding that particular position, there are numerous
ways in which they are placed. Animals whieh have
small litters, both those that have solid hoofs and those
that carry horns, have their mammae by the thighs ;
and there are two of them. Animals that have large
litters or are polydaetylous, either have numerous
mammae placed at the sides upon the abdomen
e.g. swine and dogs; or have only two, set in the middle
of the abdomen e.g. the lion. The reason for this is
not that the lion has few cubs at a birth, beeause
sometimes the number exeeeds two, but that it is
deficient in milk. It uses up all the food it gets upon
the upkeep of the body, and as it is a flesh-eater it
gets food but rarely.
The elephant has only two mammae (this is because
it has its young one at a time), and they are under the
axillae of the forelegs and not by the thighs beeause
the elephant is polydactylous and no polydactylous
animal has them there. They are high up, near the
axillae, beeause that is the plaee of the foremost
This, like many of Aristotles statements about the lion,
is incorrect.
N
379
ARISTOTLE
lb
noXXoVS \ O V O L
10 OTL 7TpOJTOL O V T O L TCOV fia O T C O V TO LS

fia a r o v s ,
Kal
Se TO
TCOV
enl
y e v o fie v o is
e a r l,
co
TTpCOTOVS'
Kal
ev
eAecpas
tovtco
ya a rep a .
a rcov
>
Suo etvat
to
OL
VTTO
>\v
aAA 7]
a p ia r e p o v
K al
r i ]V
otl
Se f i r ]
tols
ttoX v o x
&
e êt
fir jp o is
25 t o
AAa
r]
a v ^ r jG L S
o7rou
n a vra
enl
Kal to
K al
Kal
c fr v a is r o v s
fia a ro v s ,
f.L0V 0r
avco
ra s
fia a r o v s
fie v
ttjv
Set f i a -
tcov
fir jK o s
e fin p o a O e v
fio v o v .
o to v
Kal
in n o s ,
o vos
ovv
otl
y iv e r a L
ro v
K al
K lv r ja is
O ijX v s
aJo-0
K al
n e p ir-
e a rlv
in o lr ja e v
rj
ron os
y tv e T a t r r j s
AajSetv e a r t v a v r o t s
0001
fir jr p l.
1 Kal
tovtols
ea n v.
evra 0 a
* 07T0i> y a p
Kal
a c o fia r o s
(o vro s
ol
r fj
Ta
T a f i e v fic b v v x & ,
B vva rov.
a p p r jv
ev Se Tot? a A A o t j e vta t o )v a p p e v c o v
e o iK a o i
enl
>/
o > *
*XLV oia T0
S e ^to v, e n l f i r j K o s
a in o v
ro v
e K p o a s ),
e ^ e t, otov t7T7T0t
380
0K a ,
n e p io v a la
a c fia r o s
30 r p o c f r r js , e v r e v O e v
avQ pcon os
nepl
if
S e X a c fro s K a l j 8 o v s K a l a t f K a l
Kal
nepl
exei
ro ia v ra .
to
a vX X oyrj
rc b fia r o s
K a rco
e ^ et
n X e io v c o v
5/
ovo
a v r ia v
f lO V O V S
fia a r o v s ,
to vs
yap
Se S t x ^ A o v ), e n
rd
to v s
flO O x d X a iS
a A A oAtyoTozca f ] K e p a r o c f r o p a ev1
t]
K a fL r jX o s ( r a v r a
fio v o v
K r p e c f r e i v me n e l o v v
5/
OVO
o n ia O e v
tcov
V
e x iV
20 a v ay / ca to v e ^ e t v o Se f x e r a ^ v r o n o s
OK eX cbv
rrapexovoi
TOLS
TTpCOTOLS
Se n o X v r o K a
S a i n o v
TC
rrpcorovs
, Ta
a r ffie io v
yap
a v a y K a lo v
fie X X o v o iv
f/
OLOV
TOLS
y iv o fie v o v
r a v r ifv
ron co
tco
v X e lc o
OVX
L o 'lV
o ia
t o v t o v
tols
\/
7TA aT O S
n //
ovv
to v s
n pcorov
fia a r o v s
TTpCOTOL
15 o f i e v
to
to v s
n X eia r o v .
O V flfia iV O V
x o ip c u v
ovv
tov rco
VCOV
tco v
fia a r o v s '
yaAa
ific o v r a i
iv
fie v
o vk
vulg.:
Kal
e x o v o iv
oi
del. Ogle.
e ^ et
o vk
S e x o v o i v ,

mammae in those that have many, and these are the
ones that yield the most milk. An illustration o f
this is the case of the sow : a sow will offer the
first of its mammae to the first ones of the litter.
Thus, where the first of an animal's litter amounts
to one and no more, such an animal must possess
these first mammae, and the first mammae means
those under the axillae. This explains, then, the
number and position of the elephants mammae.
The animals that have large litters have their mammae
upon the abdomen. Why is this ? They have
numerous young to feed, and so they need numerous
mammae. Now as the body has two sides, right and
left, the mammae cannot be more than two deep
across the body, and so they have to be disposed
lengthwise, and the only place where there is suffi
cient length for this is between the front and hind
legs. Non-polydactylous animals which yet produce
few at a birth, or carry horns, have their mammae by
the thighs, as the horse and the ass (both solidhoofed) and the camel (cloven-hoofed), all of which
bear their young singly ; also the deer, the ox, the
goat, and all such animals. The reason for which is,
that in them the growth of the body proceeds in an
upward direction ; so the place where the superfluous
residue and blood collects is down below, near the
places o f efflux, and there Nature has made the
mammae ; for where the food is set in motion, there
is the very place where they can get it. In man, both
male and female have mammae, but some males of
other animals have none, as e.g. stallions, some of
which have none, while others, which resemble their
dams, have them.
381
ARISTOTLE
K a t Trepl fiev fia orw v eiprjrai, fiera Se t o orrjSos
rrepl rrjv KOiXlav ea rl rorros, aovyKXeioros ra is
rrXevpais Sta rrjv elprjjievrjv efirrpoodev a ir lav,
orrws firj efnroSL^woi firjre rrjv avolhrjoiv rijs
rpocfrrjs, rjv avayKalov ovfifialveiv depfiaivofievrjs
avrrjs, /x^re Tas* vorepas ra s rrepl rrjv Kvrjaiv.
T e X o s Se r o d K a X o v f i e v o v O w p a K o s i o n r a f i o p i a
35 o
689 a
T a r r e p l r r j v r r j s r r e p i r r w o e w s e o S o v , r r j s r e r jp a s
Kal
r ijs
f io p L c o
Kal
re
rrep l r r jv
r o is
ev
vypas.
errl
Se
r o is
eori
rov
Se
a vrov
cr9 w
Se
Kal
Kal
fio v o v
15 O r j X e o i v
y o v r j,
e K K p io iv
eêt,
rrep l
o n
vypa
w ore*
Se
Se
r r jv
rd
wa
c fra ve p o v
Kal
(r o v r o
ev
rovrw v
Kal
ra
ra
e ls
ra
O r jX e a i
o n
rj
Se
vvv
rrep l
yovrj
O r jX e o i
rd
vvv
vrroK eL-
382
r o is
Kal
fj
r r jv
Se
rrw s
evros
ro
a r r e p fia
ta r o p ia s
a v a r o jiw v ,
o n
r r js
Kal
rrep l
/cat v a r e p o v
S* eêt /cat
1 rois appeoiv Ogle:

post
re
a v r a 4 fio p ia
20 X e x O q o e r a i e v r o i s r r e p l y e v e o e w s .
fie v
a v r o v ,)
K a r a jir jv ia
rrep l
r r js
Kal
iv a lfio is ,
K a r a /ir jv ia
e o r lv .
re
a vrw
y o v r j v 2* h i o p i o O r j -
vorep ov,
Xoyov
rw v
ro is
r r jv
c fr v a iv
o fio lw v
Kal
r o is
a in o v
rrp o tevra i
K a ra
rrep l
re
rw
rr e p ir r w o e w s
S e i x O i 'j c r e r a i
Sta c f r e p o v a i r d
K v r j a i v , e/c Te
rd
ev
r r d u iv .
r r jv
c fr v a is
o X L y w v rra a i r o is
r r e p L r r c o fia
rw v
e lv a i
K a l r r fj
o fio lw s
rp orrov
fj
rj
eoSov
r r e p lr r w fia .
vorep ov
K a r a fir jv ia ,
oera i
Kal
vypas
n vw v
o t o k o is
v r r o K e lo d w ,
r r js
ox^Lav,
a p p e c r iv ,1 e w
10 v y p o v
K a r a x p r jr a i
r r jv
rw v appevwv vulg.
2 Kal ci npoUvrai riva yovrpr Platt.
w ore vulg. habet rw v avrw v K al: Ogle
4 ra avra Peck : ra vra ra vulg.
del.

This concludes our remarks on the mammae.
After the breast comes the region around the
stomach, which is not enclosed by the ribs for
the reason stated earlier, viz. to avoid interference
(a) with the food when it swells, as it must do when
it is heated, and (6) with the womb during pregnancy.
At the end of what is called the trunk are the parts Excretory
that have to do with the discharge of the residue, orsana*
both solid and fluid. Nature employs one and the
same part for the discharge of the fluid residue and
for copulation in all blooded animals (with a few
exceptions), male and female alike, and in all Vivipara
without exception. The reason is that the semen is a
fluid, and a residue. (This statement may stand for
the present: the proof of it will be given later on.6)
The same applies to the catamenia in females, and
the part where they emit the semen.6 This also will be
dealt with particularly later on. For the present, let
the statement stand simply that the catamenia in
females (like the semen in males) are a residue. Now
both semen and catamenia are fluids, so it is reason
able that things which are alike should be discharged
through the same parts. A clear account of the
internal structure of these parts, showing the differ
ences between the parts connected with semen and
those connected with conception, is given in the
Researches upon Animalsd and the Dissections, and
there will be a discussion of them in the book on
0 At 655 a 2.
b In De gen. an. 724 b 21 ff.
e This seems to agree with what Aristotle says on the
subject in the Hist. A?i., but contradicts what he says in De
gen. an. Platts suggested emendation would make the
translation read : and to the semen, if so be they emit any.
d At 493 a 24-b 6, 497 a 24 ff., book iii, ch. 1.
383
ARISTOTLE
r a axqfJiaTa rw v fiopicov rovrw v TTpos rrjv ipyaalav
avayKatws, ovk aSrjXov. c^ct Sc Stacfropas r o rw v
appivwv opyavov Kara ra s ro v aw fiaros Stacfropas.
ov yap ofiolw s arravra vevpwhrj rrjv cfrvaiv ia r lv .
ert Sc fiovov r o v ro rw v fiopiw v avev voaepas fie ra 25 /SoXijs av^rjatv c^ct Kal rarrelvw aiv rovrw v yap r o
fikv xptfoifiov npos ro v avvhvaofiov, r o Sc TTpos rrjv
r o v aAAov aw fiaros x p c ta v <*ct V&P ofiolw s *Xov
r a AAa1 iverroSt^cv av. avviarrjKe Sc rrjv cfrvaiv
k rotovrw v ro fiopiov r o v ro ware hvvaaOat r a v r
aficfrorepa a vfifiaIvetv r o fikv yap c^ct vevpwhes
30 r o Sc xorSpwScs, Storrep avvtivat t c S u v a T a t Kal
Kraaiv c ^ c c v /cat rrvevfiaros i o n Sc/cti/cov. T a
fikv ovv drjXea rw v rerparrohwv rravr c o T t v o m aOovprjnKa S t a t o rrpos rrjv o ^ c i a v o v r ws elvat
avrots XPV(JllJir] v Tl v Oeatv, rw v S appivwv oXlya
ia r lv oTTtaOovprjrtKa, olov Xvy, Xiwv, KafirjXos,
689 b Saau7rov? fiwvv\ov S oi)ScV ia n v orrtaOovprjrtKov.
n
\ \
\ \
/\
> Z) '
la
om au ev
K at r a
T ro ts I S lw s e \ t r r p o s r a
c t^ c S o v , o v
T ravra
w oT O K a-
5rov ro
n v a
toîa
r a
K al y ap
to
oroA ov.
o
a K iX r j o
oroK a
vevpw S rj
rov rw v
r a
fie v
K tp K ov
a)OTO/ca a A A a
fir j f ii y e O o s
aAAa
a K tA rj r o t s
a v rots
a r jfie to v 3 y
a v O p w ir o s
avO pw nos
S c^ct
Kai r a
e x o v r v x x j2
ovbev.
fiiv
ia n v ,
e n
b e K at
a a p K w h r j K a l fir jp o v s
K al
aAAa r r a v r 9 a a a p K a e x e t , o v fio v o v r a
aA A *
oA o^
y ap
exet
a tr ia
fila
oaa
K al
rts
ok X tj
oarw h rj
ia r tv
w s
exet
rw v
K al
etrretv
1 \ov riAAa Peck: exovra vulg.

2 XV Rackham: $ vulg.
384
avupw -
cvc/ccv e x o v a l
aK epK ov
ex et, rw v o e rerp a rro b w v
K v r j f i a s ,4 r a
io
fio v o v
av
fio p io v ,
rrep t r a
rerp arroh a.
w w v
a K a v O w h r j.
arrav rw v ,

Generation.a Still, it is clear that the actual forms o f
these parts is determined of necessity by the function
they have to perform. The male organ, however,
exhibits differences corresponding to those o f the
body as a whole, for some animals are more sinewy,
some less. Further, this organ is the only one which
increases and subsides apart from any change due
to disease. Its increasing in size is useful for copula
tion, its contraction for the employment of the rest
of the body, since it would be a nuisance to the
other parts if it were always extended. And so it
is composed of substances which make both con
ditions possible : it contains both sinew and cartilage;
and so it can contract and expand and admits air
into itself. All female quadrupeds discharge the
urine backwards, as this arrangement is useful to
them for copulation. A few males do this (among
them are the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the
hare), but no solid-hoofed animal does so.
The rear parts and the parts around the legs are Rear parti,
peculiar in man compared with the quadrupeds, nearly
all of which (Ovipara as well as Vivipara) have a tail,
which even if it is not of any great size, still is present
for a token as a sort of stump. Man has no tail, but
he has buttocks, which no quadruped possesses.6 In
man, the legs, both in thighs and calves, are fleshy :
in all other animals that have them (not only Vivi
para) the legs are fleshless, being sinewy, bony and
spinous. One might say that there is a single ex
planation which covers them all, which is, that man is
At 716 a 2 721 a 29.
b There seems to be something wrong with this statement,
but perhaps when taken in conjunction with the whole of the
argument which follows, it may appear less unjustifiable.
3 <n?/xtov Buss, s crfAiKpov vulg.
4 Kvrjuas] Trohas Y.
385
ARISTOTLE
689 b
StOTl
ofiv
flOVOV G t I v o p d o v TCOV
ocofiaTcbSes a n o
fj
(jjv a ts
15 e n o ir jo e
T rjv
tv*
ovra,
to
re
n p o o e O r jK e v
K a l fir jp o v s
tcov
io T a v a i,
excos
avco n p o s r a
tojv
S io n e p
/cat
ra
fia p o s
to
oapKcbSrj
tc^ ta
fia
Se
fie v y a p T e T p a n o a iv a K o n o v
K a f iv o v o i
tovto
/caTa/cet/xeva
yap
K eifievcov T T T ap ojv ep eiofia T C O v),

o cofia
k &tco
K al y a o T p o K v r jfiia s .
tols
ov
(co a n ep
20 o v paStov
acfreXovoa
I g \ L cov <j)vaiv K al n p o s r a s a v a n a v c e i s
a neScoK e x p r jo ifx o v '

to
)COV avdpCOTTOS.
<t>4py paSicos Tavco Kov(j>a
tols S
op8cos e a r c b o i S ia fie v e iv ,
a vanavoecos
d p o jn o s
to^ta
avco
fia p o s
K al
K a O eS p a s.
vno-
a vO p con o is
aAAa SetTat to
o
fie v
ovv
av-
Sta
r rjv eiprjfievr/v
K al Sta rau ra a/cep/cov (rj
T y a p e/cetae1 Tpocfrrj n op evof.ievrj els rau ra avaAta/ceTat, /cat Sta to eêtv ta^ta a ^ fjp rjT a t fj r i js
25 o v p a s avay/cata X P V GL^)> T
T e T p a n o S a Kal
TaAAa a)a e i v a v T i a s ' vavwSeat y a p o v o i n p o s t o
to
eêt
atrtav,
n o L o d vT a o v v -
StareAet
K al
acfrrjprjfievov a n o
K al r a
ocofiaTCohes
to
tcov
GKeXrj aapKcoSrj
GKXrjpa T a OKeXrj e x o v a i v .
o n cos
to Aett o v p y o v v
fio p io v
O K en rj
fj
30n ep iT T co fia T o s,
a v ro is
ttjv
a n eS coK ev
fj
e n iK e n a i
nav,
KaTCo8evm S io n e p a vt'a^ta Kal
K a X o vfievrjv
<f>vois,
e v </>vXaKfj K al
ttjv
ovpav
dffreXofievq
eoSov toz5
K a l /cep/cov
Trjs e ls ra
GKeXrj y i y v o f ie v r js Tpo<j>rjs.
(fO Se nldrjKOs Sta to
f io p c f r r jv eVap,<oreptetv
/cat d fi< f> o T e p c o v , Sta t o v t
o vt
o v p a v eêt out* lo \ ia 3 cos f i e v StTrous* cov ovpav,
cos Se TTpanovs lo^ ia .)
Tw v Se KaXovfievcov KepKcov hia<f>opai r
eial
Kal
690 a
f ir jh e T e p c o v
ttjv
e tv a i
1 Kio Peck: cVei vulg.
386

the only animal that stands upright. Hence, Nature,
so as to make the upper parts light and easy to carry,
took off the corporeal matter from the top and trans
ferred the weight down below ; and that is how she
came to make the buttocks and the thighs and the
calves of the legs fleshy. At the same time, in
making the buttocks fleshy, Nature made them useful
for resting the body. Quadrupeds find it no trouble
to remain standing, and do not get tired if they
remain continually on their feetthe time is as good
as spent lying down, because they have four supports
underneath them. But human beings cannot remain
standing upright continually with ease ; the body
needs rest; it must be seated. That, then, is why
man has buttocks and fleshy legs, and for the same
reason he has no ta il: the nourishment gets used up
for the benefit of the buttocks and legs before it can
get as far as the place for the tail. Besides, the
possession of buttocks takes away the need and
necessity of a tail. But in quadrupeds and other
animals it is the opposite : they are dwarf-like, which
means that their heavy corporeal substance is in the
upper part of them and does not come into the lower
parts ; and as a result they have no buttocks and their
legs are hard. Yet to ensure that the part which
serves them for the discharge of the residue shall be
guarded and covered over, Nature has assigned to
them tails or scuts by taking off somewhat of the
nourishment which would otherwise go into the legs.
(The Ape is, in form, intermediate between the
two, man and quadruped, and belongs to neither, or
to both, and consequently he has no tail, qua biped,
and no buttocks, qua quadruped.)
There are numerous differences in the various tails,
N
387
ARISTOTLE
Da
ttX e io v s
K al rj c fr v a is
TCOV,
fJLOVO V T T p o s
OV
aAAa K a l T r p o s
5 Ot Se noSes
/lev
y a p
T T o X v o x & fj,
7T oX v
T T jV
tols
ea T i
(fr v o iv
o o o is
eS p aS ,
e x o v a iv .
ra
S ia c fr ep o v a iv
r a Se
Sta
K ep a rcov
TO
t o ls
S iy r jX a
fx e y e d o s
K a l
TOLOVTOV
r a Se
jX O p L O V
to
K a l
o S o v tco v
eX
e ls
af$V
avTt n X e t o v a j v o v v x < o v
10 e i s o v v g r j o T r A r j e a r tv.
/cat a a r p a y a A o v o e ota
to u to ou/c eôuatv c o s em ro ttoAu etVetv, /cat Sta1
TO S v G K L V 7 ]T O T p a V L V a i T 7 jV KafXTTTjV T O V O T T ia d e V
aTTO K pLG Lv,
Sta
O K T T 7 ]V T T j S
x p ija tv
/xev TeTpaTroai
a vT cbv
a /xev
eêtv avrt
OVVXOS
K al
K a l
p ic o v v x
y eco S es
TOV
(fr v X a K T jV
c b c fr e X e ia v
fjic b v v x c L
\ * \
T r a p a K a T a x p f jT a i K a i i n i t o v -
K a l
ttX
O K eX ovs a c T p a y a X o v
is
ev ov T os' daT T ov y a p
p. i a v
cSv c j a v e p a X X o T p i o v
S v a i , jSap o s /xev T r a p e x o v ,
r r jv f i a a i v .
Sta yap t o v t o
aoT payaX os
ifip e p X r jT a i
t o ls
ijX T T p o a O io is o v k
aoT payaX ov,
etvat Ta
r r jv
a0at
ev
ttX c lo v s ,
aAA ev
t o is
kcoX ov
tto lo v v
K a i cv
o t l
r a eôvTa
Set e X a c f r p a
eu/ca/XTrra, to S*
a a c fr a X e s K a l
e x o v G iv a cT T p a y a X o v
t o l s
r jy o v fJL e v a K a l
r a a iv
rj
y o p u fro s
a a c fr a X e o T e p a v
t o ls
exovra ya>vtav
a v o iy e T a i
/cat /cAeteTat Ta
20
ijd o s
om ad ev ,
om ad ev .
ifjifip iO e o T c p a v T r o ie i r r jv
eVt Se 77poj to a/xuvet t X r j y r j v T a Se rotauTa
to ls o m a d e v x p f j T a i k c o X o l s , Aa/CTtovTa to X v 7 t o v v .
T a Se StxÂa e x e i a a T p a y a X o v ( K o v c f r o r e p a y a p
r a o m a d e v ) , K a l Sta to eêtv aoTpayaAov /cat ou
pL covvxa
e a T iv ,
cos
to
e/cAe?77ov dcrTajSes1 e/c
tou
1 Kal Sia S U Z O gle : Sia vulg.
a The word used in the Greek is u part. See Introd. p. 28.

6 See Introduction, pp. 38-39.
388

which provide another example of Natures habit of
using an organ for secondary purposes, for she
employs the tail not only as a guard and covering for
the fundament but also in other serviceable ways.
There are differences too in the feet of quadrupeds. Hoof8, etc.
Some have a solid hoof, some a cloven h o o f; others
have a foot that is divided into several parts. Solid
hoofs are present in those animals which are large
and contain much earthy substance, which instead of
making horns and teeth forms an abscession6 so as
to produce nail, and owing to the abundance of it, it
produces not several separate nails but a single one,
in other words, a hoof. Because of this, these
animals in general have no hucklebone ; and also
because the presence of a hucklebone makes it
rather difficult to bend the hind leg freely, since a
limb that has one angle can be bent to and fro more
quickly than one that has several. It is a sort of
connecting-rod, and therefore practically interpolates
another bit of a limb between the two, thereby in
creasing the weight; but it makes the animals footing
more reliable. This explains why, when hucklebones
are present, they are present in the hind limbs
only, never in the front : the front limbs have to be
light and flexible because they go first, while the
hind limbs must be reliable and able to stretch.
Further, a hucklebone puts more force into a blowa
useful point in self-defenceand animals which have
one use their hind limbs in this way : if anything
hurts them they kick out at it.
Cloven-hoofed animals have a hucklcbone, as their
hind limbs are on the light side ; and that is the very
reason why they are cloven-hoofed : the bony sub
stance stays in the joint and therefore is deficient in
389
ARISTOTLE
690 s
7to8 os iv rfj Kafiifjet fiev ov. r a Se 7roXv$aKTvXa

epêt acJTpayaXov ov ya p av rjv TroXvSaKTvXa,
aAAa toctoutov io^ c^ ero to nXa tos ogov eVeêc
o aoT payaX os.
Sto feat t<3v exovTa>v auTov rd
TrXetw hixqXa.
25 owe
*0
avO pam os
/caTa
cos
opdov, w oT e
30 t o
to vs
o c o fia T o s
to
Kat
re
tw v
tw v
fie v
to
coo b f i a K p o v s
Kat
rj
(t w
X ^ P )>
Set
to v
fie X n o v
a o x io T o v
rj
5 o v firra Q e s
Kat
r jv
iv o s
to v t
T r jv
10 y a p
0>>
a v r r jv
>
ov
a tT ta v
G K e ir e o d a t
Kat
Ta
fie p e t
etva t
fie t^ o v 2
em
eox
aTOV*
to
yap
a ira v
av
io x io fie v w 2
ert
o fio lw s .
( a v ) jSAa7TT0tVT0.4
a vO p w T rw v,
ov
)
/
o v vx w v
oe
rr e p i-
ea ^ to # a t Se
o v fifia tv e i
tw v
tco v
me'etv, w a r e Set
T r o v r jo a v r o s ,
r jT T O V
\
to
e ic riv .
X o y o v
SaK T vX w v.
to
em
exet
jSejS^Kevai a cr< f> a X w s,
fio p io v
etva t
7 rX a T os*
iv a v r iw s
KaTa
Kat
fio p io v
7roAtcrxtSetS ot TroSes*
o r
Kat
tw v
fip a x e ts o v t c s
oaK TvA ot
e x e iv
K a fn r T O fie v w
to
7t o S o s
S ets* Sa/CTuAous"
Se
fir jK o s
a a x iG T v
eo T T fK e v
e e iv ir a v t o
epyov
yap
yap
ovTas
xetpwv
tco v
X a fifia v e iv
Se1 t o u t o
7Tpds
Set
eêt r w v cpa>v
fio v o v
Su
fiiX X o v T a s
fia p o s
e x e iv
X a fip a v e t
fie y io T o v s
evX oyw s*
S a K T v X w v S rj f i e y e O o s
tto B w v
yap
noBas
fie y e d o s ,
t w v
Sto
fia K p o /
yevos
o ia
x e t p w v exoucTtv* Set
t w v
a K p w T r jp ia
S ta
fia X to T a
T r jv
a o O eveta v.
Ile p t f i e v o v v t w v
Kal
7T^w v
S i v a t f iw v
e t p r jT a t
a>w
iv a tfiw v
cêSor
w o to k w v
w w v
T repl
Kat
tt& vtw v
Se T a f i e v
w o t o k w v
X I.
eert l
tw v
TCTpa-
1 npos Se Ogle : c&ore vulg.

2 ftelov Platt, T h .: vofilêtv vulg.
8 ioxiopevtt) Peck : -ov P Y : -cuv vulg. : -ov Ogle.
4 <av> Platt, Th. : ftXaTTToivro Y s ovfj,j3\dnToiVTo vulg.
390
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.-xi.

the foot. The polydactylous animals have no hucklebone, otherwise they would not be polydactylous,
and the divisions of the foot would cover only so
much width as the hucklebone itself. So most of
the animals which have a hucklebone are clovenhoofed.
Man of all the animals has the largest feet for his
size, and reasonably so, since he is the only one of
them that stands upright, and as the feet have to bear
the whole weight of the body and there are only
two o f them, they must be both long and broad.
Also the toes are short compared with the fingers,
and this too is reasonable. The business of the hands
is to take hold and to keep hold of things, and this is
done by means of that part of the hands which bends ;
therefore the fingers must be long. The business of
the feet is to get a firm and reliable footing ; and to
secure this the undivided part of the foot must be
greater than the toes. And it is better to have the
tip of the foot divided than not, for otherwise, if one
part were affected the whole foot would suffer as well,
whereas this is to some degree avoided by the divi
sion of the tip o f the foot into toes. Again, short
toes are less liable to injury than long ones would be.
Ail this indicates why the human foot has toes and
why they are short. There are nails on the toes for
the same reason that there are nails on the fingers :
the extremities have but little strength and there
fore specially need to be protected.
We have now dealt with practically all the blooded
animals that are viviparous and live on the land.
XI.
We now pass on to another class of blooded (() Ovipara:
animals, the oviparous, some of which have four feet, >dSerPents
3 Q ! quadrupeds.
ARISTOTLE
690 b
7roSa r a S a 7roSa.
toiovtov S iv fiovov yevos
ioTlv CL7TOVV, TO TWV 0<freWV 7f S CUTla T7)$ anoSlaS
aVTWV eipTfTCLL iv TOLS nepl TrjS nopelaS TWV %WWV
Siw piofievois. r a S aA A a napanXrjalav eêt ttjv
flOp<frr)V TOLS TTp<X7TOGl Kal WOTOKOLS
VE xet Se T a <pa TavTa KecfraXrjv fikv Kal Ta iv
avrrj fiopia Sta ras avras alrlas tois aXXois tois
20 ivalfiois wois, Kal yXwrrav iv tw (jTOfiari nXrjv
tov iroTafilov KpoKoSeiXov ovtos S ovk av Sofetev
ix iv aAAa ttjv \wpav fiovov. a m ov S oti Tponov
fiiv Tiva afia xepoaios Kal evvSpos io T iv Sta fikv
ovv t o xepo-atos* etvat eêt ^copav yXwTTrjs, Sta Se
t o evv&pos ayXwTTOS. ot yap IxOves, KaOanep etprj25 Tat nporepov, oi fiev ov Sokovolv e'xeiv, av firj cr<froS pa avaKXivrj tls, ol S ahiapOpwTOV exovoiv. ainov
S oVt oXlyrj tovtois XPla* TVS yXwTTrjs Sta t o /X17
ivhexôOat fiaoaoOa 1 firjSe npoyeveoOai, aAA ev tt}
Karanooei ylveaOai ttjv aiaOrjaiv Kal rrjv rjSovrjv
naai tovtois Trjs Tpocfrrjs. rj fiev yap yXwTTa twv
80 x vH'>v noiei Trjv aioOrjaiv, tw v Se iSeaTwv ev tjj
KaOoSw rj rfhovrj- KaTanivofievwv yap aloOavovrai
tw v Xinapwv Kal Oepfiwv Kal tw v aXXwv twv
tolovtwv.
ex*i fikv ovv Kal T a f<pOTO/ca r a vttjv
ttjv alaOrjaiv (/cat oêSov tw v 7rAetoTa>v otfrwv Kal
691 a iSeoTwv iv tjj Karanooei Tjj ra a ei tov oloocfrayov
ylverai rj x a p t s* Sto ovx ol avTol nepl Ta nofiara
Kal tovs Xvlx o oKpareis et01 Kal tol oijja Kal rrjv
15
2f y
1 u) ot 6k oi $ PU Y Z : w ot 6k oi $ vulg.
to vtois XP* S : rjv %peta to v to ls vulg. : ifv
delevi.
0 At De inc. an. 708 a 9 f f ; see also infra, 696 a 10.

b At 660 b 13-25.
392
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xi.

and some no feet at all. Actually there is only one
group that has no feet, the Serpents ; and the reason
why they have none has been stated in my treatise on
the Locomotion o f Animals.a In other respects their
conformation is similar to that of the oviparous
quadrupeds.
These animals have a head, and the parts that com
pose it, for the same reasons that other blooded
creatures have one, and they have a tongue inside the
mouthall except the river crocodilc, which appar
ently has none, but only a space for it ; and the reason
is that in a way he is both a land-animal and a wateranimal. In virtue of being a land-animal, he has a
space for a tongue ; as a water-animal, he is tongueless. This agrees with our previous statement,6 that
some fishes appear to have no tongue unless you pull
the mouth very well open, others have one which is
not distinctly articulated. The reason for this is that
these creatures have not much need for a tongue
because they cannot chew their food or even taste
it before they eat i t : they can perceive the pleasant
ness of it only while they are swallowing it. This
is because the perception of juices is effected by the
tongue ; whereas the pleasantness of solid food is
perceived while it is passing down the gullet, and
thus oily food and hot food and the like are per
ceived while they are being swallowed. Of course
the Vivipara as well as these creatures have this
power of perception (indeed, the enjoyment derived
from practically all edible dainties takes place while
they are being swallowed and is due to the distension
of the oesophaguswhich is why intemperate ap
petite for edible dainties is not found in the same
animals as intemperate appetite for drink and juices) ;
393
ARISTOTLE
iSw&rjv), aAAa rots* f iiv aXXois wois Kal rj K a ra
5 rrjv
y e v o iv in a p x ^ i a io O rjo is, eKeivois 8* avev

r a v rrjs fiov rj1 rj i r e p a .
tojv Si re rp a n o S w v Kal
w o t o k w v o l o a v p o i, w on ep Kal o l2 o<f>eis, 8 iKpoav
e x o v o i rrjv y X w rra v K al en* aKpov rp ix w S rj n a fin a v ,
KaOanep e ip rjra i n p o re p o v . e x o v o i 8 i Kal a l </)WKai
SiKpoav rrjv y X w r r a v Sio K al X ixva 3 n a v r a r a a>a
io
ecrn r a v r a .
" E o n Si Kal K a p xa p oS ovra r a
cootokcov,
w on ep
ol
IxOves.
re rp d n o S a rcov
ra
a loO rjrrjp ia
n a v r a ofioicos exovcn r o is aXXois w ois, otov rrjs

oocj)prjoecos fiVK rrjpas Kal oifsecos ocfrOaXfiovs Kal
aKorjs w ra , nXrjv o v k e n a v e o rrjK o ra , Kaddnep ox58
o l opviOes, aAAa r o v n op o v f io v o v a in o v S dficfro15 re p o is
rj r o v 8 e p fia ro s OKXrjporrjs' r d f iiv ya p

n re p c o ra avrcov e o n , r a v r a Si n a v r a (poXiScora,
e o n 8 rj cfroXls o fio io v X ^ P Q X eniSos, <j>voei Si
OKXtjporepov.
SrjXoi 8 e n l rcov x Xwvwv r o v r o
Kal e n l rw v fieyaXw v ocfrecov K al tojv n o ra fiic o v
K poK oSeiX w v lo x v p o re p a i ya p y iv o v ra i rcov o o rw v
20
cos o v o a i r o ia v r a i rrjv <j>voiv.

Ov/c e x o v o i S i r d a>a r a v r a rrjv avco f3Xecf>apiSa,
w o n ep o iS * o l opviOes, aAAa r f j Karco f iv o v o i Sia
r r jv a lr ia v rrjv elpijfievrjv e n eKeivcov. rcov f i i v ovv
opviOwv e vio i Kal o K a p S a fiv rro v o iv v fie v i k rcov
KavOcbv, r a v r a Se r d a>a ov O K a p S a fiv rre f OKXrjp-
25 o<f>0aXfi6repa ya p e o n rw v opviOwv.
a in o v 8 o n
eKeivois x P ^ o ifiw re p a rj o ijv w n ia * n rrjv o is o v o i n pos

1 8* aveu ravnjs fioirj P e e k : S* av fj axnrep fiovrj Y : 8*
aicmepavei v u lg . ; plurima hie transposuit O gle.
2 Kai o l Y : o t vulg.
$94

but whereas the rest of the animals have the power of
perception by taste as well, these are without it
and possess the other one only. Among oviparous
quadrupeds, lizards (and serpents too) have a twoforked tongue, the tips of which are as fine as hairs.
(This has been stated earlier.) Seals also have a
forked tongue. This forked tongue explains why all
these animals are so dainty in their food.
The four-footed Ovipara also have sharp interfitting
teeth, as Fishes have. Their sense-organs are all
similar to those of other animals : nostrils for smell,
eyes for sight, and ears for hearingthough their ears
do not stand o u t: they are merely a duct, as in
birds ; and in both groups the cause is the same, viz.
the hardness of their integument. Birds are covered
with feathers, and these creatures are all covered
with horny scales which correspond in position to the
scales o f fishes, but are harder in substance. This
is clearly illustrated by the tortoises, the great snakes,
and the river crocodiles, where the scales are made of
the same material as the bones and actually grow
stronger than the bones.
These animals, like birds, have no upper eyelid;
they close their eyes with the lower lid. The reason
which was given6 for birds applies to them too. Some
birds can also blink by means of a membrane which
comes out of the corner of the eye ; but these
animals do not do this, since their eyes are harder
than birds eyes. The reason for this is that keen
sight is of considerable use to birds in their daily
At 660 b 9.
b At 657 b 6 ff.
3 Xlyva Karsch: loxya vulg.

4 6vu )7tIcl
Kai to iroppco ttpoiBetv
UY.
395
ARISTOTLE
691 a
fU o v ,
tov
ra
tovtols
T O ia v r a
fjT T O V T p coyX oS vT a y a p 7TaVTa
(j t i v .
E ls Svo Se StJJPV^vrjs Trjs KecfraXrjs, t o v t avco

fiopiov Kal rrjs o ia y o v o s ttjs kcltco, avOpconos fiev1
Kal Ta cooroKa to>v TeTpanoScov Kal avco Kal Karco
so Kivovai Tas a ia yova s Kal els t o n X ayiov, ot S
iX@ves Kal opviOes Kal r a cooToKa tcov TeTpanoScov
els t o avco Kal kcltco fiov ov . atrtov S o t i rj fiev
691 b roiavTrj Kivrfais xprfoifios els t o SaKtv Kal SieXeiv,
ff S els t o nXdyiov en l t o Xealveiv. t o l s fiev ovv
e xov a i yofjicfrlovs xp^crtjuos' V k T nXayiov Kivrfais,
t o i s Se firj exova iv ovSev xprjaifios, Sionep acfrrjprjTai
navTcov tcov t o l o v t c o v ovSev ya p n oiei n eplepyov ff
5 cfrvais.
r a fiev ovv aA A a Travra Kivei ttjv a iayova
Trjv KaTCO, o Se n ord fiios KpoKoSeiXos fiovos t t )v avco.
t o v t o v S atrtov o rt n pos r o Aa/Jetv Kat KaTaaxeiv
axprfOTovs ex ei t o v s n o S a s* fiiKpol y a p elai n a fin a v .
n p os ovv TavTas Tas XPâs ^vri noScov t o OTOfia
rj cfrvais xP7l(JLlJLOV ovrco enoirjaev.
n pos Se r o
10 KaTaaxeiv rf XafSeiv, onorepcoOev av ff rf nXrfyrj
laxvpoT epa, ravrrj xp yoificorep a Kivovfievrj e a n v
rf Se nXrfyfj la xvp orep a del avcoOev fj KarcoOev* en el
ovv aficfrorepcov fiev Sta t o v a r o fia ro s rf XPV*7L$> K a 'L
Xafieiv Kal t o v SaKeiv, avayK aiorepa S rf t o v
15 KaTaaxeiv fiffre x e tp o s e'xovn fiffre 7rdSaj eixfrveis,
XprjaificoTepov ttjv avcoOev Kiveiv a ia yov a ff Trjv
KarcoOev avroTs. Sta ro a v ro Se Kal ol KapKivoi
t o avcoOev Trjs XV^V5 k l v o v o l fiopiov, aAA ov t o
KarcoOev avrt x LP$ 7^P exov a i r a s XyXas, w are
n p os t o AajSetv aAA ov n p os t o SieXeTv xP'Qoifiov
1 f i b ovv vulg.: /xev Y 2 ,
tov
396

life, because they fly about; but it would be very
little good to these creatures, because they all spend
their time in holes and corners.
Their head has two divisions : the upper part, and
the lower jaw. In man and in the viviparous
quadrupeds the lower jaw moves from side to side as
well as up and down ; in fishes, however, and birds
and these oviparous quadrupeds it moves up and
down only. The reason is that this vertical motion is
useful for biting and cutting up food, while the
sideways motion is useful for grinding the food down.
O f course this sideways motion is useful to animals
which possess grinder-teeth; but it is of no use to
those which lack grinders, and so not one of them
has it. Nature never makes or does anything that is
superfluous. All these animals, then, move the lower
jawwith one exception, the river crocodile, which
moves the upper jaw, and the reason for this is that
his feet are no use for seizing and holding things :
they are too small altogether. So Nature has given
him a mouth which he can use for these purposes
instead of his feet. And when it comes to seizing
things and holding them, the most useful direction
for a blow to take is that which gives it the greatest
strength. Now a blow from above is always stronger
than one from below. And to an animal who has no
hands and no proper feet, who has to use his mouth
for seizing his food as well as for biting it, the power
to seize it is the more necessary ; and therefore it is
more useful to him to be able to move his upper jaw
than his lower one. For the same reason crabs move
the upper part of their claws and not the lower :
claws are their substitute for hands, so the claws have
to be useful for seizing things (not for cutting them
397
ARISTOTLE
69120b Set
elvat rrjv xyXrfv r o Se SteXetv Kal Sa/cetv oSovrcov epyov ecrrtv. rots fiev ovv KapKtvots Kal rots
aAAots Scots evSexerat crxoXalcos TroieiaOai rrjv
Xfjifjtv Sta rd firf ev vypcp etvat rrjv xPVaLV T0^
(jrofiarosy Strjprjrat, Kal Xafifidvovai fiev XPCrtv V
rroal, Staipovat Se rco a r o fia n Kal SaKvovatv rots
25 Se KpoKoSetXots err' aficfrorepa xprfvip-ov T oro fia
7T7rotr)Kev rj cfrvats, Ktvovfievcov ovrco rcov atayovcov.
*E x
ov at
Se
K al
T r X e v fio v a
e x e iv
a p r rjp ia s
fir jK o s
av x ev a
T ravra
S exovrat
y ap
rd
ro
ro ta v ra
r r v e v fia
S ta
Sta
ro
r r js
e x o v a r js .
1 E7ret Se ro fieraî) KecfraXrjs Kal coficov /ceVArjrat
avxtfv, rjKtara rcov rotovrcov o ocfrts Soijetev av

exeiv avx&va, aAAa t o avaAoyov rco avêvt, et ye
Set rots elprjfievois eaxdrots Sioplt>eiv r o fiopiov
r o v ro .
t'Stov Se TTpos ra avyyevrj rcov a>a>v
692 a vrrapxet rots ocfreat ro arpecfreiv rrjv KecfraXrjv els
rovm adev rjpefiovvros ro v Xotvov acofiaros. a m o v
S o ti KaOarrep rd evrofia eXtKrov ea n v, ware
evKafiTTrovs ex^tv Kal xvSpcoSets rovs arrovSvXovs.
e avayKrjs fiev ovv Sta ra vrrjv rrjv atrtav tou to
5 avfiêprjKev a vrots , ro v Se fieXrtovos eveKev rrpos
cfrvXaKrjv rcov omadev fSXaTrrovrcov fiaKpov yap ov
Kal arrow acfrves e a n rrpos re rrjv arpocfrrjv Kal rrpos
t t j v rcov omadev rrfp rja tv ouSev yap ocfreXos atpeiv
fiev, arpecfreiv Se firj SvvaaOai rrjv KecfraXrjv. exovai
Se r a ro ta v ra Kal rco arrfOei avaAoyov fiopiov.
10fiaarovs S o v k exovaiv o v r 5 evravOa o v r ev rco
aAAco acbfian, ofioicos S ouS opvts, ov S IxOvs
ovSeis.
a in o v Se to firjSe yaXa eêtv r o v r cov
30
1 hinc usque ad 695 a 22 varia codd.; text. vulg. exhibui.

398

up : this, and biting, is the business of the teeth).
In crabs, then, and in other creatures which, because
their mouth does not come into action while under
water, can take their time about seizing their food,
the labour is divided : they seize their food with
their hands or feet, and cut it up and bite it with
the mouth. For the crocodile, however, by making
the jaws move as I have described, Nature has
constructed a mouth which can be used for both
these purposes.
All these animals have also a neck ; this is because
they have a lung and there is a long windpipe through
which they admit the breath to it.
Since the neck is the name given to the part of
the body between the head and the shoulders, the
serpent would appear to be the very last of these
creatures to possess one : at any rate, if the neck is
to be defined by the limits mentioned above, he has
merely something analogous to a neck. Compared
with kindred animals, serpents have this peculiarity :
they can turn their heads backwards while the rest of
the body remains still. The reason is that their body
(like an insects) can roll up; the vertebrae are cartila
ginous and flexible. This, then, is the necessary cause
why they have this ability; but it serves a good purpose
too, for it enables them to guard against attacks from
the rear, and with their long bodies devoid of feet
they are ill adapted for turning themselves round to
keep watch over the rear. To be able to raise the
head and yet unable to turn it round would be useless.
These animals have also a part which is a counter
part to the breast. But they have no mammae either
here or elsewhere ; nor have any of the birds or fishes.
This is because the mammae are receptacles, vessels,
399
ARISTOTLE
692 a
f ir f d e v
Se
f ia a r o s
v n o S o x j}
Kal
coanep
a y y e io v
yaAa S o v k eêt o v r e r a v r a o v r
aAAo ovSev r c o v fir] C w o t o k o v v t c o v i v a v r o t s , 8i o n
ia n
ya X a K ro s.
c o o r o K o v a iv ,
ro ts
iv
C c o o t o k o is
15 o r e p o v
Se
yeveoecos
Trepl
Be rco
coco
i)
ya X a K rco S q s
a v rco v
n e p l Se r r j s
rpocfrrj
iy y t v e r a t
vzra p x o va a .
X e x O q a era i
iv
ro ts
ev
aa<f>enepl
r c o v o K e X t b v 1 K a f iip e c o s e v
r o l s n e p l n o p e ia s n p o r e p o v in e a K e n r a i K o iijj n e p l
n a vrco vr
vE\/oi'cr{ Se Kal KepKov ra r o ia v r a , ra fiev fieilco

r a S iX arrco, vnep ov rrjv a ir iav KaOoXov nporepov
elp^Kafiev.
20 Icrxvoraros* S o xafiaiX ew v rcov cootokcov Kal
neCcov i a r i v oX iyaifiorarov yap i a n navrcov. ra v ro
S a in o v r o v rrjs f a x * ) * t) & v s ea rl r o v LcLov* noXv fio p io v yap yiveraL Sia rov cfroftov, o Se <f>ofios
Karaipvis St oX iyaifiorq ra i a n Kal evSeiav depfiorrjros692 b Ilept fiev ovv rd>v evaificov lcocov rcov re anoScov
Kal rerpanoScovs oaa fiopia ra e/cro? e^'Ct Kal Sta
riva s a lria s , eiprjrai aêSor.
X I I . Ev Se rot? opviaiv rj npos aXXrjXa Siacf>opa
iv r ij rcov fiopicov ia r lv vnepoxfi Kal iXXeiipei Kal
5 K a ra r o fiaXXov Kal rjrrov. elol yap avrcov o i fiev
fiaKpoGKeXels o i Se fipaxvoKeXets, Kal rrjv yXcorrav
o i fiev nXaretav exovaiv o i Se arevnjv ofioicos Se
Kal in i real' aAAau1 fiopicov. ISia Se fiopia o Alya
1 OKcXajy PZ, Ogle : KafirrvAcov oneAa/v Y : KafnrvXcov vulg.
8 rept Se . . . TraiTan* fortasse secludenda.
8 correxit Peck. cf. 667 a l l seqq.: rovrov 8 cu n or ro J}9os
rov LU)0V t o rrjs 6v\ijs vulg. : atrtov Se ro rijs 'bvtfis tfOos i a n v
avro PSUZ : sed fortasse haec verba secludenda.
400
x i. - x ii.
as it were, for the milk, and none of these creatures

has any milk. Neither has any of the other animals
that are not internally viviparous ; the reason is that
as they produce eggs the milky nutriment which they
contain goes into these eggs. A more detailed
aecount of these matters will be given in the treatise
on Generation. With regard to the way in which they
bend their legs, a general account, including all
animals, has already been given in the treatise on
the Locomotion o f Animals.b
These creatures have a tail, some a large one, some
a small one. We have already given the reason for
this as generally applicable.0
Among the oviparous land-animals, the chameleon
has the least flesh on him ; this is because he has
least blood, and the same reason is at the root of the
animal's habit of soulhe is subjeet to fear (to which
his many changes in appearance are due), and fear is
a process of cooling produced through scantincss of
blood and insufficiency of heat.d
This fairly concludes our account of the external
parts o f the blooded animals both footless and fourfooted, and of the reasons thereof.
X II.
We now pass on to Birds. As among themselves, they differ in their parts in respect of the
more and less, and excess and defect e e.g., some of
them have long legs, some short ones ; some have
a broad tongue, some a narrow on e ; and similarly
with the other parts. Thus, as among themselves
A t 752 b 16 ff.
b A t 712 a 1 ff.
See also below, 693 b 3, and additional
note on that passage, p. 433.
c A t 689 b i f f .
d Compare the passages at 650 b 27 and 667 a 11 ff.
* See 644 a 19, and introductory note on p. 19.
401
(ii.) Birds,
ARISTOTLE
692 b
S ia c fr e p o v r a
Kal
rfj
e x o v a iv
fio p c frfj r c o v
10 f i e v o v v a n a v r e s
ra
aX X cov.
r a Se
ea n
a X X r jX w v ' n p o s
fio p ic o v
e la iv ,
yap
fio p ia
c fr o X iS w r a
n re p w ro l.
Kal
to
Se
aAAa
ra
S ia c fr e p o v a iv .
Kal
t o v t
r a Se
w w v
tcov
tStov
Ta
X e n iS w r a ,
ja
n rep w rol
exovai
fie v
ol
tcov
r p le u r a
o p v iO e s
7T T e p o v a x i C F T o v K a l ox>x o f i o i o v
etSet t o i s o X o n r e p o i s * r w v f i e v y a p dVîorov
Se a x ^ c r r o v e a n , K a l t o f i e v a K a v X o v , r o S
exî K avX ov.
e x o v a i Se K a l e v r f j K ecfra X fj n e p i r r r j v
t w
rw v
15
Kal
iS io v
r r jv
fie v
yap
e X e c f r a a iv
e v ro fiw v
rov
e v io is
pvyxovs
rf
S a v
oS ovrw v
nepl
Se
rw v
c fr v a iv
fiv K r r jp
yX w rra
d vrl
K a l )(e i X w v
a la d r jr r jp lw v
npos
av n
to
rd X X a r o is
x LP & v > T & v
a r o fia r o s ,
pvyxos
e ip r jr a i
8*
t o v t o is
oa n vov
o v .1
n porepov.
A v x e v a S exei rera fievo v rfj cfrvaei, K al Sta rifv

avrrfv a lr la v rjvnep K a l raAAa* Ka l to v to v r a fiev
fipaxvv r a Se fiaKpov, K a l ax^Sov aKoXovdov ro is
aKeXeai r a n X e ia ra .
ra
fiev ya p fiaKpoaKeXrj
fiaKpov r d Se fipaxvaKeXfj fipaxvv ex*i ro v avxeva,
Xcopls rw v a re y a v o n o S w v r d fiev y a p el etê /?pa693 a xvv enl aKeXeai fia K p o is, o v k av vnrjperei a v ro is o
a v x t y npos ttjv ano r ijs y rjs vofirfv, ro ts S el
fiaKpos rjv enl fip axeaiv. e n Se2 rots' Kpewcfrayois
a vrw v v n evavrlov dv yv* ro firjKos npos ro v filov'
6 o ya p fiaKpos avrrfv daOevtfs, t o is S o filo s eK
ro v Kpareiv e a n v . Sionep ovSev t w v yafiifrwvvxcov
fiaKpov exei ro v a vxeva. rd Se a re ya vo n o S a Kal
( r d y Strjprffievovs fiev exo vra ro v s n o S a s a e a ifiw 20
402
ov Y , O g le : om. vulg.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xn.

they have few parts which differ from one to another.
But as compared with other animals, they differ in
respect of the form of their parts. One peculiarity
of the birds is that they all have feathers, whereas
in other animals the parts are covered with hair, or
scales, or horny plates. A birds feather is split, and
therefore different in form from the wing of certain
insects, which is undivided ; as well as having a shaft,
whereas the insects have none. Another peculiarity
of birds is the beak, an extraordinary appendage to
the head. It is made of bone, and serves them
instead of teeth and lips, just as the elephants trunk
takes the place o f hands, and the tongue of certain
insects replaces a mouth. We have spoken already
of the sense-organs.
Birds have a neck which sticks up, and for the same
reason that other creatures have one. Some have a
long neck, some a short one : in most of them it corre
sponds in length fairly closely to the legs, so that the
long-legged birds have a long neck and the short
legged birds a short neck (web-footed birds excepted.)
What assistance in getting food out of the ground
would a short neck be to a bird on long legs, or a long
neck to a bird on short legs ? Furthermore, the
carnivorous birds would find a long neck a real dis
advantage in their daily life. These birds depend
for their livelihood on superior strength, and length
of neck means lack of strength ; so no crook-taloned
bird has a long neck. Web-footed birds, how
ever, together with others in the same class whose
In Book II. chh. 12 ff.
2
bk
Lan gkavel: y e X b i om. vulg.

a v f y P Y b % Ogle : om. vulg.
* <ra> Ogle.
403
ARISTOTLE
693 a
fievovs Be Kal1 ev rw avrw yevei ovra ro ls oreyavo7wat, rov fiev avxeva fiaKpov exovoiv (xprjaifios
yap rotovros cov TTpos rrjv rpocfrrjv rrjv c/c rod
10 vypov), r a Be oKeXrj npos rrjv vevoiv fipaxea.
Atacfropav S c^ci Kal ra pvyxV K a r a rovs fiiovs.
r a fiev yap evOv exei r a Be yafiifrov, evOv fiev ooa
rpocfrrjs eveKev, yafiifrov Be r a wfiocfraya* xpTô-t/xov
yap npos ro Kparelv r o ro to v ro v , rrjv Be rpocfrrjv
avayKalov ano tptov noplêaOat, K a l r a noXXa
15 fitaôfievots. S c f lo v 8 eXeios o fitos Kal noocfrayos,
nXarv r o pvyxos exovaiv- npos re yap rrjv opv^tv
Xprjaifiov r o ro to v ro v Kal npos rrjv rrjs rpocfrrjs
anaatv Kal Kovpav. evta Be K a l fiaKpov c ^ t ro
pvyxs t c o v t o l o v t c o v , wanep K a l t o v avxeva, Sta
t o Xafifiaveiv rrjv rpocfrrjv eK ro v fiaOovs.
Kal ra
7ToAAa rcov t o l o v t c o v K a l t c o v areyavonoBwv rj
20 anXtos rj Kara2 fiopiov3 Orjpevovra fj rcov ev ra)
vypcv evia wBapiwv K a l yiverat ro ls rotovrots o
fiev a v x fy KaOanep aXievrals o4 KaXafios, t o Sc
pvyxos olov rj5 opfit a K a l r o ayKiarpov.
T a Sc npavrj ro v aw fiaros Kal ra iin rta , Kal ra
ro v K aXovfievov OwpaKos enl rw v rerpanoBwv,
25 oXocfrvrjs o ron os enl rw v opviOwv e a r iv Kal exovaiv
anrjprrjfievas a vrl rw v fipaxiovwv Kal rw v aKeXwv
693 b rw v npoaOiwv 6 t<x? nrepvyas, i'Btov n
fiopiov,
Bionep a vrl wfionXarrjs ra reXevrala enl ro v vwrov
rw v nrepvycov exovaiv.
2iKeXrj 8c KaOanep avOpwnos Bvo, /cc/ca/z/zcVa
1 Kai Y 6, Ogle : a>s vulg.
2 K a r a Y , Ogle : K a r a t o vulg.
3 post f i o p i o v habet r a v r o vulg.:
coni. Ogle.
404
ra vra
S:
ra v ra
P:
to v to is
x ii.
feet though divided into toes yet are fashioned like

a snub-nosea these have long necks, because a long
neck is useful to them for getting food out of the
water. Their feet, on the contrary, are short so that
they can swim.
Birds' beaks also differ according to their different
habits of life. Some beaks are straight, some curved ;
straight if they are used simply for feeding, curved if
the bird eats raw meat, because a curved beak is
useful for overpowering their prey, and such birds
have to get their food from animals, most often by
force. Those whose life is spent in swamps and are
herbivorous have broad beaks, which are useful for
digging and pulling up their food and for cropping
plants. Some of them, however, have a long beak and
a long neck as well, because they get their food from
some depth. Practically all these birds and the com
pletely or partially web-footed ones live by preying
upon certain of the tiny water-animals, and their
neck is to these birds what his fishing-rod is to an
angler, while their beak is like a line and hook.
The under and the upper sides of the body (i.e. of
what is called the trunk in quadrupeds) are in birds
one uninterrupted whole. Instead of arms and fore
legs they have wings attached to this part (wings are
another peculiarity), and hence, instead of having the
shoulder-blade on their back they have the ends of
the wings there.
Birds, like men, have two legs, which are bent in According to Ogle, this means that the main stem of the
toe corresponds to the ridge of the nose, and the lobes on
either side of it to the flattened nostrils.
* aXievrais 6 PQSU : aXuvrtKOS o Yb : aAtcim/co? Z , vulg.
* rj Y6 : om. vulg.
6 sic Y b, Ogle : dmjpr. yap avrl et mox xovat Post vpoaOttov
vulg.
405
ARISTOTLE
693 b
K aO anep r a
T erp a n oS a
Se
nos
2 w
ra s
TW V
TCTpanO^W V,
a v a y K r js
o v o ia
ia r tv
, a fia
K iv e ir a t
7Tt T O
tw v
Se
a r r r jp T T f f i e v a
rj T C T T a p o i
fio p ia
n p o o O ia
rj
, Ta
to v
o r )fie to ts ,
rerra p a ,
O K eX r)
St770t>l' S* e f
e v a ifiw v
n rep vyw ros
/cat tois *
w on ep avO pw -
ra
w s
7 T p l(f) p S .
yap
Kal
n X e io o iv
rots* Treôt?
e io w , K a l o v \
n rep vya s,
w onep
ra
ov
fie v
ovv
aAAo is*
to is
eo rt
n o p e v T iK o is ,
o p v iO o s
e v a ifia
Kal
to is
10 o p v i o i v aA A a Tot? f i e v P p a ^ i o v e s K a l O K e X r ) t t o i s Se
T e T p a n o o i1 O K eX r)
a vrl
rw v
to
iS io v
o p v iO i
e o n v
ev
T rj
H r r jO o s
ov
fie v
aepa
to
ov
K aO anep
to is
ovv
Ta
K iv r jo o v T
e x o v o iv
t r )v
fie v
o r r jO o s
fio p ia
rerp a n ooi
e o n v
O/xâAov
etcrt,
eo n v.
etvat*
tw
w ore
o vtw
yap
tw v
n rep vyw v.
o i>
Kal
oapK w Ses,
( t <z
e V rt),
yap
n X a rea
oapK w $es
noX vv
Se, StOTt
eôv O K e n r jv .
K o iX la
Kal
n rep vyes
to v ik o i2
fie r a
a n a vres
S v o K iv r jr a
tw v
at
n r r jo iv
n e p ir r w fia r o s
T a fu
yap
n r r jr iK o v
a o O e v e s fir ) n o X X r fv
' I V o Se to
20 t o u
to
S o p v io iv
to is
fip a x io v w v
e d v a y K r )s S i n o o i v
npos
w O ovvra
fj
ra vra s
o v o ia
O T ffie io is
v n a p x ^ iy
O K eX w v
K a ra
X e in e r a i a v r o ts
15 r e r r a p o i
T erra p a
n p o o O tw v
t f )V
Kal
n repvyw v
fie x p i
tw v
to is
/cat
rrp os
rrfv
O K eX w v
eoS o v
K a fin r fv ,
a v O p w n o is .
tw v
fie -
O K eX w v r a v r a
iv
fie v
T rj
yeveoei
a n a vra
eêt
1 sic PY6, Ogle : OKeXr), t o l s Se rerp. om. vulg.

2 7tt7)tlkol conieci ; idem Th. ( volatiles Gaza).
For an explanation of Aristotles terminology on this
subject see additional note on p. 433.
6 The chief difficulty in translating this passage is due to
the word t o v l k o l , a jargon-adjective in -i/co's-, which seems to
have been suggested to Aristotles mind by the similar adjec406
x ii.
wards as in the quadrupeds, not outwards as in man.

The wings are bent with the convex side outwards,
like the forelegs of quadrupeds. It is inevitable that
a bird should have two feet, for (a) it belongs essenti
ally to the blooded creatures and ( b) it is winged,
and (c) four is the greatest number of motionpoints which a blooded creature can have. So there
are four parts (or limbs) attached to a bird's body,
and this corresponds exactly with the other blooded
creatures, viz. those that live and move upon the
ground. The only difference is that whereas the
latter have two arms and two legs (or, if they are
quadrupeds, four legs), the peculiarity of birds is
that they have wings instead of arms (or forelegs).
As its very essence includes the power to fly, a
bird must have something which it can stretch out,
and wings provide this.6 So it remains that of ne
cessity a bird shall have two feet: these with the two
wings bring up the number of its motion-points
to four.
All birds have a sharp-edged, fleshy breast:
sharp-edged, for flying (a wide surface displaces so
much air that it impedes its own motion) ; fleshy,
because a sharp-edged thing is wêak unless it has
a good covering.
Below* the breast is the stomach, which extends (as
in the quadrupeds and in man) as far as the residual
vent and the point where the legs join the body.
Those are the parts, then,wrhich have their situation
betw een the wings and the legs.
Birds, in common with all animals which are protive TtT-qTiKov in the next line. Literally* the passage reads:
for it is at these [viz. the wings] that birds are stretchable ;
and flight-ability is included in the essence of a bird.
407
ARISTOTLE
693 b oaairep
^cooroKeirai fj cboroKeTrai, rcov S opviOwv

avr)Oevrcov aSrjXos. fj S atria 8fjXrj iv rot? 7Tpl
25 yeveaiv- els ya p t o evrepov rj avficfrvais y iv er a i, K a i
ov\ coarrep r o is cooroKois rcov cfrXeficov rt fiopiov
eanv.
*'Ert ra)v opviOcov ot /zev rrrrjriKol Kal r a s rrrepvyas
694 a fieyaX as eôw i Kal laxvpas, otov o l yafiifrcovvxes
Kal chfiocfrayoi avayKrj ya p rrrrjriKOVS1 elvai Sia rov
fiiov, dbaO eveKa r o v r o v Kal TrXfjOos exova i Ttrepcov
Kal rd s n rep v y a s fieyaX as. e a n S ov fiovov rd
5 yafufjcbvvxa aAAa Kai aAAa yevrj opviOcov TrrrjriKa,
oa ois fj acorrjpla ev rfj r a x v r r jn rrjs Trrfjoeajs fj
eK rom ariK os o filos.
evia S ov TTrrjriKa ra>v
opviOcov e a n v aAAa jSapea, ols 6 /3ios irriyeios Kal
e a n Kaprrocfraya f) nXcora Kal rrepl v8wp fiiorev ov aiv.
e a n Se r a fiev rcov yafufrcovvxôv acofiara
fiiKpa a vev2 rcov rrrepvycov Sia to els ra v ra s* avaXioKeaOai rrjv rpocfrrjv (#cat)4 els r d onXa Kal rfjv
10 fiorjOeiav r o is Se firj nrrjriKols r o v v a v n o v r d acofia ra oyKco8rj, Sio fiapea e a r iv . exov a i S eViot
rcov fiapecov fiofjOeiav avrl rcov n repvycov r d KaXovfieva5 TrXrjKrpa em r o is oKeXeaiv. afia S ot a v rol
ov yiv ov ra i TrXrjKrpa e x o v res Kal yafiifrcovvxes
is a in o v S o t i ouSev fj cfrvais Troiei rrepiepyov. e a n
Se ro is fiev yafiifrcovvxois Kal rrrrjriKois axpTjara rd
P, Rackham : iTTrjriKa Y6 : vttjtikois Z t vulg.
2 post avev habent raiv rrrepdw Kal Yb.
1 irrrjTiKovs
3 eis ravraS Q S U ^ : ivravOa vulg.
4 </cai> Ogle.
5 desinit Z.
This passage must be supplemented by reference to others

(such as Degen. an. 753 b 20 ff., and Hist. An. 561 b), in which
Aristotle speaks of two umbilici or umbilical cordsi.e. he
recognized the allantois as well as the umbilical vesicle. He
408
x ii.
duced alive or out of eggs, have an umbilicus while

they are developing, but when they are more fully
grown it ceases to be visible. The reason for this is
clear from what happens during their development:
the umbilical cord grows on to the intestine and
unites with it, and does not form a part of the system
of blood-vessels, as it does in the Vivipara.
The good fliers have big strong wings, e.g. the
birds which have crooked talons and feed on raw
m eat: these must be good fliers owing to their habits
of life, and so they have an abundance of feathers and
big wings. But there are other sorts of birds wrhich are
good fliers beside these : birds whose safety lies in
their speed of flight ; and migrants. Some birds are
poor fliers : heavy birds, which spend their time on
the ground and feed on fruits ; or birds that live on
and around the water. The crook-taloned birds, leav
ing out of account their wings, have small bodies, be
cause the nutriment is used up to produce the wings
and w eapons of offence and defensive armour. The
poor fliers, on the contrary, have bulky, and therefore
heavy, bodies. Some of these instead of wings have
as a means of defence spurs on their legs. The
same bird never possesses both spurs and talons, and
the reason is that Nature never makes anything that
is superfluous or needless. Spurs are of no use to a
states that in the birds egg, as the embryo grows, the allantois
(the second umbilicus *) collapses first and then the first
umbilicus (De gen. an. 754 a 9). Actually the reverse
order is the correct one, but the interval is comparatively
short. The umbilical vesicle in mammals, which shrivels
very early in the process of development, escaped the notice
of Aristotle, who supposed their allantois to be comparable to
the umbilical vesicle of reptiles and birds. The umbilical
vesicle of mammals was discovered by Needham in 1667.
(See Ogles note ad loc.)
409
ARISTOTLE
694 a
nXrjKT p a *
Sto
xp^crijua
vnapxî
tw v
axp^crTOt aAAa
fio v o v
eartv
yap
ivio is
i v r a i s ire ^ a is fia x c u s ,
K al
im
ya fiijjw vvxcL
n e r p a is
ov
to v to ls
K al ftX afiepol o i ya fiip o l
t w i f i n r jy v v o O a i VT reva vrloi n p o s
20 Sto K al r a
S o v
oviê?
t t jv n o p e la v ovt?.
<f)avXa >? n o p e v e r a i
f ia p e w v -
n a vra
K a O i^ a v o v o iv
v n e v a v r ia
yap
a v r o t s n p o s afi<f)6repa rj t w v o v v % w v <f>vois.
9E
to
yap
v o v 1 x p T jo if ia
fie v
pvev
Se
25 a v
rw v
Se
a v a y K r js
K ev.
noSw v
aXXoOi
fio p ia
pvyxovs
K a rw
Kal
o n w fie v r j
p v f j,
694 b
k o s
t w v
t w v
y lv e r a i
Aaiv
otov
r o is
iv
Kal
rj
evtot? S avrt r o v r w v
K a l Sta r o v r o
o v f ip e f ir ji o p fiw fie -
a X K r jv * a v w
fj
fie y e O o s ,
O K e X e a iv
lo x v v .
rovrw v
OK eX w v
anXw s
r r jv
ro is
y lv e ra i
Se
n o S w v
< f )v o i v ,
npos
o K X r jp o r r jr a
e/caora
S ir jp r jf ie v r jv f i e v e x o v o i
o w fia n
fie y e O o s
a o O e v r js
o p v iO w v o i fie v
r r jv y e v e a iv
t w
n X r jK T p a
aXXoO i
yap
iv
in o ir jo e
dvvxw v
n e p ir r w fia r o s .
nepl
to vto
yew Ses
ov
< j> v o is
fj
in i
S
Sta-
a fia
n o ie i*
rovrov
rov
K a ra oK eva êi
fir j-
o v fin X r jp o i
to
fie T a v
a v a y K a lw s
oi
n X w rol
e lo l
Se
Sa/cru-
oreya von oS es, o i
r r j v K a O 5 e/caora
t w v
eK a orw
S a v r w v n p o o n e < j > V K e v
oAov o w e x t f s .
E avayKrjs fiev ovv ra v ra ovfij3atvei Sta ra v ra ?
rd? a lrla s ' ws Se Sta rd jSeArtov exovoi t o i o v t o v s
t o v s noSas ro v j8t<ov x^ P LV* *va <Svt? ev vypw K al
t w v nrepvywv2 axpelwv ovr wv rovs noSas XP7)0
fiovs extool npos rrjv vevoiv. ytvovrat yap wonep
n X a rrj
npos
KaO*
1 igopfitbfxevov P e c k : Kal egopfxov k tovtov tol V 6 :

f o r t a s s e eôp/iarat Kal k tovtov t o ,
2 TTTepvycov Y6, O g l e : vTeptuv v u l g .
L a n g k a v e l;
410
c fa >
pvev
x ii.
bird that has talons and can fly w ell: spurs are useful
for fights on the ground, and that is why certain o f
the heavy birds possess them, while talons would not
be merely useless to them but a real disadvantage :
they would stick in the ground and impede the birds
when walking. And in fact all crook-taloned birds
do walk badly, and they never perch upon rocks ;
in both instances the nature of their claws is the
impediment.
This state of affairs is the necessary result of the
process of their development. There is earthy sub
stance in the bird's body which courses along and
issues out and turns into parts that are useful for
weapons of offence. When it courses upwards it
produces a good hard beak, or a large one ; if it
courses downwards it produces spurs on the legs or
makes the claws on the feet large and strong. But
it does not produce spurs and large claws simul
taneously, for this residual substance would be
weakened if it were scattered about. Again, some
times this substance makes the legs long ; and in
some birds, instead of that, it fills in the spaces be
tween the toes. Thus it is o f necessity that waterbirds either are web-footed, simply, or (if they have
separate toes) they have a continuous fan or blade,
as it were, running the whole length of each toe and
of a piece with it.
From the reasons just stated it is clear that feet
of this sort are the result of necessity, it is true ; but
they conduce to a good end and are meant to assist
the birds in their daily life, for these birds live in the
water, and while their wings are useless to them,
these feet are useful and help them to swim. They
See above, note on 648 a 16.
o
411
ARISTOTLE
694 b
10 at
K c o n a t r o l s n X e o v a t K a l 1 tcl n r e p v y i a r o i s l x @ v a t v Sto Kat eav r c o v f i e v r a t t t p v y ta a < f> a X fj, r c o v

Se t o f i e r a v r c o v n o S c o v , o v K e r i v e o v a t v .
vEvtot Se f i a K p o a K e X e l s r c o v o p v i O c o v e l a i v . a i n o v
S ort o f i i o s t c o v t o l o v t c o v e X e t o s * r a S o p y a v a
r r p o s t o e p y o v r j < f> v a is n o t e t , aAA* o v t o e p y o v n p o s
15 Ta o p y a v a .
Sta f i e v o v v t o f i r j n X c o r a etvat o v
a r e y a v o n o S a eort, Sta Se t o ev v n e i K o v T i etvat t o v
j8tov f i a K p o c T K e X r j K a l f i a K p o S a K T v X a , K a l r a s K a u
n a s
ex ov ai
avrcov.
S X r js i a n
20 ets Ta
Kat ev
n X eio v s
in e l
ov
iv
r o is
n T T \ r iK a
et?
n a v r a , 77
S a K T v X o is
o v p o n v y io v
to
m r ja e t
avr*
noX X ol
rp o < j> r)
r jv g r ja e v .
xptovrat
o v p o n v y io v
a v r rjs
a v rots
aK eX r) K a r a v a X ta K O fiev r ] T a v r a
r fj
o i
eK tt}? S
fie v ,
Sto
*
a v rots
n e T o v r a t y a p a n o T C tv o v T es e ls t o
o n ia O e v o v rco y a p
a v r o t s x P V crtlJ i a
Ta
Se f ip a x v a K e X f j
ex ov ra
25 o v a t v
ep y ov
T cov
fie v
C T K eX rj, a X X c o s
n ero v ra t to is
o i n oS es
e lo l
a v x ev t, o i
695 a l a x i o v
y ap
fie v
ovrco,
n p os
r r jv
e ^ o v r a iv
n ax v rep ov
fie v o ts
(r a )
aK eX rf
y ap
to is
ifJ tn o S l^ o ie v a v .
n pos
avrcov
r fj
ov k
y a a rp l
ifin o S t-
Se y a fii/jc o v v ^ t K a l n p o
a p n a y r jv .
o p v iO c o v
exov T es
rov
av x & a
n erovT at
fia K p o v
iK T e r a fie v c p
oi
ra>
Se X e n r o r e p o v 3 a v y K e K a f i f i e v c p i n t n e r o S ta
t t jv
ex ov ai
S o a te v e x e i v ,
a K e n r jv
fie v
o i
r jr T O V
o p v iO e s
aA A a Suo f i r j p o v s
fir jK o s * v n o r e T a r a t
a trto v S o rt 8 in o v v
y ap
ia r l
fie x p i
to v to
ev O p v n rov
n av res
S ta
fie a r js
to
to
fj
ia n v .
ov k
to v
r r js
av
la x io v
y aaT p os.
fa io v o v k
opO ov
1 Kal Y 6, Ogle : om. vulg.

2 ra Se fipaxvcKeArj P Y 6 ; correxi: evia Se ppa\ea <ra Langkavel> oKeXr) vulg.
3 Xeirrorepov Peck : Aenrov Kal fiaKpov vulg. i [teal fiaKpov ]
seel. Racknam.
412
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xn.

are like oars to a sailor or fins to a fish. A fish that
has lost its fins can no longer swim ; nor can a bird
whose webs have been destroyed.
Some birds have long legs, owing to their living in
marshes ; for Nature makes the organs to suit the
work they have to do, not the work to suit the organ.
And these birds have no webs in their feet because
they are not water birds, but because they live on
ground that gives under them they have long legs
and long toes, and most of them have additional joints
in their toes. Furthermore, though these birds are
not great fliers, they are composed of the same ma
terials as the rest, and thus the nutriment which in the
others goes to produce the tail feathers, in these is
used up on the legs and makes them grow longer, and
when in flight these birds stretch them out behind
and use them in place of the missing tail feathers :
placed thus, the legs are useful to them ; otherwise
they would get in the way.
Short-legged birds keep their legs up against the
belly while they are flying, because if the feet arc
there they are out of the way ; the crook-taloned
birds do it for an additional reason : the feet are
convenient for seizing prey.
When a bird has a long neck, this is either thick and
is held stretched out during flight; or it is slender
and is bent up during flight, because being protected
in this way it is less easily broken if the bird flies into
anything. All birds have an ischium, but in such
a way that they w'ould not appear to have one ; it is
so long that it reaches to the middle of the belly and
looks more like a second thigh-bone. The reason for
this is that a bird, although a biped, does not stand
413
ARISTOTLE
695 a
cos e i y c c t\ c y KaOanep cv
( ov) /
avOpconois fj
tols
6 TOLS TCTpOLTTOGLV, dlTO Trjs C&pCLS ftpO-X^ T

Kal
co t
to
o k c
a v a l,
crrat.
10 o i v
yap
c f r v o iv ,
fia K p o v
Ta
X tj
vncp
d fia
to ls
opviOcov
oO eVy o
20/cat
o lo v
X o in o is
y e v o s ).
tc o v
Oc v
fie v
B id
^ v r*
oX cos2
r -
Be
lo x io v
op0ov
rj
a vrl
Be
n o ir jo a o a
ra
CV0CV
S t
r jv
a tr ia
e ls
X tj ,
o k c
Kal
CV0CV
fie v
ov, e i p r f T a i *
a vrrj
o$v
t o v
/cat c m
8*
tcov
e ip r jr a i.
e l o l n a m e s o i o p v iO e s o fio ic o s o i
(n e p l y a p
fia K p o o K e X c b v
enl
8* ot
enl
exei
c fin p o o O e v
exei n p os to
fie v
to vto
K peK os'
fie v
O e o is ,
Kal
o rp o v-
SiX f l X o S ,
r p e ls
tc 3v
e fin p o
d o c fr d X e ia v a v r l n r c p v q s '
X e in e i
T r js
to v
B lO p iO V flC V , O T I
to vtco v
B a tcrvX co v
fy o v -
o vk
v n e O r jK C
e v a v T ic o fia o iv o ls
rj
vavcoBeis
to
avT cbv.
f i e v e i v .4
Kal
o vk
o x ^ o n o o iv
B aK TvX ovs*
to vs
cvtcv
e ls o m o O e v n p o s
o v fiP e fir fK e v
tco v
to
VGTCpOV
exovoi
exei
^X ÔV
av
tols
ifin p o o O ia
r js K a l n p o o O e v
to ls
A lf$ V K O V
e x Ll' 3
e lv a i
TerpaSa/cruAot 8
oreya von oB es
opOol
O V T O S T O V f id p O V S
cotlv
o k c
rerpa n oS cov,
TOV
opO ov,
< f> vo is
B v v r jT a i
a t r t a v B l7t o v v
OoV
avO pconos
o vk
T T p o o r jp e io c v
nopeveoO ai
15
r jS v v d r c i
crK c X r)
r/
07TC0S l o o p p o n o v
aaapKa
c x o f jic v o v ,
iT T c p v y a s
to
t o v t o v
fie o o v
fx e v
8* o p v i O e s
oi
ttjv
B id
evO vs
7TpOS T O f id p O S O K c X r ] C f i n p 6 o 0 i a V T T C p rjp C L -
TpaT T O Q L
etvat
Xo s
Svo
ovv
rj
K a ra
tc o v
8*
to vs
fie y e O o s ,
n X e io v s
aAAc o v
8*
ovk
o vtco s
Svo
fio v o v
o m o O e v 8*
atrtov
iv y
1 <flv> Rackham, cf. 1. 14 infra.

2 oAtos P Q U , Ogle : opOov vulg.
3 correxi ; exovaiv Sia rovro nrepvyas exovaiv vulg. ( rrripv
yas, 8e altero exovaLV omisso, Y , Ogle, qui post Sta rovro
interpungit).
414
PARTS OF ANIM ALS, IV. xn.

upright; and if it had an ischium which extended
only a short way from the fundament and was fol
lowed immediately by the leg (as in man and the
quadrupeds), it would be unable to stand up at all.
Man can stand upright, and quadrupeds have fore
legs to support their forward w eight; birds, how
ever, neither stand upright (because they are dwarf
like), nor have forelegs (because they have wings in
stead). By way of compensation, Nature has made
the ischium long, reaching to the middle of the
body, and has fixed it fast, while beneath it she has
placed the legs, so that the weight may be equally
distributed on either side and the bird enabled to
walk and to stand still. This shows why birds are bi
peds although they are unable to stand upright. The
reason why their legs are lacking in flesh is the same
as for all quadrupeds and has been stated already.6
All birds, web-footed or not, have four toes on each
foot. (The Libyan ostrich will be dealt with later,0
and its cloven hoof and other inconsistencies with the
tribe of birds will be discussed.) Of these four toes,
three are in front, and the fourth is at the back in
stead of a heel, for stability. In the long-legged
birds this toe is deficient in length, as for instance in
the Crex. Still, the number of toes does not exceed
four. This arrangement of the toes holds good gener
ally, but the wryneck is an exception, for it has only
two toes in front and two at the back. This is because
* See above, 693 b 3 ff.
*
See 689 b 10 ff.
e A t the end of the book.
1 f ie v e i v Yb s
B ia r r jv a r c v o r q T a
* e fn r p o a d e v . . . o m a d e v
fia n j
vulg.
add. PY6.
t o v o k c Ao v s
Karsch:
o m a d e v . . . epunpoadev
vulg.
415
695 a
25
ARISTOTLE
^
o
OTt ^T T O V
eCTTtV C L V T r js T O
O C O fia
7Tt T O
n pO nT S
7r p o a O e v f j t o t o j v a X X c o v .
"O pxl$ S exovoi f i e v v a v T e s oi opvides, evros
S exovaiv 7] 8* atria ev rois nepl t c l s yeveaeis
X e x O r fa e r a i
695 b
Ta
rco v
J ^ cp cov.
ovv rcov opviOcov
fie v
rov rponov
fio p ia
e% ei
rovrov.
X III. To Se r c o v
IxO vcov y e v o s
fic u r a t
rco v
c k t o s
X e ip a s
o v r e
n r e p v y a s
rj a l r i a
n p o r e p o v
5r c o v
t o
k v to s
o v x
o v v e x e s
o fio ia v
eK e iO e v
e a r i
10 a
n X a reco v
a v ^ r ja is
K a l
eartv.
K a l fia K p o v
to
Se Sta
fip a x v
rco v
r r jv
v a p K a is
h ia c fre p e i
h e a r ep o v
h e,
E n
16 Sta
to
h e
y a p
fj
rco v
r o
fir j
ifin p o a O io v ,
o n ia O e v
e v ia
fia K p o v
fie v
a a p K w h es
o a o v
a v r c o v 2 e O r jK e v
fj
aK a vO coh es
St
fip a x v
etvat
to
fjv n e p
fie v
K a l
r a is
o a p K co -
8 etvat.
a v fi^ e ^ r jK e v
7rAaro? ai5ra>v
a a p K co h es,
c fr v a is
o lo v
aAAo
a a p K co h es fie v
iv a v r io v
a c fr fjp r jr a i
fia K p a v
t o io v t o v
h e
n a p a n X r j-
K a l
a a a p K o r e p o v
t o
K e c fr a X r js
r a v T r jv
to io v tc o v
fj
o v r e
r o v -
7 rA a T o s,
to
a lr ia v
o v S ev ,
rrep l
r r js
fie v
r t
iv ic o v
a v r r jv
fta r p a x c o v
r a
e l
o fiv
e a n v ,
y a p
a n o
o v p a s .
e ls
K a l
fie v
Sc
a K a vO coh rj
y iv e r a i
r p v y o a i
o v p a io v
T r js
k c k o X o -
aK eX rj
(e ip r jr a i
aAAa
n a v r e s ,
Se
v a p K a is
e X a x o s
fie x p i
fia X X o v
y a p
), aAA* oAov
e o n
e x o v a i
e n
o v r e
e x o v o iv
y a p
a ia v ,1 r c o v
rj
fio p ic o v .
r r jv
n p o s
t o
o v p a v .
O iK exovai S anrjprrjfieva KcbXa ot IxOves Sta t o

vevanKrjv etvat rrjv cfrvaiv avrcov K a r a rov rrjs
ovaias Xoyov, in el ovre nepiepyov ovhev ovre fiarrjv
aAAa 7r. P : fik v a firj 7r. Platt:
Ogle, similia voluit Thurot.
av t o j v U : a v r o vulg.
1 fik v
/xcv v apa7 r\rjQ i.a
ir r e p t s y lo i s )
2
a See De gen. an. 714 b 4 ff., 719 b 11.
416
< ro ts
PARTS OF ANIMALS. IV. xii.-xm,

the w eight o f its body tends forward less than that o f
other birds.
A ll birds have testicles, but they are inside the
body. The reason for this will be stated in the
treatise on the different methods o f generation
among animals.
This concludes our description o f the parts o f Birds. (Hi.) Fishes:
X III.
In the tribe o f Fishes the external parts
are still further stunted. Fishes have neither legs,
hands, nor wings (the reason has been stated earlier),
but the whole trunk has an uninterrupted line from
head to tail. N o t all fishes tails are alike ; but the Tail,
general run o f them have similar tails, though some
o f the flat-fish have a long, spiny one, because the
material for the ta ils growth goes into the width
o f the flat body : this happens in the torpedo-fishes,
in the Trygons, and any other Selachians o f the same
sort. These have long, spiny tails. Others have
short, fleshy ones, and for the selfsame reason : it
comes to the same thing whether the tail is short
and has a good deal o f flesh or long with little flesh.
In the fishing-frog6 the opposite has taken place.
Here, the wide, flat part o f the body in front is not
fleshy ; Nature has taken the fleshy material aw'ay
from the front and added an equivalent amount at
the back in the tail.
Fishes have no separate limbs attached to the body.
(a) This is because Nature never makes anything that
is superfluous or needless, and by their essence and
constitution0 fishes are naturally swimmers and so
b Lophius piscatorius, known as the goosefish in
U.S.A., erroneously included by Aristotle (De gen. an.
754 a 25) with the Selachia, though he observed that it
differed in many important points.
Logos : see Introduction, pp. 26 f.
417
ARISTOTLE
20 f )
(f> V O lS
Se
7Tfr S
TTOlL.
Sta
o v o ia v ,
VCLlfJid
i(J T L
K a ra
TTJV
Sta
to v e v o r iK a e lv a i n r e p v y ia e y e i,
fie v
t o fir ) r r e ^ e v e iv o v k e x e i r r o S a s ' f) y a p r w v r r o S w v
:n p o o d e o i s T T p o s T T )V TTl T W T T eS lW K IV T J O IV ^pT^CTt/iOS
e o n v.
p/
otov
a f i a Se
t
>
25 e v a i f i a
e ^ e tv ,
m e p v y ia
>5 1
V\\
ou o
r r r e p v y la
fia v w S r)
K al
696 a
t o is
yap
t o is
o vk
t i
ev
ovSeis,
aAAa
e x o v o iv ,
0001
rerra p a
Svo
ev
r r jv o v p a v
fir ) n X a r e i s , K a O a n e p
Svo
T T T e p v y ia ,
v r r r io is *
t o is
av fjo a v .
a v a ifio i y a p
aêSov n a v r e s
rrp a vei
t w
ovk
Ix O v w v
rp vyw v,
T T p a v e o i,
to u t w v
fie v
t o v t w v
Se Ta
S ev
S to ats,
e v T jj X lf iv j) T jj e v
fia K p o < f> v e o T p a
ev
Se
e ^ o u a t, T a
e x o v o iv , o to v e y x e X vs K al y o y y p o s K a l
to
fie v
r r X e iw
evtot to>v f i a K p w v K a l n a x o s
v n r io is
yevos
ovx
>5 /
o vo ev
rrX a reT a v.
ifE x o v o i S e t w v
Kal
ôSa?
A
to io v to v
kw aov
ot Se K o p S v X o i jS p a y ^ t a e x o v r e s n o S a s
yap.
e x o v o iv
P a ros
Kai
rerra pa
aAAo
exovrw v
K e o rp e w v
o a a S eaT t
otov o f i v p a i v a ,
K a l o< f> iw S r) f i a X X o v ,
o u S ev e x o v o i n r e p v y i o v a n X w s , a A A a T a i s K a f i n a i s
K iv o v v r a i,
y f j
x p w fie v a i
to v auTov1 y a p
t w v
6 (f > e w v r o v
n o p e ia s
KaKws
Kal
av
2 oi o<f>ts
vulg.
K iv r jo e w s
Peck:
t w v
Yb:
oi
o < f)e is
T jj
2 v e o v o iv ovn ep
fir )
e x e iv
rovs
r jn e p
Kal
rw v
t o v
t o S atV to v ev r o i s r r e p l
w
rerra p oi
t ovtov
t o v tpottov
Se
n r e p v y ia ,
etvat.
e K iv o v v r o ,
1 tov a v r o v
a lr ia
Ix O v w v
anoSas
w onep
o (f> e is r p o n o v
10 e n l T r js y r j s e p n o v o i v .
o c friw S e is
vypw
t w
ol
w v
e ip r jr a i.
o r jf ie io is
r} y a p
K iv o v fie v a
vulg.
tov
d elevi:
tov
Tporrov o l o f e t s
______________________________________
a T h e C ordylus w as p ro b a b ly the larval form o f some

triton or newt* such as Triton alpestris or Salamandra atra,
which retains its gills till it is well g row n ( D A r c y Thom pson).
b i.e. pectoral.
i.e. ventral.
418
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xm.

need no such limbs. But also (6) they are essentially
blooded creatures, which means that i f they have four
fins they cannot have any legs or any other limbs o f
the s o r t ; so they have the fins because they are
swimmers and do not have the feet because they are
not walkers (when an animal has feet it has them
because they are useful for moving about on land).
The Cordylus, however, has feet in addition to its
gills, since it has no fins, but only a scraggy flattenedout tail.
Excluding flat-fish (like the Batos and Trygon), fish Fins,
have four fins : two on their under and two on their
upper surface, never more, for then they would be
bloodless animals. Alm ost all fishes have the two
u pper6 fins, but some o f the large, thick-bodied fishes
lack the underc two as for instance the eel and the
conger, and a sort o f Cestreus that is found in the lake
at Siphae.d Fishes that have even longer bodies than
these, and are really more like serpents (as the
Smyraena*), have no fins at all, and move along by
bending themselves a b o u t: that is, they use the
water just as serpents use the ground. And in fact
serpents swim in exactly the same way as they creep
on the ground. The reason why these serpent-like
fishes have no fins and the reason why serpents
have no feet are the same, and this has been stated
in the treatises on the Loco?notion and Movement o f
AnimalsJ (a) I f they had four motion-points, their
movement would be poor, because the fins would
d In Boeotia, on the south coast near Thespiae; now
Tipha. Aristotle refers to this Cestreus of Siphae again,
De incessu an. 708 a 5. Cf. also Hist. An. 504 b 33.
6 Probably Muraena Helena.
f See De incessu an. 709 b 7 ; perhaps the other passage
which Aristotle has in mind is 690 b 16, in this book.
o2
419
ARISTOTLE
5a
(c ? tc
y a p
a v v e y y v s
15 K l V O V V T O ,
S c
C tT C
T r X e ic o
7)
tc o v
T a
) \
K tv r jT tK a
1 /
T T T e p v y ia
T T T e p v y ia ,
TO
a r ffieia
Ix O v c o v
e tx o v ,
Sta to
fir j
25 K i v r f u e T a i '
a v r l
v e o v a iv .
o lo v
T T pavet
rot?
80 c r O a i to
evO v,
T T pos
X p y jT a t
d )s
Suat
etp rjT a t
T ip
e x e t.
17
(o v
a v r l
T T T e p v y io is
Sc
cu-
T^ v
^vo
/cat <3at
S ot/ccta
T r p a v e o iv
T jj
K e < / > a X jj
co
a vT i
t o
e x e i
tc o v
tc o v
a vco
( f i e v } 2 ev
T a
S cv
K C oX vet
/ctvct-
a vco,
y a p
7 7 A ctT t
T T T e p v y ia
rrp os
t jj
Sc tcov Suo to>

eK a T ep co
rauTa
e X a ttc o
vap K rj
to >
T j j K (f> a X fj f i o p i c o v
o v p a
T rX d rei
r ffiiK V K X tc o .
K at
a ia d r jT r j-
7r p o r e p o v .
1 rd S iJttov . . . otov 17 P : 17Se tantum vulg.

2 </xev> Langkavel.
420
c^ct
to v tc o v
eox& T a }
n X a r o s
jSaTpaô?, Ta
7rActTO?
K e c fr a X r j
T T T e p v y ia '
Ilcp t Sc tcov cv
p io o v
T jj
/cat
T r p o fir jK e s
côvTa
o
>/
cpôv-
ot Sc jSaTot /cat Ta
* aAA avTt tou
T T pavet
to, Suo
o v p a v
K a i
Ta
Ct
77 V .
oaa jLt-q /ccuAuerat
T rpos
T r r ep v y lc o v
Sta to
t o is
to ttc o ,
aa>/xa.
t\ tto v
r j1 v a p K r j
77Aat o s )
rcov cv tw
e x e t
K a T to
v tttio is
ttjv
ep T rovot
Ta cv
to >
a v
a o T r a p i^ e i.
fio v o v ,
ev
IxO vcov
tco v
T a
e x o v o iv ,
t to
y a p
C77t
caTtv
to lo v tc o v
T o ia v T a
fir jK o s
(* V T 'L
S exovra
T a
e x e iv
a v
fio v o v
K &lJLllJ(/
v K
T T T e p v y lo J V
T T T e p v y ia
77Aat o s *
Sta to
e o rt
r^s* T r e ^ r js o v T a c fr v a e c o s t j t t o v
Autcov Sc tcov
a v a tfia
ovo
tjr jp w
20 7roAuv x P v o v > K a L T(* lJL* v
fio y ts
fl T a % v )*
yap
o (j> ic o 8 r )
Sto /cat cv t<2
Ta Suo côvTa
T T o X lf
771 TCOV
/cat
/cat X P V T0LL T f )
f i r j K e (J T e p a ,
T T T e p v y ic o v
r a
S ta
\ \
a tT ta
aVTTJ
e tx o v
T TO ppCO ,
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xin.

either be very close together, or else a long way apart,
and in either case would not move easily. ( b) On the
other hand, i f they had more than four motion-points
they would be bloodless creatures. The same reason
holds good for those fishes that have only two fins.
These also are serpent-like and fairly long, and they
use their power o f bending instead o f the two missing
fins. And this enables them besides to crawl about
and to live a good length o f tim e on dry land ; and
it is some while before they begin to g a s p ; indeed,
those which are akin to the land-animals are affected
even less than the others.
Except for those whose width and flatness prevents
it, all fishes that have only two fins have the upper a
ones ; and these fins are by the head, because there
is no length o f body just there which they could use
instead o f fins for propulsion length such as fish
o f this sort have towards their tail-end. The Batoi
and such fishes swim by means o f the edge o f their
flat surface which they use instead o f fins. Fish
which are not so flat, such as the torpedo-fish and the
fishing-frog, possess fins, but they have their upper
fins toward their tail-end owing to the flatness o f
the forepart, and their under fins near the head (since
the flatness o f the fish does not prevent its motion) ;
but the under ones are smaller than the upper ones,
to make up for being placed forward. The torpedofish has two o f his fins by his tail ; and instead o f
these two he uses the wide piece on each o f his semi
circles b as though it were a fin.
W e have already spoken o f the parts in the head
and o f the sense-organs.
a i.e. pectoral.
b Cf. De incessu an. 709 b 17.
421
ARISTOTLE
*TStov S eêt to t wv IxOvcov yev o s n p os TaAAa T a
evaifia <pa ttjv to jv jSpay^tcov cfrvaiv 8 1 rjv 8
aiTiav, eiprjTat iv t o i s Trepl avarrvorjs. /cat eêt Se
T a exvT a fip a yxia r a /lev irriKaXvfifiaTa t o is
fip a yxiois, Ta Se aeXax?) n a v ra 1 a/caAu77Ta. a in o v
t
\
j
n / ?
i /
<
51
j
/\
ot fiev aKavuojoeis e io i, to o eniKaAvfifia
8 j OTt
aKavOwSes, r a Se oeXax?) n a v ra xovSpaKavOa. ert
8* 17 Kivqais tcov fiev vcoOpa2 Sta to fir) aKavOwSr)
etvat /x^Se vevpwSr), tcov 8 a/cav0a>8d>v Taêta* tou
S in iK aX vfifiaros Taêtav Set ylveaOai ttjv k Ivtjoiv
w anep ya p rrpos iKnvor)v f) tcov jSpay^tcov ea rl
10 cfrvais. Sta touto tols aeXaxw Seai Kal a v rw v tcov
TTopcov r) ovvaycoyr) y iv era i tw v fipayxicov, /cat ov
Set iniK aX vfifiaros, o n w s yivrjrai Taêta.
Ot fiev ovv a vrw v exov a i noXXa jSpay^ta ot S
\ /
\
f
\
5
\ /*
(O )
f
\ 51 V
oAtya, k at ot fiev om A a ot o anAa* to o eaâTOV
anXovv o i n X eiaroi.
(rrjv 8* a/cpt/Jetav e/c twv
15 avarofiw v rrepl r o v r w v Kal iv r a is ia ropiais r a is
rrepl r a wa Set Oewpeiv.) atVtov Se tov nXrjOovs
Kal rrjs oX iyorrjros to tou ev Tjj KapSia Oepfiov
rrXrjOos Kal oXiyorrfS Oarrw ya p Kal laxvporepav
tt) v Kivqaiv Set etvat tols rrXeiw ex o v a i O epfiorrjra.
Ta Se rrXeiw Kal St7rAa jSpay^ta roiavrrjv eêt rrjv
20 cfrvaiv /xaAAov tcSv anXwv Kal iX a rrov w v Sto /cat
evta aura)v eco ^v Svvarai ttoXvv x P vv> tw v
iyp v rw v iX a rrw Kal rjrrov iyKparrj r a jSpay^ta,
otov eyêAus* /cat oaa ocfriwSr)' ov ya p noXXrjs
Seovrai K araipvtew s.
vEêt Se /cat rrepl to a rofia Siacfropas. Ta /xev
25 yap /caT avTiKpv e x ei to a rofia Kal els to npoaOev,
696 b
2
422
1 (x01Spa/carfla yap) post 1ravra vulg., om. P.

rj Kivrjats . . vwOpa Y : ai Kivqaeis . . vwQpaX vulg.
PARTS OF A N IM A LS, IV. xm.

The peculiarity which marks off fishes from the Gill*,
other blooded animals is the possession o f gills. I t
has been explained in the treatise on Respiration a why
they have them. A ll fishes have coverings over their
gills, except the Selachia, none o f which have them.
This is because their bones are cartilaginous, whereas
other fishes* bones are o f fish-spine, and this is the
substance out o f which the coverings are made. And
again, the Selachia move sluggishly owing to their
lack o f fish-spine and o f sinews while the spinous
fishes move quickly, and the m ovement o f the cover
ing must be a quick one, for gills are a medium for
expiration o f a sort. On this account in the selachian
group o f fishes the passages o f the gills can close up
by themselves, and no covering is needed to make sure
they close quickly.
Now some fish have many gills, some have f e w ;
some have double ones, some single. The last one
is nearly always a single one. (F or precise details
consult the Anatomical treatises and the Researches
upwi Animals.b) The number o f gills depends upon
the amount o f heat in the heart. The more heat an
animal has, the quicker and stronger must be the
movement o f its gills ; and i f the gills are numerous
and double they are better adapted for this than i f
they are few and single. And on this account, some
fishes (e.g. the eels and the serpentine fishes) which
need but little cooling, as is shown by their having
only a few weakish gills, can live a long time out o f
water.
Fish differ also with regard to the mouth. Some Mouth,
have their mouth right at the tip, straight in fro n t;
At 476 a 1 ff., 480 b 13 ff.
6 At 504 b 28 ff.
423
A R IS T O T L E
696 b
r a 8 ev
o e X a x c b S r j*
rpocfrrjv.
v n r io is , otov o l r e SeAcfrives1 Kai r a

8id Kal vvTia orpecfrofieva Aa/xj8avet T r j v
t o is
cfraiverai 8 f) cfrvois ov fiovov ocorrjpias
eveKev noirjoai
t o v t o
aAAcov
tc o v
cocov
orpeifrei ocoêrai raXXa flpahvv ovrco v

80 r a r o ia v r a
aKoXovOelv
iv y a p
(<
cpocfraya io r Iv ), aAAa feat n pos
X aifiapyla Tjj n ep l Trjv
T jj
r fj
n a v ra ya p
t o
T p o c fr r jv
firj
paov
y a p XafijHavovra 8lecfrQeiper
av Sta
r a xecos*
nepicfreprj Kal Xenrrjv
n pos Se
exovT a Trjv
Statperov
t o v
vErt Se
K a l
Sta
tco v
e x e i
o a p K o c fr a y a ,
pvyxovs
ttjv
cfrvoiv o v x
nXrjpwoiv
otov r
ev-
e x e iv
697 a a v e p p c o y o s
t o v t o i s
t o
a vco
t o
o r o fia
a v e p p c o y o s ,
o r o fia
tol
Se
ra
e x o v r c o v
fiv o v p o v ,
o o a
fie v
fie v
ra /capxapoSovra,
w o n e p
e v r c o o r o f i a n etvat t o i s t o i o v t o l s t t j v l o x v v ,
Se f i r j o a p K o c f r a y a , f i v o v p o v .
To Se 8 e p f i a o l f i e v X e n i S c o r o v e x o v o i v a v t c o v ( r j
Se X e n l s Sta X a f i n p o r r j r a K a l X e n r o r r j r a t o v o c o f i a T o s a c f r L o r a r a i ) , o l Se T p a y y , otov p i v r j K a l jSat o s
K a l ra r o i a v r a ' eAa^tora Se ra Aeta.
ra Se o e X a x ^ J
a X e n i 8 c o r a f i e v rpaêa 8* eort Sta t o
ôvSpa/cavffa
t o
o o a
etv a i-
t o
y a p
y e c o 8 e s
K e id e v
rj
cfr v o is
e ls
t o
8 ep fia
K a T a v r jX c o K e v .
10
* O p x e is
8*
o v 8 e ls
e x e i
tx @ v s
o v t
c k t o s
o v t
9 e v r o s
1 $e\<f>iies non probant Frantzius, Ogle; similia Hist. An.
591 b 26 secludunt Aubert et Wimmer.
a This statement about dolphins, though repeated at Hist,

an. 591 b 26, is incorrect, and as Aristotle was familiar with
424

others have it underneath (e.g. the dolphin a and the
selachians) and that is why they turn on to their backs
to g e t their food. I t looks as i f Nature made them
do this partly to preserve other animals from them,
for they all prey on living things, and while they are
losing time turning on to their backs the other things
g e t away safely ; but she did it also to prevent them
from giving way too much to their gluttonous craving
for food, since i f they could g e t it more easily they
would presently be destroyed through repletion.
Another reason is that their snout is round and small
and therefore cannot have much o f an opening in it.
There are differences too among those that have
their mouth above. W ith some it is a great wide
opening (these are the flesh-eaters, as e.g. those with
sharp interfitting teeth, whose strength is in their
mouth) ; with others (the non-flesh-eaters) it is on
a tapering snout.
As for the skin : some have a scaly skin (these Skin,
scales are shiny and thin and therefore easily come
loose from the body) ; others have a rough skin, e.g.
the Rhine and the Batos and such. Those with
smooth skins are the fewest. Selachia have skins
which are scaleless but rough, owing to their bones
being cartilaginous : instead o f using the earthy
m atter on the bones Nature has used it for the skin.
N o fish has testicles b either without or within. Nor Testicles.
the creature, some editors consider this reference to be an
interpolation.
b By this Aristotle does not mean that fish have no organ
for the secretion of sperm, but that they have no organ similar
in shape and consistency to those of mammalia, etc. He calls
the corresponding organs in fish not testes, but tubes, or roe.
Aristotles statement does not, of course,,include the Selachia,
which have compact, oval testes.
425
ARISTOTLE
697 a
(oi)S aAAo
TL TCOV QLTToScoV O v S ev , S tO OV 8 o l Ocfreis),
7TOpOV
TOV
y e v e a iv
n a vra
Sc
to v
7TpLTTC0fJLCLT0S
a vrov,
K a O a n ep
K a l2 r e r p a n o S a ,
firjSe y iv e a O a i nepiTTCofi
15
20
Sta
K al
to
TCOV
7Tpl
raAAa
Kal
firj
e ^ e iv
T7JV
co o ro K a 1
k v o tiv
a vro is v y p o v .
T o fiev ovv t c o v IxOvcov yevos npos raAAa <5a

ra v ra s exei ra ? Siacfropas, o i Sc SeXcfrives Kal a i
cfraAaivai Kal n a vra ra r o la v ra rcov Krjrcov /Jpay^ta
fiev ovk exovaiv, avXov Sc Sta r o nvevfiova eêtv
Bexofieva yap Kara t o a rofia rrjv OaXarrav acfriaai
Kara ro v avXov.
avayKrj fiev yap SeaaOai t o
vypov Sta t o Xafifiaveiv rrjv rpocfrrjv ev rco vypw
Se^dfieva S acfrievai ai>ay/catov. r a fiev ovv jip a y -
Xidi e a n xPVaLfJLa T O PV dvanveovaiv St rjv S*

a ir iav, eiprjrai ev ro is nepl avanvorjs9 aSvvarov yap
afia t o a vro avanveiv Kal jSpay^ta e x e iv aAAa npos
rrjv acfreaiv r o v vSaros exovai ro v avXov. K eirai S
25 a vrois oSros npo rod iyKecfraXov SieXafifiave yap
av ano rrjs paxecos a v ro v . atrtov Sc ro v nvevfiova
r a v r exeiv /cat avanveiv, o n rd fieyaXa rw v a)cov
nXeiovos Sctrat Oepfiorrjros iva K iv fjra r Sto o
rrvevficov cy/cctrat a vrois Oepfiorrjros cov nXrjprjs
aifiariK rjs cart Sc r a v ra rponov n v a (/cat)8 7rca
so Kal evvSpa* rov fiev yap aepa S everal cos rreâ,
anoSa S ea rl Kal Xafifidvei c/c r o v vypov rrjv
697 b rpocfrrjv wanep r a evvSpa . Kal a l cfrcoKai Sc /cat
at wKrepiSes Sta r o enaficfrorepiêiv a l fiev to ls
evvSpois Kal neoTs, a I Se ro is nrrjvois Kal neôis,
Sta to v t o aficfrorepcov re fierexova i Kal ovSerepcov.
1 OJOTOKCL P S U Y .
K a i (B l n o S a K a i
) Ogle.
8 {K ai) Rackham .

have any other footless animals, and this includes the
serpents. In fish the passage for the residue and for
the generative secretion is one and the same ; and
this is so in all other oviparous animals, four-footed
ones included. This is because they have no bladder
and produce no liquid residue.
Thus we have seen what are the differences to be inter,
noticed in fish as a group as compared with other Seatuws:
animals. Dolphins and whales and all such Cetacea,
Cetce.
however, have no gills, but they have a blowhole
because they have a lung. T h ey cannot help letting
the sea-water enter the mouth because they feed in
the water, and once it has got in they must g e t it out
again, and they do so through the blowhole. Gills,
o f course, are o f service herein to those creatures that
do not breathe. Th e reason for this has been given
in m y book on Respirationa: no creature can breathe
and at the same tim e have gills ; instead, these
Cetacea have a blowhole for gettin g rid o f the water.
It is placed in front o f the brain, otherwise it would
separate the brain from the spine. The reason why
these creatures have a lung and breathe is that large
animals need more heat than others to enable them to
move ; consequently they have a lung inside them
full o f heat derived from the blood. Th ey are, in a
way, land-animals as well as water-anim als: they
inhale the air, like land-animals, but they have no
feet and they g e t their food from the water as wateranimals do. Similarly, seals and bats are in an inter- (ii.) Seals
mediate position. Seals are between land-animals
bats*
and water-animals, bats between land-animals and
fliers : thus they belong to both classes or to neither.
References given above, see on 696 b 2.
427
ARISTOTLE
rb5
at r e y a p c f > a > K a i c L s f i e v evuSpot r r o S a s e x o v a i v , c o s

Se 7reat T T T e p v y i a 1 (rows* y a p o m a O e v T r o S a s tyOva > 8 e i s e x o v a i T r a f n r a v , ert Se t o v s oSovras T r a v r a s
K a p x a p o S o v T a s K a i o fe i s ) ' K a i at v v K T e p i S e s c o s f i e v
T T T T f v a e x o v o i r r o S a s , c o s Se TerpaTroSa o u k e x o v o i ,
K a i o v r e
K ep K ov e x o v o iv
o v t
o v p o r r v y i o v , Sta f i e v
10 ro T T T T f v a etvat K e p K o v , Sta Se t o 7rea o v p o r r v y i o v ,
o v fij3 e (3 r jK
S auTats t o u t e a v a y K r j s * e l o l y a p
S e p fio T T T e p o i, o v S e v
S eêt oupo7ruytov / x t ) o^tôT T T ep ov
eK
T T iiy io v .
rj
iv
t o is
t o io v t o v
Se
fie v
yap
cos
fie v
yap
ovk
w v
o p v is
TTTepa
Se
20 a v c o
ov
cos
avcoO ev
ovk
e x l>
y lv e r a i
t o
o v p o -
a v r jv v r r a p x o v o a
cov
ovre
orp ovO os
T eT p a rrovs
T eT p a rrovs
avxevos,
S itto v s
cov
Ta
w ore
TTTepa
e x *i,
<*>s
8*
Kal Ta
a A A a T p ix c b S r j e rt
j3 X e c f> a p iS a s
rrep l t t jv
e^t
ra s
K ecf> a X rjv K a l r a
T p t^ o a S e a T ep a ?
e ^ e tv
ra s
S o p v is cov T a K aT C oO ev ir r T e p w r a r
fie v
ov
A iftv K o s
T reT a T a i fie T e w p i^ o fie v o s ,
K a l if t iX o s i o T i
T eT p a rrovs'
T<* 8e c o o v T e T p a T r o h o s .
^pât/xa rr p o s t t t t j o i v
fie v
to v
to v to v
iT T e p o v
ifir r o h io s
Se T p o r r o v K a l o
o p v iO o s
j3 X e c f > a p iS a s , c o s
Kal
y a p
K al
T T T ep o is
Tov a vro v
15 r a
K epK O S
ia T iv
yap
S a in o v
o ti
cos
o p v is ,
SaK TvX ovs

to
S t^ a A o s
exei
fie y e O o s
ovk
aAAa
w s
jjÂ as*.
o p v iO o s
exei
a A A a T e T p a T T o h o s * i X a x i c r r o v y a p a v a y K a l o v e tvat t o
25 f i e y e O o s c o s K a O o X o v e l r r e l v t o
tco v
o p v iO c o v
ov
yap
p a S to v 7toAuv o y K o v /ctveta0at a w f i a r o s f i e r e w p o v ,
1 TTTepvyia Ogle: irrepvyas vulg*
428

Seals, i f regarded as water-animals, are anomalous in
having f e e t ; i f regarded as land-animals, in having
fins (their hind feet are altogether like those o f
fishes i.e. fins ; and all their teeth too are sharp and
interlocking). Bats, too, i f regarded as birds, are
anomalous in having fe e trt; i f regarded as quadrupeds,
in not having fe e t 6; furthermore, they have neither a
quadrupeds tail (because they are fliers) nor a birds
tail (because they are land-animals). This their lack
o f a tail like a birds is a necessary consequence,
since they have membranous wings, and no creature
has a tail o f this sort unless it has barbed feathers :
such tails are always made out o f barbed feathers.
And a tail o f the other sort growing among feathers
would be a definite impediment.
A fte r the same style is the Libyan ostrich : in (itf.) The
some points it resembles a bird, in others a quadruped. s r c *
As not being a quadruped, it has feathers ; as not
being a bird, it cannot rise up and fly, and it has
feathers that are like hairs and useless for flight.
Again, as being a quadruped, it has upper eye
lashes, and it is bald in the head and the upper part
o f the neck, as a result o f which its eyelashes are
hairier than they would otherwise be ; as being a
bird, it is feathered on its lower parts. Also, as
a bird, it has two f e e t ; but, as a quadruped, it has
cloven hoofs (it has hoofs and not toes). The reason
is that it has the size not o f a bird but o f a
quadruped. Speaking generally, a bird has to be
very small in size, because it is difficult for a body o f
large bulk to move off the ground.
That is, of the sort that birds ought not to have, viz. on
their wings.
h That is, of the sort that quadrupeds ought to have.
429
ARISTOTLE
IIe/)i fiev ovv t w v fiopiwv, Sia t i v a ir iav eKaarov
ea n v ev rots wois, eiprjrai rrepl Travrwv rw v wwv
KaO* eKaarov rovrw v Se Siwpiafievwv iêtjfjs e a n
so r a nepl ras* yeveaeis avrw v SieXOetv.1
1 tovtcov
de incessu.
4 50
. . . BieXOeiv
om. Yb, et statim incipiunt librum
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xin.

W e have now spoken severally o f all the animals :
we have described their parts, and stated the reason
why each is present in them. N ow that this is
concluded, the next thing is to describe the various
ways in which animals are generated.
431
Conclusion.
ARISTOTLE
A
d d it io n a l
o te on
684 b 21-29
Commentators agree that no satisfactory sense can b e

obtained from the first three lines of this passage as it stands
in Bekker's edition. None has so far produced a remedy;
but an examination of the Arabic translation (or of Michael
Scots Latin translation made from the Arabic) shows plainly
what has happened, In neither o f these two translations is
there any reference whatever to a diagram until 685 a 2.
Thus the m s . from which our present Greek text is derived
had been corrupted through the efforts of someone who tried
to improve the text of 684 b 22-27 by inserting references to
a diagram here also ; and the result is that these references
have caused the complete loss of one important phrase (b 22)
and serious corruption of another (b 24-25). Some disloca
tion has also been caused in the lines following, up to line 29,
The two diagrams given in the m s . Z are obviously con
structed to suit the interpolated text. One of the m s s . (Mer
ton 278) of Michael Scots version has an entirely different
diagram; the three m s s . of Scot at Cambridge have no
diagram at all, nor has the Arabic m s B.M. Add. 7511.
I give below the passage as it appears in Michael Scots
version.
Natura ergo istorum duorum modorum est sicxit diximus ;
et propter hoc ambulant uniform iter1 sicut accidit animalibus
quadrupedibus et hominibns etiam. homo vero habet os in
capite, scilicet in parte superiori corporis ; deinde habet
stomachum, deinde ventrein, et post ventrem intestinum perveniens ad locum exitns superfluitatis. iste ergo res in
animalibus habentibus sanguinem sunt secundum hanc dispositionem, et post caput est clibanus, scilicet pectus, et quod
vicinatur ei. alia vero membra sunt propter ista, etc,
I am much indebted to Dr. R. Levy for his kindness in
reading this passage for me in the Arabic in Brit. Mus. m s
Add. 7511.
1 in u n iform iter Caius 109 & Camb. U.L.

scribendum u niform iter et non inu n iform iter.
432
Ii. 3. 16; fortasse igitur
PARTS OF ANIMALS
A d d itio n a l N o t e
o n 693 b 3
Explanation of Aristotles terminology for describing the

bending of limbs.
When Aristotle is speaking about the bending of limbs,
backwards and forwards are relative to the direction in
which the whole animal moves ;
inwards and outwards are relative to the bulk of the body
itself.
Thus, backwards means that the angle of the bent joint
points backwards ; inwards means that the extremity of the
limb is brought inwards towards the body, that is, the angle
of the bent joint points away from the main bulk of the body.
(k Inward and outward bending thus have no connotation
o f 44bandy-legs and 44knock-knees. )
All four legs bend inicards ;
The forelegs bend forwards :
The hindlegs bend backwards.
Example (2)
The leg bends inwards, and

backwards.
(See De incess. an. 711 a 8 ff., Hist. An. 4-98 a 3 ff.)
433
ARISTOTLE
A d d i t i o n a l N o t e on t h e ms.
The following portions of the text of De partibus are con

tained in the Oxford ms. Z (see p. 50):
fol. 60*, 60v. I. 639 b 29 to 640 b 24. /uexpt to fiaXXov av
inclusive.
fol. 61r, 61T. I. 644 a 25 to 645 a 17. KaOoXov to tois <f>v in
clusive.
Between these two folios it has apparently lost four folios,
as well as one at the beginning of Book I and another at the
end.
fol. 1*-19*.
Book II.
fol. 19T36r. Book III, but the words ov ttoXv to cvpvxtbpovs
inclusive (675 a 30-b 27) are omitted,
with no indication by the original scribe
that anything has been omitted: this
passage has been supplied by a later hand
in the margins of fol. 35v and 36r and
on 36v.
Book IV is written by yet another (later) hand, and this
Book occupies fol. 37r-59v, at the end of which folio it breaks
off at the words ra. KaXovpeva (694 a 13). The rest of Book
IV is lost.
In the apparatus I have used the following abbreviations
in quoting this m s . :
Z
Books I, I I and most of I II (first hand, c. a .d . 1000).
Z1 indicates the reading of the first hand where this has
been altered by another.
Za indicates later correctors o f Zl.
Z
indicates the readings of the ms. in Book IV.
I have collated from photostats the whole of the portion
written by the first hand, and the readings of Z quoted have
been confirmed by reference to the photostats.
I
have used the sym bol E when quoting the readings o f
E from 680 b 36 onwards, as this part o f the ms. is written
in a later hand.
434
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T hat the D e incessu animalium is a genuine work of
Aristotle himself has never been disputed. The De
motu animalium has been regarded by many critics as
a spurious work, though recent opinion has favoured
its genuineness. Brandis, Rose and Zeller all con
demn it, but its Aristotelian authorship has been up
held by W erner Jaeger (Hermes, xlviii. pp. 31 ff.), who
makes out a very strong case in its favour, and by the
O xford translator, Mr. A . S. L. Farquharson. Those
who deny its authenticity rely mainly on the supposi
tion that there is a reference in 703 a 10-11 to the De
spiritu. This treatise is generally adm itted to be unAristotelian, but the reference, as M r. Farquharson
has pointed out, m ight relate equally well to numerous
other passages in the Aristotelian corpus ; Michael
Ephesius refers it to a treatise IT epl rpocf>rj<s9 not
otherwise known. In style, vocabulary and syntax
the D e motu animalium is entirely Aristotelian, and its
doctrine corresponds with that set forth in Aristotle's
genuine works.
Each treatise has its proper place in the scheme o f
A ristotles biological works. Both are theoretical,
the D e incessu animalium, like the D e partibus animalium, dealing with the material side o f living things,
and the D e motu animalium, like the D e generatione
animalium, dealing with their consequential pro
perties.
436
MOVEMENT & PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

The chief m s s . o f the D e motu animalium are E, Y ,
P and S. O f these E, one o f the most famous o f
Aristotelian m s s . , is the o ld e s t; Y is closely related
to E. P and S are similarly related and form a second
group.
O f the D e incessu animalium the principal m s s . are
Z, Y , U , S and P.a O f these Z is the oldest, and Y is
closely related to it, while the other three m s s . form
another group.
A full account o f these m s s . and their relations to
one another will be found in the Introduction (pp.
iv. ff.) o f W . W . Jaegers text (Teubner, 1913).
The te x t used for the present translation is based
on that o f I. Bekker, all divergences from which are
noted and the authority given for the reading adopted.
Jaegers tex t and apparatus criticus have been con
sulted throughout.
The Commentary o f Michael Ephesius {Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, xxii. 2, Hayduck, 1904?)
lias been o f some assistance both for the text and for
the interpretation, and the Latin version o f Nicholaus
Leonicus (died 1599)? printed in the Berlin Aristotle,
Vol. I l l , has been constantly consulted.
The two treatises have been translated into French
by J. Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire, and into English by
Mr. A . S. L . Farquharson in the Oxford translation
(1912). This translation with its ample explanatory
notes constitutes much the most serious attem pt that
has been made to interpret these two treatises, and
anyone who follows in Mr. Farquharsons footsteps
must necessarily be heavily indebted to him.
E. S. F.
0 For the meanings of these symbols see pp. 439 and 483.
437
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
C h a p . I. The origin of all movement must itself be un
moved. So if there is to be animal movement, something
in the animal must be at rest. Hence joints are necessary.
II. There must also be a resisting medium external to the
moving animal. Illustration from the rowing of a boat.
I I I . The nature o f the prime mover. The fable of
Atlas.
IV. The prime mover is o f necessity outside the
universe. The movement of inanimate things must
originate from animate things.
V. Alteration, growth, generation and corruption as
forms of motion.
V I. How does the soul move the body ? Animal move
ment lies in the sphere of action. Its limitation in com
parison with eternal movement.
V II. Animal movement the result o f the syllogism of
action, not of the speculative syllogism. Animal move
ment compared with that of automatic toys.
V III. Tne psychology o f animal movement and the
organic changes which accompany it. The cause o f move
ment must be situated in a definite origin.
IX . The two sides of the body are similar and can move
simultaneously : both are moved by the soul.
X. The motive power is innate spirit. Comparison
between the animal organism and a well-ordered civic
community.
X I. Involuntary and non-voluntary movements. Con
clusion.
438
A B B R E V IA TIO N S USED IN T H E APPA R A TU S

CRITICUS
E = Codex Parisinus Regius 1853.
Y = Codex Vaticanus 261.
P = Codex Vaticanus 1339.
S=Codex Laurentianus 81.1.
Leon.= Latin translation o f Nicolaus Leonicus.
Mich. = Greek commentary of Michael Ephesius.
439
riEPI ZGI&N KINH2ES22

698a
I.
Se
T le p l
a v r w v
rrep l
S ia < f> o p a l,
K a l
P e fir jK o r o jv
v e ia d a i
K lv r ja iv
" O
p e v
eauro
o n
10 etvat,
t o
rrp w ro v
r is
K a d
(r d
r o v s )
k iv o v v
ecrn v
y a
r o v
e m o K e r r re o v
v v v .
K iv r ja e w v
Se to
avay/catov
fj
ev
/ctp
r r r r j a e i k tc o c o v , r a Se
rco v
o rerrep
a v p -
d rrd v rw v
a X X cov
r o v r o v 1
rrp o rep o v ,
e K a a r o v
a lr la s
fie v
r r o p e la
ocra p e v
/cat r i v e s
a K iv r jr o v
K a l
rrep l
e a n ,
o v k
r o
a K iv r jr o v ,
K a l
k i
e l
Set Se r o v r o f i r ) f i o v o v r c o X o y c p
aAAa /cat e r r l r c o v K a d e/cacrra
a ia d r jr cb v ,
St* d r r e p K a l r o v s K a d o X o v
Ao y o v s , K a l e<j>* w v e < f > a p f i o r r e i v o l o f i e d a
e a n v .
A a fie iv ,
rco v
r )r o v fie v
15 Setv a v r o v s .
c fr a v e p o v
aS v v a r o v K i v e i a d a i f i y S
fie v
ev
r w v
fio p iw v ,
a v r o is
r o ts
ffp e fie
y a p
K a l
e v o s
fjp e fio v v r o s ,
errl
^ w o is.
Set y a p ,
tv rt* /cat Sta r o v
1 TOVTOV E P Y : TOVTO S.
440
rrep l
K o iv r js
rcov
rro rep o v
t^ w w v ,
y e v o s ,
tcov
r ijs
a p x r)
k iv o v v
atStou,
K a d oX ov
/cat
rrep l
o v v
rco v
errea K errra i
o r r o ia v o v v
h ic b p ic rr a i
v r ja e w s
e a n ,
a IrL a i
r d
a v r o
K a l
r r js
v rra p x ei
Se v e v a e i r d Se
aAAou? r p o r r o v s r o i o v
v e lr a i
K a r
r iv e s
a v r o is ,
* oAoj? Se
e r e p o is
K iv r fo e w s
e K a a r o v
r o v r w v
o n
rrp w ro v
a v
K iv r jr a l
r o
at
K a p rra l
ON THE MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS

I. W e have inquired elsewhere 0 into the details of
the movement o f the various kinds of animals, the
differences between these movements, and the causes
o f the characteristics which each exhibit; we must
now inquire generally into the common cause of
animal movement o f whatever kind for some animals
move by flight, some by swimming, some by walking,
and others by other such methods.
Now that the origin o f all the other movements is
that w hich moves itself, and that the origin o f this is
the immovable, and that the prime mover must neces
sarily be immovable, has already been determined
when we w ere investigating 6 whether or not eternal
movement exists, and if it does exist what it is. And
this we must apprehend not merely in theory as a
general principle but also in its individual manifesta
tions and in the objects o f sense-perception, on the
basis o f which wTe search for general theories and
with which wre hold that these theories ought to
agree. For it is clear also in the objects o f senseperception that movement is impossible i f there
is nothing in a state of rest, and above all in the
animals themselves. For if any one o f their parts
moves, another part must necessarily be at r e s t; and
a In the De partibus animalium.
6 Physics viii. 258 b 4-9.
441
ARISTOTLE
roZ s
<o i s
ra ts
e la iv .
K a jin a Z s ,
K a fin r j,
K al
ev
p e r a fia A A o v
K iv o Z r o ,
(/cat
K al
n a v ra
y ap
ov
y iv e r a i
o re
d el
fj d p x q
ro v
fio p io v
K iv o v fie v o v
K al
aK eX ovs
to
eK aarov
ro v
y ap
o v S ev ), r d
c o fio s ,
rp on ov
ev
raZ s
rj
rov
Sta
r r jv
K a fin r jv .
ro
fie v
K iv e ir a i
ev
a>?
r ijs
o re
w an ep
fie v o i,
to
Se
ff
iv r a v d a
etvat
c f> a a l}
oe
fie v
K ev rp ov
n X a r r o v a iv
rw v
en
fia d r jfia r iK W V
o ia ip e r a .
o lo v
ro
o n
fie v
eêtv
e a r a i,
r jp e fie t
ro v
yov
ovv
r jp e fio v v ,
K al
fie v
Se
oX ov
K v r jfir js
la x lo v .
K iv o v fie v o v
aAA
fj2 a p x r j,
K arw dev,
Set
K a ju n a Z s S v v a f ie i K a l e v e p y e i a
o,
fie v
K C K a fifie v o v ,
K afin a ls ,
K a l rj
A T .
fj
w X eK pavov,
ro
r a is
a h ia lp e r o v
ev
n p os
f)
e v e p y eia
K iv e Z a O a i1
fie v
&
K al
fj fie v
y lv o ir o
xpw v rai
fie p o s s ev
ev d v
rw v
ov
K evrpw
oX ov
K iv o v fie v o v
K iv e Z a O a i,
ro
a ir w v
fie v e i
ro
K al
K al
K al
Staf i e r p
e l r ijs
S oK eZ
Se
ro
av
Suo,
K al
Se
y ap
y lv er a i
S vvapei
K a fin r o fie v o v
a r jfie Z o v
w an ep
K al
n p os
ro v
i>,
aA A
ovv
K iv o v fie v o v
fip a x lo v o s
kw X ov
Se
oX ov
K al
iv
odev
fj
ro v
av rw
apxT )
a n e p e iS o fie v o v
1 KiveiaOai E S Y : Kiveirai P.
* ij irpbs 6', y Jaeger: if Trpds 5 ij E Y : rj vp^rij ij S : if ttp6<ru>
(om. altero apx*l) P.
e.g. the arm as an arm is one, but is divided into two at
the elbow.
6 The term dpxv* which occurs frequently in this treatise,
is difficult to render in English by a single word. It is some
times used generally of the origin of movement (e.g.
701 b33), but more often of a localized origin of movement,
442
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, i.
it is on this account that animals have joints. For
they use their joints as a centre, and the whole part
in which the joint is situated is both one and two/1
both straight and bent, changing potentially and
actually because o f the joint. And when the part
is being bent and moved, one o f the points in the
joint moves and one remains at rest, just as would
happen if A and D in the diameter of a circle were
to remain still while B moved, and the radius AC
were formed. (In geometrical figures, however, the
______
centre is considered to be
in every respect indivisible
jr
a,
for movement, too, in such
/
figures is a figment, so they
f
s '
\
say, since in mathematics Dr---------- ------------jB
nothing actually moves,
V
whereas the centres in the
\
/
joints are, potentially and
x.
actually, sometimes one and
------sometimes divided.) Be that as it may, the origin 6
to which the movement can be traced, qua origin,
is always at rest while the part below it is in motion
the elbow-joint, for instance, when the forearm
is in motion, the shoulder when the whole arm is
moved, the knee when the shin is moved, and the
hip w hen the whole leg is moved. It is obvious, then,
that every animal too must have in itself something
that is at rest, in order to provide that which is
moved with the origin o f its movement, supported
whether, as here, in a single member, or at the centre of the

body, viz. the heart (701 b 25, 29), where a further idea of
ruling seems to be implied (e.g. 702 a 37). It is also used
sometimes in the literal sense of Mbeginning, and this and
the meaning of origin of motion may occur in the same
passage and cause confusion (e.g. 702 a 36-b 2),
p
443
ARISTOTLE
Kal
oXov
aO poov
K iv r jO r ja e r a i
Kal
K a ra
fie p o s ,
o fic o s
aK vpos,
c fra v ep o v.
II.
av
A A A a r r a a a
fir j
10 a i o v
eêt
K L v r ja iv
Set
t l
cti
o v tco s
15 a K i v r j r o v ,
fie v o v ,
iv
y ap
r fj
K al
/xaAA ov
el
y ap
y fj2
rj
el
Set
t i
eco
V T roS coaei
iv
ttttjo is
rj
d e l,
r fj
v e v a is ,
el
K iv o v fie v o v ,
K al
oX ov,
K iv o v fie v o v
fie v o v ,
coOfj
S ta
tco
rt
to
o v tco s
TTO Te
tov
to
K al
to
to ls
a K iv r jT o v *
Se
iv
cpov
K iv o v
fiv a l1 t o is
t tX o lo v
LOTOV
rj
rj
fj
ov
ia v S* i v
o v O o B o p e 'a ?
Se
el
to
e coO ev
t l
to v
e lv a i
fir j,
ov
aT ropov-
fie v ,
aAAo
av
tls
Trpoo/HaXXcov
avTcp
ov k
O aX aT ra
e lv a i
fir jS e v
to v to v
p a S lc o s ,
T itu o ?
to v
fio p io v
TreipaTai irpaTTeiv,
to v
K al
K iv e Z a O a i,
eT ep ov
ttX o Ico
25 o u t a v
ttjv
y ap
e lv a i
a r jp
fio p io v , K ivei
to v to
to v
oaov
T r o p e v o fie v o is ,
to v to
fia p T v p io v
k o v tco
n p os
K iv e ir a i
o to v
fir j
Se
K iv r jO r ja e T a i.
7r e p t
fio v o v
n o p e l a , e l f i r j rj y r j f i e v o i ,
avayK rj
20 t o v
a K L v r jr o v .
fie X X e i
a fific o
a v T e p e lh o i.
oX ov
ov
c ja r r e p
a r r e p e iS o fie v o v
to ls
K al
aAAa K a l
e lv a i,
T r p o e ia iv , ou S e a r a i o v r e
ovT e
O ec o p ia v
c fr o p a v .
a K iv r jr o v
TT pos o
r jp e fila
im o K e i/ja a O a i
ttjv
a>a a v v T e i v o v a a v ,
r a
T ravrds
avrcp
avT cp
d7rAa>S r j p e f i o v v
fj
im o T r ja a v T a s
X ex O ev ros'
im
fj i v
e ft oO ev
tl
tls
cov
tco
av Kivrjaeiev
7rvecov eacoOev e /c
T O V n X o l o V , e l T V \ O l TTVeCOV TO V TpOTTOV TO V T O V O V
1 fivjlv libri: e/iiVt coni. Diels.

2 yr} libri:
coni. Farquharson.
It is doubtful whether the m s. reading will bear this

interpretation, and iv Trj yr} is probably corrupt. It is more
444
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, i .-i i .

upon which it will move both as an integral whole
and in its several parts.
II.
Any quality o f rest, however, in an animal is o f
no effect unless there is something outside it which is
absolutely at rest and immovable. And it is worth
while to stop and consider this dictum ; for the re
flection which it involves applies not merely to animals,
but also to the motion and progression of the universe.
For just as in the animal there must be something
which is immovable if it is to have any motion, so
a fo rtio ri there must be something w hich is immov
able outside the animal, supported upon which that
which is moved moves. For i f that which supports
the animal is to be alw ays giving wTay (as it does when
mice w alk upon loose soila and w'hen persons walk on
sand), there will be no progress, that is, no walking,
unless the ground wfere to remain still, and no flying
or swimming unless the air or sea wrere to offer resist
ance. And that wrhich offers resistance must be other
than -that which is moved, the w hole other than the
whole, and that which is thus immovable must form
no part o f that wrhich is moved ; otherwise the latter
will not move. This contention is supported by the
problem : W hy can a man easily move a boat from
outside if he thrusts it along with a pole by pushing
against the mast or some other part o f the boat,
but if he tries to do this when he is in the boat
itself, Tityus could not move it nor Boreas by blow
ing from inside it, if he really blew as the artists
than likely that the comparison is with a mouse trying to
walk upon a heap of corn. Farquharson emends iv ry yrj to
iv Trj
which would bear this meaning. (The form &r}t
cp. Petrie Pap. ii. p. 69 (3rd cent, b.c.), would be nearer to the
m s . reading.)
Diels suggestion of ifxvaiv for pvaiv is in
genious, but does not give the required sense.
415
ARISTOTLE
05,0 u
776/5
ot
>>
ypacpeis n o i o v a i v
699a dcfrievra
yp a cfrova iv .
n v e v f ia
tls
ia v
eav
t*
tc
fj
c b O o v fiev o v ,
yap
la x v p c o s
n o ie lv t o v fie y ia r o v , i a v
fi e v o v
eg a v r o v y a p t o
r jp ifia
ovtco s
aAAo
Te
a va y K rj
n v e v f ia
p in rfj
t l fj t o
n pcorov
to
a v e fio v
oS ctt*
p m rov-
fie v
npos
f jp e f io v v t l t c o v a v r o v fiop icov a n e p e ih o f ie v o v cbQeTv,

5
etra
n a X iv t o v t o
fi o p i o v
OV,
fie v e iv .
t o f i o p i o v , fj a v r o fj
TTpos
Se
TCOV eco9eV
to
n X o lo v co9a>v i v tco n Xoico a v r o s
a>v K a l d n o a r r jp i ^ o f ie v o s
ov
77AoTov Sta
K iv e l t o
a n o a r r jp i ^ e r a i f i e v e i v
io
re
K iv e l K al
co9cbv fj
rvy y d vei
oS
TL aTTOCTTTjpiÔfieVOV
npos
TTpos t o
to
S*
o v fifia lv e i
o
eXkcov K iv e l '
n X o lo v
evX o y co s
a v a y K a l o v etv a i n p o s o
a vrc p t o
d n o o r r jp l ^ e r a i .
ovO ev
yap
a vro
e^coOev
fie p o s
fj
yrj t o v
n X o lo v .
I I I .
oX ov
'A n o p fjo e ie
o v p a v o v ,
fir jO e v
etv a i
o v p a v co .
y a p
a K iv r jr o v
tlv o s
i a n
r o
k iv o v v
fio p io v .
X e y o v r e s
o t io v v
t o v s
fj
X co
fio p io v
a p *
fio p io v
O iy y a v o v
o v S ev
t o v t o
y*
y a p
o lo v r a i
t o
n v a
a v
iv
K iv e l
e o r a t2
o X r jv
o w e ^ e s
B v v a fiiv
tco
a v r o v ,
K a l
e v 9 v s
r r js
t o v
K a l1
t o v t o
K iv e lv ,
' e ir
K iv e l
tl
/n jS
op O cos
< j> e p o fie v r js

fj
e i
a K iv r jr o v
k l v o v v t o s
h ia a n d o 9 a i
n o X o v s
K iv o v fie v o v
o fio ic o s
K a l
k v k
fie v e i
20 f i e v e i v ,
o n
o n
t l s
S et
a v r o
fir jh e v e lv a i fio p io v t o v
fie v o v
a v
T
o v p a v o v
t o v
e tre
is a v a y K r j
e lv a i
t o v t o
a K iv r jT o v
r o v
K iv o v
X e y o v a iv
a cfra lp a s
a v a y K a lo v
a v r r js .
e x e iv ,
o i
o v S
r jv
aA A *
o v 9 e v
scripsi: Kal tovto libri.

* Zarai Jaeger (cum Leon.): focaffat libri.
1 tovto Kal
0 Just as Odysseus' companions while seated in the ship

open the bags containing the winds, and the ship is blown
out of its course (Homer, Od. x. 46 ff.).
446
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ii.-m.

paint hima ; for they make him emit the breath
from his own lips. For whether one emits the
breath gently or so strongly as to create the greatest
gale (and the same is true if that which is thrown
or pushed is something other than breath), it is
necessary, first, that one should be supported upon
one of ones own members, which is at rest, when one
pushes, and secondly, that either this member itself
or that o f which it forms part, should remain still,
resting upon something which is external to it. Now
the man who tries to push the boat while he himself
is in it and leaning upon it, naturally does not move
the boat, because it is essential that that against
which he is leaning should remain s till; but in
this case that which he is trying to move and that
against which he is leaning, is identical. If, on
the other hand, he pushes or drags the boat from
outside, he can move i t ; for the ground is no part o f
the boat.
II I.
The difficulty may be raised, wiiether, if some
thing moves the whole heaven, this motive power
must be unmoved and be no part of the heaven nor
in the heaven. For i f it is moved itself and moves the
heaven, it can only move it by being itself in contact
with something that is immovable, and this can be no
part o f that w hich causes the movem ent; or else, if
that which causes the movement is from the first im
movable, it will be equally no part o f that which is
moved. And on this point at any rate they are quite
right who say that, when the sphere is moved in a
circle, no part of it whatsoever remains s till; for
either the whole o f it must remain still, or its continu
ity must be rent asunder. They are not right, how
ever, in holding that the poles possess a kind o f force,
447
ARISTOTLE
699a ,/
/ />
ovras ecrâra Kat a n y fia s ,
exovTas fieyeoos aAA
ov KaAcos. npos yap rcp firjSefiiav overlay etvai

tw v tolovtcov firjSevos, Kal Kiveladai rrjv filav
KLvrjaiv vito St/ofr aS v v a r o v to v s he noAovs Svo
25 7TOLOVCTLV.
c fr v a iv
OTL flkv OVV ^t TL Kal TTpOS TTJV SArjV

w anep
ovtcos
K iv o v fie v a
SC
S ia n o p r ja e ie v .
TTO LO vvTes
av
an t o
so r r e p l
T r js
S ia v o ia s
S id
A e y o v a iv
a v r r jv
to
la a ^ e iv
ttjv
tls
ttjv
ovrco
aTraêtS'
erep ov
c fr a v a i
Kal
S w a fie c o s
tcov
K iv e l
to
evros,
ea n
Kal
k iv o v v
e v a v r iw v
tcov
Kal
K pa rovvra i
tcov
ia x v v
K a d 1 r jv f i e v e i
e tr " A r A a s e ir e
k iv o v v
fio p io v
ttjv
fie v o v r o s
r jp e f iiw v .
a X A r jA w v ,
K a ra
TavTa
tols
e lv a i
Kal
t o v
r jv
t o vt o v
ovpavov
t o v
Sel
t o v t o is
ttjv
Kad
S o a ie v
a v fifia iv o i
f ir jS e v
Se
tls
cos
aAAa
Kal
S io n e p
to
av
e f a v a y K r js , w a n e p
vn
v7 T ep o x tfv.
ia n v
fiv d o v ,
fie v e iv .
rrp os
noSas
a rp e c fro vra
t o vto
y r jv
Kal
a v a A o y ia
K iv r ja e c o v ,
699 b i o a i
Kal
la x v o s
85 r o f i e v o v y w a n e p
eart
k iv o v v t o s
n A r jd o s
t i
o vt
ra
av
' A r A a v r a
t o v
t o vs
t o v
Kal
tolovtcov
fiv d iK W S
exovT a
<pa
Ta
tcov
e lp r jK e v a i
n a vros
t o v
npos
eK
Se
a v a y K a lo v
t o v
yrj
y r js
noA ovs
t o vs
Aoyov
yap
oi
errl
Sla fie r p o v
w anep
rj
vtcov
at
Se
tl
fie v
K a ra
to lo vto v
o u S ev
fia A A o v
a v r e p e l S e i v S e t r i j s f i o v r j s r j v rj y r j r v y x d v e i f i e v o v a a
fj
K iv r jd r ja e T a i
5 a V T r js
T onov,
c b d o v fie v o v
rj
yrj
cos
w d e lr a i,
ano
yap
Kal
to
t o v
fie a o v
w dovv
o fio ic o s
Kal
w d e l,
e/c
t o v
ovtco
/car* i a x v v .
to
K iv e l
0 i.e. their limbs. We should, however, perhaps read it'

avrwv the things which move of themselves ; Leon,
renders ea quae per se moventur.
448
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS,
h i.
since they have no magnitude and are only ex

tremities and points. For besides the fact that
nothing o f this kind has any substance, it is also im
possible for a single movement to be started by a dual
agency ; and they represent the poles as two. From
these considerations one may hazard the suggestion
that there is something which stands in the same
relation to Nature as a whole as the earth stands to
the animals and the things which are moved through
them.
Now those who in the fable represent Atlas as hav
ing his feet planted upon the earth would seem to
have shown sense in the story which they tell, since
they make him as it were a radius, twisting the
heaven about the poles ; it would be a logical account,
since the earth remains still. But those who hold
this view must declare that the earth is no part of the
universe ; and, further, the force o f that which causes
the motion and the force o f that which remains still
must be equal. For there must be a certain amount
o f force and strength in virtue o f which that which
remains still remains still, just as there is a force in
virtue o f which that which causes motion causes
motion ; and there is o f necessity a similar proportion
between absences o f motion as there is between
opposite motions, and equal forces are unaffected by
one another, but are overmastered by a superiority.
Therefore Atlas, or whatever else it is o f like kind
within that causes motion, must not exert any pressure
which is too strong for the equilibrium of the earth ;
or else the earth will be moved away from the centre
and her proper place. For as that which pushes
pushes, so that which is pushed is pushed, and in
exact proportion to the force exerted ; but it creates
449
ARISTOTLE
Se t o fjpefiovv Trpcorov, w a re fiaXXov K a l rrXeicov
rj lo x v s fj o fioia K a l tor) rrjs f)pef iia s . w aavrcos
Se Kal rrjs1 t o v Kivovfievov f iiv , fir) k iv o v v t o s Se'.
Toaavrr)v ovv Serjoei rrjv Svvafiiv elva i ttJ s yrjs
iv t w rjpefieiv oarjv o re rrds ovpavos e ^ e t K al
10 t o k iv o v v a vro v .
el Se ro v ro aSvvaro v, aSvvaro v
K a l t o KiveiaO ai ro v ovpavov vtto n v o s to io v t o v
tcov iv r o s .
IV .
"Ecrn- Se' n s arropia rrepl r a s Kiviqoeis rcov
ro v ovpavov fiopicov, rjv cos o vaav o lK eiav t o is
elprjfievois im a K e ijja iT av n s . ia v y a p n s vrrepfiaXAr) rfj S vvafiei rrjs Kivrjaecos rrjv rrjs yrjs
15 ffpefiiav, SfjXov o n Kivrjoei a vrrjv a n d ro v fieaov.
\
tr
p /
tt
>
Kai r) ioxvs o ap r)s avrrj rj ovvafiis , o n o v k

aneipos, <f>avepov ov Se yap fj yrj arreipos , c o o t
ov Se t o /iapos avrrjs. in e l Se t o aSvvarov Xeyerai
nXeovaxcos (o j 5 yap coaavrcos rrjv re cf>covrjv aSvvarov
(j>afiev elvai opaOrjvai Kal rovs irrl rijs oeXrjvrjs
20 v<j> fjficbv ro fiev yap i avayKrjs, t o Se n ecfrvK os
opaadai o v k oÔ rjaerai) , ro v S ovpavov a<j)9aprov
elvai Kal aSiaXvrov olofieda fiev ef avayKrjs etvai,
ovjjifiaivei Se Kara ro v ro v ro v Xoyov o v k e f avayKrjs *
7Te<j>vK yap Kal ivSex^rai elvai Kivrjoiv fiei^co
Kal a f t rjs fjpefiei f ) yrj Kai a <f>' fjs Kivovvrai t o
25 trvp Kal t o avco ocbfia. el fiev ovv elaiv a i virepexovaai Kivrjoeis, SiaXvOrjaerai ra v ra vtt* aXXrjXcov.
1 t t js P S : i j Y :
ai
E.
a i.e. its central position in the universe.

6 i.e. the region between the air and the moon ( Meteor.
340 b 6 ff.).
450
ii i . - iv
motion in that which is first at rest, so that the force

exerted is greater than the immobility rather than
similar and equal to it, and likewise greater than the
force o f that which is moved but does not create
movement. Therefore the power o f the earth in its
immobility will necessarily be as great as that pos
sessed by the whole heaven and that which sets it in
motion. If, however, this is impossible, the move
ment o f the heaven by any such force within it is also
impossible.
IV .
A problem also arises about the movements
o f the parts of the heaven, which might well be dis
cussed, since it is closely connected with what has
been said above. I f one were to overmaster the im
mobility o f the earth by the power o f motion, one will
obviously move it away from the centre. Moreover
it is clear that the force from which this power is de
rived is not infinite ; for the earth is not infinite, and
so its weight is not infinite either. Now the word
impossible is used in several senses (we are using
it in different senses when we say that it is impossible
to see a sound, and when we say that it is impossible
for us to see the men in the moon ; for the former is
o f necessity invisible, the latter are o f such a nature
as to be seen but will never be seen by us), but wfe
hold that the heaven is o f necessity impossible to
destroy and dissolve, wrhereas according to our present
argument it is not necessarily so ; for it is within the
nature o f things and the bounds o f possibility that a
motive force should exist greater both than that
wrhich causes the earth to be at rest and than that
w'hich causes the fire and upper body b to move.
If, therefore, the overpow ering motive forces exist,
these will be dissolved by one another; but if they
451
ARISTOTLE
699 b
el fir) e lo l fiev, ivS exerai S elvai (aireipov yap

evSexerai Sta t o fir)Sev ocbfia ivSexôOai
aneipov elvai), eVSeôtT* av SiaXv6ijvai tov ovpavov.
ti yap KcoXvei tovto ovfi/3fjvai, ehrep fir) aSvvarov;
30 ovk aSvvarov Se, el firj ravriKelfievov avayKalov.
aAAa Trepl fiev rrjs anopias ra vrrjs erepos eorto
ovk
Aoyoj.
*A Pa Se Sel aKivrjrov n elvai Kal rjpefiovv eco
r o v Kivovfievov, firjSev ov eKeivov fiopiov, fj o v ;
Kal r o v r o n orep ov /cat en l ro d n a v ro s o v t c o s
v n a p xeiv avayK alov;
locos y a p av Soêiev a ron ov
35 elvai, el rj ap\r) rrjs Kivr)oecos e v r o s . Sto Soelev
av r o ts o v t c o s vnoX afifiavovoiv ev elprjodai ' Ofirfpco
aAA
700a
ovk av epvoait ei; ovpavodev neSiovSe
Z rjv * vnarov navrcov, ov S el fiaXa noXXa Kafioire
navres
eânreaOe 8eol naoai re deaivai.
to
yap oXcos aKivrjrov vn

ouSevoj evSexerai
KivrjOrjvai.
oOev Xverai /cat r) naXai Xe-)(6el(ja
anopia, norepov evSexerai fj ovk evSexerai Sta5 XvOrjvai rrjv r o v ovpavov o v o ra o iv , el
aKivrjrov
rjprr)ra i apxfjs.
E m S ^ TCOV ^\tpCOV OV fiovov TO OVTCOS aKlVT)TOV
Sel vnapxîv, aAAa /cat ev a vrois ro ls Kivovfievois
Airetpov] sc. kIvt}<tiv. The argument is as follows: these
overpowering motive forces might exist and be dissolved by
one another, because if ihey can be dissolved, they are not
infinite, and the reason why they are not infinite is that they
act upon what is finite, and the infinite cannot act on the
finite (De caelo, 274 b 23 ff.).
b It is discussed in the Physics and De caelo.
452
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iv.

do not really exist, but there is a possibility o f
their existing (for an infinite motive force is impos
sible because an infinite body is also impossible),
it would be possible for the heaven to be dissolved.
For what is there to prevent this happening i f it
is not impossible ? And it is not impossible, unless
the opposite proposition is inevitable. But let us
leave the discussion o f this question for another
occasion.6
Must there, then, or must there not, be something
immovable and at rest outside that which is moved
and forming no part o f it ? And must this be true
also o f the universe ? For it would perhaps seem
strange if the origin o f motion were inside. And so
to those who hold this view Homers words would
seem appropriate :
Nay, ye could never pull down to the earth from the
summit o f heaven,
Zeus, the highest o f all, no, not if ye toiled to the utmost.
Come, ye gods and ye goddesses all, set your hands to
the hawsers.
For that which is entirely immovable cannot be

moved by anything. And it is here that we must
look for the solution o f the problem stated some time
ago, namely, whether it is possible or impossible for
the composition o f the heaven to be dissolved, seeing
that it depends upon an origin which is immovable.
Now in the animals there must exist not only that
which is immovable in this sense,d but there must
also be something immovable in the actual things
which move from place to place and which themselves
c I l i a d viii. 20-22.
The lines are quoted in the wrong
order and the t e x t u s r e c e p t u s reads /xij<rrw/)* for tt& v t w v .
d i . e . something immovable and at rest which is outside
that which is moved and forms no part o f it ( c f . 699 b 32).
453
ARISTOTLE
0a
K a ra
oaa
tottov
t o /xev r j p e f i e i v
10 f i e v o v
a n o p r jo e ie v
Kal
ro
H oy
vn
(o v
* aAA o v
ovtcos
rc o v
Se r o i o v r c o v
r o ia v r a
20 r t
ia r lv
S^
aia
onep
nvp
n a v ra
K iv e ir a i
Ao y o s
rd
K iv e ir a i,
yap
Kal
S ia t f r e p e i
rco v
npos
n o io v a iv
o l
npos
tcov
/cat
f j r c o v a t jj v x c o v
n a v ra
Se
n a v rco v
a v ra
iv
a v r o is
e % e iv
a n e p e io e r a i.
et Se
k iv o v v ,
n p co rco s
npos
p lifs a i
Kal
a S r jX o v ,
d p \ fjs .
r o ia v r r js
a v a n v e o v ra
n rv o v re s
K iv o v v r a
e ip r jr a i* ra
cocov
Kal
o
r r js
fie y a
K iv e ir a i
n p co rco v .
a v ra
fie v
Kal
nepl
K iv fj
T T p os
a v a y K rj
a ip v ^ a , a p \ r j
a v a y K rj
/cat e c o
ti
cos
oaa
/cat
fj y fjv
ocra K i v e i r a i , n a v r a
e iS o fie v a
ovSev
nepl
a v co re p co
aAA o s
Kal
< b fn fy c o v
k iv o v v ,
ra v ra
K iv o v f ie v c o v
fjp e fio v v ,
to
o to v
a n e p e iS o av
O a rep o v
a n e p e lS e a O a i
K iv e ir a i r a
rc o v
yap
to
Kal
r a v r a , fj a S v v a r o v ,
yap
Se? y a p a v r o v
a n a v r * eêt e v e a v r o i s
n o re p o v
fjp e fio v v r c o v
15 r t , aAA 1 v(f>*
yap
r r e p l Se r c o v
av n s ,
r fp e fio v v
a v ra
K iv r ja e r a i, o lo v
a n e p e iS e r a i
O a re p o v.
fie v o v
a v ra
Se K i v e i o O a i , T T p os o
K iv o v f ie v o v
to
f io p ic o v
tcov
K iv e l
to
ra
ra
efco a n e p -
Kal
iK n v e o v r a .
fia p o s
fj
p r jr r o v r e s
fiiK p o v ,
Kal
oi
25 ela n ve o vre s Kal iK n v e o v r e s .
V.
U o r e p o v S i v rco a v r o k i v o v v t i K a ra r o n o v
fiovco Set n
fie ve iv, fj Kal i v ra> aXXoiovfievcp avrq>
v(f?
Kal
nep l
Se yeveoecos
rrjs i dpxfjs Kal (frOopas aAAos Aoyos*
el y a p i a n v
a vrov
avf;avofievip ;
1 d\V J aeger: a W a P : A W E S Y .
454
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iv.-v.

move themselves. For while one part o f the animal
must be in motion, another part must be at rest,
supported upon which that will be moved which
is moved, if, for example, it moves one o f its parts ;
for one part rests on another part in virtue o f the
fact that the latter is at rest.
But regarding inanimate things which are moved,
one might raise the question whether they all possess
in themselves both that which is at rest and that which
creates movement, and whether they too must be
supported by something external which is at rest.
Or is this impossible for example, in the case o f
fire or earth or any inanimate thing but motion is
due to the primary causes by which these are moved ?
For all inanimate things are moved by something else,
and the origin o f all the things that are thus moved is
the things that move themselves. Among things o f
this class we have already dealt with animals ; for all
such things must necessarily have within themselves
that which is at rest and something outside them on
which they are to support themselves. But whether
there is something higher and primary which moves
them is uncertain, and the question o f such an origin
o f movement is a matter for separate discussion. But
animals which move all do so supported upon things
outside themselves, as also when they draw their
breath in and out. For it makes no difference whether
they propel a great or a small weight, as those do who
spit and cough, and breathe in and out.
V.
But is it only in that which moves itself in
respect o f place that something must remain at rest,
or is this also true of that in which alteration is
caused by its own agency and in that which grows ?
The question o f original coming into being and
455
ARISTOTLE
700a u
JL
'
in
rjV7Tp (pafxev TTpajrrj k ivy jg is , y e ve a e w s /cat <pvopas
so a v rrj a tria av eir), Kal t u >v aXXcuv S e kivt )G ojv lgqjs

rraocov.
a>G7Tp S
KLVTjGLS
7Tp(X)T7]
av^rj(T(DSi d
iv
t<
aVTYj,
ttot
oAo>,
/cat
TtXedjOfj-
WGT
Kal
/cat
a A A o ta ia e a js , et Se fn?, ot5/c a v a y m ).
ai5^<Tt?
ei> t o j
y tV e T a t, au To a u r a i a m o v
OTa^
a t Se 7rpcorat
/cat aXXoLcoaeis vtt* aXXov y lv o v r a t
Kal
35 St* e r ip a jv ' y e v io c a js 8c Kal <f>9opas ovSajia>s olov
700 b t c
avro
a in o v
y a p Set t o
tov
elvai
k l vo v v
y e v v to fie v o v
au ra )
tov
a vro
o vS ev.
irpovirapxiv
KLvovfievov Kal t o yevvGyv

S
avrov
irporepov
ovSev
ic r n v.
[lev ovv $vxfjs, etVe /ctvetTat fj firj,

Kiveirai, 7rporepov eiprjrat ey
Tot? Sta>pt(7/i,eVots 7Tpl avrfjs.
iirel Se r a aif/vxa
Travra /ctvetTat i5<* erepov, irtpl S c 1 r o u 7rpwrov
Kivovfiivov Kal del KLvovfxevov, rtV a rpoirov /ctvetTat,
Kal webs KWt TO 7TpCxiTOV KLVOVV, StCOptCTTat 7TpOTpOV
V TOLS 7Tpl TTjS 7Tpd)T7]S (f)iXoG 0(f)last XOLTTOV S
10 c a r t 0 6 a iprjaat tt&s y] fax?) k l v c l t o
Gtbfia, Kal
t l s d-PXV TVS Tv ^wov Kivrjarecos.
t c j v yap aXXcuv
Trapa rrjv t o v oXov k l v t j g l v Ta epLi/jvxo. atVta tt}?
V I.
Kal
U epl
et /ctvetTat, 7 t u >s
KivrjGews,
ocra
/ctvetTat
vtt*
aXXrjXojv
Sta
to
rrpoGKOTTTeiv aXXtfXoLS. Sto /cat iripas exovGiv

avTwv TTaaai a t KivrjGeis* /cat y a p /cat at tcDv
15 ifiipvxojv.
iravTa yap ra a>a Kal k l v t Kal
/ctvetTat
7T a G T )S
eve/ca
tlvo s
(H g
T o in iv T iv
. . .
oi)K
b i.e. the Metaphysics.
to v t
TO
c g t iv
avTO cs
OV V K a . OpO)fJLV
ES : fxkv Y.
dvaL rt
(M ich.).
w a y ktj
a ^ a v o f i i v u v v<p' avruiv fjpejxovv
456
T7)S K lV rjG (Jt> $ 7TpaSt
tuv
a W otov/JLivw
Kal
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, v.-vi.

corruption is a different one ; for if there is, as we
assert, a primary movement, this would be the cause
of coming into being and wasting away, and per
haps o f all the other movements as well. And as in
the universe, so in the animal, this is primary motion,
when the animal comes to perfection; so that it is
itself the cause o f its own growth, i f this ever takes
place, and o f any alteration which occurs ; otherwise
it is not necessary that something should remain at
rest. But the first growth and alteration occur
through anothers agency and by other means, and
nothing can in any way be itself the cause o f its own
coming into being and wasting away ; for that which
moves must be prior to that which is moved, and that
which begets to that which is begotten, and nothing
is prior to itself.
VI.
Now whether soul is moved or not, and if
it is moved, how it is moved, has already been
discussed in our treatise On Soul. But since all
inanimate things are moved by something else and
how that which is primarily and eternally moved is
moved, and how the prime mover moves it, has been
already set forth in our work on First Philosophy b
it remains to inquire how the soul moves the body
and what is the origin o f movement in an animal.
For, if we exclude the movement o f the universe,
animate things are the cause o f movement in every
thing else, except in things which are moved by one
another through coming into collision with one
another. Therefore all their movements have a
lim it; for the movements o f animate things have a
limit. For all animals move and are moved with
some object, and so this, namely their object, is the
limit o f all their movement. Now we see that the
457
ARISTOTLE
Sc
K iv o v v r a
ra
a )o v
to
S ia v o ia v
<f>avra(jiav
/c a t
K a l TTpoaipecrLV K a l fto v X rja iv K a l e m d v fiL a v .

ira v ra
Se
207)
a va yera t
e ls
vovv
(f>avracFLa K al rj a t o ^ c r t s
e x o v G iv
KpLTLKa y a p
ras
e lp q fiiv a s
Kal
d v fio s
a ip e o is
TO
to
ov
S ia v o la s
Sta voTjTov,
Sto t o
KaXov
to
fj TeAos* ecjrt
tojv
fj
to
K iv e i r a i
/c a t
r a
to
y/
tco v
fie v
7T pas
a y a O c jv TO KLVOVV, aAA*
aAA o v
K al
K L v e ir a i,
S e
701 a
o p e is
K a l
rj
Se
fir j
<f>aLvofievov y a p
f ie v ofxoicos
eon
d el
tov
m ? \\
tw v
K a X ov,
fj
^ o jo jv
/c a t
iT o re
klvovvtos
c \
aA A cu s,
fie v
o lo
k lv t)(jls
t o
7 rore
/c a t
e^ et
d \ 7 )0 a > s
K a l
OVV
to
T T p C xiT O V
OV
o p e K T iK o v
t o )v
< f> a v e p o v
K L V O V fl V O V
K iv o v / ie v o v
K a l
S e
K iv o v fiev co v
S e/c
ovk
to v t c jv
K L v e l,
K L v e i.
avayK T ]
K a l
o tl
1 xpdrepov E S Y : irpos 'trepov P.
2 t l add. Jaeger.
0 De anima, iii. 427 b 14 ff.

458
ra vrrj
fir f,
K a l T L jiL c jr e p o v fj c o o t e lv a L T r p o r e p o v 1 T t2.
fie V
T eX evra X ov
o v S ev .
a tS tov
a y a O o v
85 O e L o r e p o v
To
m to
to
r r p c jr c o s
^Su*
eo T i
ovtcov,
<f>aivofievov a y a d o v
to
K iv o v fie v o v
eK a o T o v ,
aAAo, /cat
tovtov
eVe/ca
tlvos
otl
d e l
7T&V
TeAos*.
irpaKT<x)v
eVe/ca
q )o > v
K ivei
OV
tcov
a ta re S 77Ao v
d el
caare
8 ia V 0 7 ]T 0 V .
tw v
a y a Q o v x w p a v * X LV> KaL T
so io T L v a y a Q o v .
7Tp o -
o p e ^ e o js '
TO
Se
o p e is , rj S e
yap
Set Se T iO iva L
k l v l .
Kal
Kal
K a ra
fio v X rja is
S ta ^ op a s*.
a XX a
ia n
tolovtov
7 Tav
a v r r jv ra> vepov<Ji S e
K a l 7TidvfAia Travra
k olvov
7Tpa>TOV
25 Se
ev
K a l o p etjiv .
rj
to
S
Se
K iv e lv
ev X oycu s
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vi.

things which move the animal are intellect, imagina
tion, purpose, wish and appetite. Now all these can
be referred to mind and desire. For imagination
and sensation cover the same ground as the mind
(since they all exercise judgement) though they
differ in certain aspects as has been defined else
where. But will, temper, and appetite are all
forms o f desire, while purpose partakes both of
intellect and o f desire. So the objects o f desire and
intellect first set up movement not, however, every
object of intellect, but only the end in the sphere o f
action. So amongst good things it is the good in the
sphere o f action that sets up movement, and not any
and every go o d ; for it sets up movement only in so
far as it is the motive of something else or the end
o f something which has something else as its object.
And we must lay down the principle that the apparent
good can take the place o f a real good, and so can the
pleasant, for it is an apparent good. So that it is
clear that in one respect that wThich is eternally
moved by the eternal mover, and the individual
animal, are moved in a similar manner, but that in
another respect they are moved differently ; and so,
while other things move eternally, animal movement
has a limit. Now the eternally beautiful and that
which is truly and primarily good, and not at one
moment good and at another not good, is too divine
and precious to have anything prior to it.
The prime mover, then, moves without itself being
moved, but desire and the desiderative faculty set
up movement while being themselves moved. But
it is not necessary that the last of a series o f things
which are moved should move anything ; and from
this it is clear that it is only reasonable that pro459
ARISTOTLE
701 a
cpopa
re A e v ra ia
fie v o is 1 *
O t) o
iv
/ctyeiTat y a p /cat r r o p e v e r a i
to
^ a io v 6 p e e i
a X X oLC od evros
n vo s
K a ra
o v f ifia iv e iv
ore
{xev
to
reX os
(o r a v
o v fn r e p a o fx a
S e/c
iv ra v 9 a
y lv e r a i
to
K iv e ir a i;
7rept
K al
yap
rco v
avdpcoTrcp,
evd ecos, a v
15 auTO? S
ra s
evoiqoe
on
a vros
8vo
aK ivrjroov
Kal
/xev
ir p o r a a e is
o v v e 8 7 ]K e v )f
ovfXTrepaofia
v o rjo r] o n
S
eot/ce
ore
aAA* e/cet
t c o v S u o T rpora oecov t o
r\ TTpaîs, oTov o r a v
Sl o r e o v
at-
r r jv
T rp d rrei
ov
S ia v o o v p ie v o is K a l o v X X o y i^ o f x e v o is .
10 decop^jxa
/ctvou-
< f> a v r a o ia v .
7Tapa 7rXrj<ji(x)s
v o rjo r /,
rots*
IIa>? Se v o w v
/cat K iv e ir a i, o r e
7 Tparrei,
>
ev
fj r r jv
V II.
/
y iv o fx e v c o v
5 77 r r p o a i p e o e i ,
o
A
rcov
r r a v n f$ a -
avO pcoiros,
/JaStet
o v S e v l f i a h io r e o v v v v avdpcoTrco,
avOpcoiTOs, e v 9 v s rjp efx ei' K a l r a v r a afic/yco
t t p a r r e i,
av
firj n
kcoXvtj fj
d v a y K a ^ r j.
rro irjre o v
aya#ov rroiei o iK ia v e v d v s .
o K en a crfx a ros heofxa i, i f i a n o v Se o K e ir a o f i a * i f i a r i o v
S e o fia i.
ov
S e o fia i, T r o ir jr e o v i f i a r i o v
Seo/zat*
20 i f i a n o v TTOirjreov.
/cat t o o v f i ir e p a o f ia , t o i f i a n o v
7TOl7)TOV, TTpa^lS COTIV. 7TpdrTl S (XTT* dpX ^S *
e l i f i a n o v e o r a i , a va y K rj r o S e TTptbrov, e l Se ToSe,
ToSe* /cat r o v r o ttp a r r e i e v d v s . o n fie v o S v fj
rrp d îs t o o v f i n e p a o f i a , (f> a ve p o v at Se ir p o r a o e is
at TTOirjriKal Sta Suo etScov y i v o v r a i , Sta re t o v
25 aya0o /cat Sta t o v h v v a r o v .
fio i
a yaO ov,
t,Q . O 'n e p
Se
oIkLa
r c b v e p c o rc o v rc o v e v i o i , o v r c o r r jv e r e p a v
1 Ktvovfxivois Jaeger: ytyvofiivois libri.
0 i.e.
460
th e ob jects o f science ;
cf. An. Post.
71 b 18 ff.
ov
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vi.-vn.

gression should be the last thing to happen in things
that are moved, since the animal is moved and walks
from desire or purpose, when some alteration has been
caused as the result o f sensation or imagination.
V II.
But why is it that thought sometimes results
in action and sometimes does not, sometimes in
movement and sometimes not ? Apparently the
same kind o f thing happens as when one thinks and
forms an inference about immovable objects.0 But
in the latter case, the end is speculation (for when you
have conceived the two premisses, you immediately
conceive and infer the conclusion) ; but in the former
case the conclusion drawn from the two premisses
becomes the action. For example, when you conceive
that every man ought to walk and you yourself are a
man, you immediately walk ; or i f you conceive that
on a particular occasion no man ought to walk, and
you yourself arc a man, you immediately remain at
rest. In both instances action follows unless there is
some hindrance or compulsion. Again, I ought to
create a good, and a house is a good, I immediately
create a house. Again, I need a covering, and a
cloak is a covering, I need a cloak. What I need I
ought to make ; I need a cloak, I ought to make
a cloak. And the conclusion I ought to make a
cloak is an action. The action results from the
beginning of the train o f thought. I f there is to be
a cloak, such and such a thing is necessary, i f this
thing then something else ; and one immediately
acts accordingly. That the action is the conclusion is
quite clear; but the premisses which lead to the doing
o f something are o f two kinds, through the good and
through the possible.
And as those sometimes do who are eliciting con-
461
ARISTOTLE
T r p o r a a iv
tt) v
S r jX r jv o u S f j 8 i a v o i a e < j> iG T a o a O K O T r e t
el
to
o vh ev
o lo v
avTos
avdpconos,
f ia h il, iv
ayadov
a vd p coT rco,
X o y i o a f x e v o i T r p a T T O f i e v , r a x v 7 T p a T T O [x e v .
e v e p y r jc r r }
fj
30(j y a v r a o l a
fj
rfj
a io d r jo e i
vcp,
tco
ov
irp o s
ora v yap
eVe/ca f j
o fi
to
op ey eT a t,
o t i
Sto K a l o o a fxrj
e v h ia r p ifie i.
o v k
e v d v s iro ie T *
e p c o T 'q c r e c o s y a p f j v o r j o e c o s f ] r f j s o p e ^ e c o s y i v e r a i
e p y e ia .
ttotI o v
[x
o i,
jx e v
ovv
im
to
K iv e ia d a i
fj
eV-
ToSt Se 7t o t o v ,
7) e T T i d v f i l a X e y e i *
fj a i a O r jo i s e l n e v fj f ) (f > a v r a a i a fj o v o v s
ovtcos
av t
* e v d v s n iv e i.
Kal
a )a o p f x c b o i , T r j s / x e v e o x a r r j s a l r l a s
rrp a T T ew
ra
K iv e io d a t
t o v
85 o p e e c o s o v o r j s , T a v r r j s Se y i v o f x e i n r js f j St* a l o d r j a e c o s
77 S t a < f )a i > T a o i a s K a l v o f jc r e c o s .
T r p a T T e iv
ra
tcov
St i m d v f x i a v
fx e v
fj
S o p e y o /x e v c o v
d v fio v
701 b o p e t ; i v f j f i o v X r j c n v T a f x e v 7 r o i o v o i , r a Se
Se T a
''O .G T r e p
ttp
Ta
Se S t
aTTOVOW
a v T O fx a T a K iv e iT a i fx iK p a s K iv f jo e c o s
y i v o f x e v r js , X v o f ie v c o v t c o v o r p e f iX c b v K a l K p o v o v a c b v 1
[r a j
aXXyXas
5 (
to)
/cat t o a f i a ^ i o v , o n e p
/civet e l s e v d v , K a l 7raAtv
o rp e fiX a s ],2
3 o x o v fx e v o v
a vro
k vk X co
K iv e iT a i
(o
eAaTTcoi' c o o i r e p
iv
yap
to is
eêt
c / )v g i v
tco
K v X l v S p o i s ),
yap
Kal
opyava
t r jv
a v io o v s
o vto j
T o ia v T a
tc o v
% X iV
K evTpov
o g tco v,
Kal
t r jv
Ta
r v $
Tpoxovs
y iv e T a i,
K adanep
Ta
t
fx ev
<3a K i v e i T a i .
tc o v
vevpcov
cos
e/cet Ta
1 Kpovowwv scripsi (Leon, renders laxatis seque mutuo m pellentibus vertebris): Kpovdvruv libri.
* ras (rrptpXas seclusi.
3 t6 addidi.
a For this technical use of ipwrav cf. An. Prior. 24 a 24.
* By the removal of the pegs (tfXa), cf. below, 701 b 9, 10.
e The context seems to show that the t o jr-c a rria g e was
on an axle which coupled two wheels of unequal diameter.
There is, however, no evidence for the existence of such toycarriages in antiquity.
462
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vn.

elusions by questioning,0 so here the mind does not
stop and consider at all one o f the two premisses,
namely, the obvious one ; for example, i f walking is
good for a man, one does not waste time over the pre
miss I am m yself a man. Hence such things as we
do without calculation, w e do quickly. For when a
man acts for the object which he has in view from
either perception or imagination or thought, he
immediately does what he desires ; the carrying out
o f his desire takes the place o f inquiry or thought.
M y appetite says, I must drink ; this is drink, says
sensation or imagination or thought, and one
imm ediately drinks. I t is in this manner that animals
are impelled to move and act, the final cause o f their
m ovement being desire ; and this comes into being
through either sensation or imagination and thought.
And things which desire to act, at one time create
something, and at another act, by reason either o f
appetite or o f passion, or else through desire or wish.
The movement o f animals resembles that o f
marionettes which move as the result o f a small
movement, when the strings are released 6 and strike
one another ; or a toy-carriage which the child that
is riding upon it himself sets in motion in a straight
direction, and which afterwards moves in a circle
because its wheels are unequal, for the smaller wheel
acts as a centre,6 as happens also in the cylinders.4*
Animals have similar parts in their organs, namely,
the growth o f their sinews and bones, the latter cor
responding to the pegs in the marionettes and the
d The marionettes seem to have been worked by means o f
cylinders round which weighted strings were wound, the
cylinders being set in motion by the removal o f pegs.
463
ARISTOTLE
vX a
10 < L v
Kal
ovv
t o is
r a Se
u lh iq p o s ,
X v o /x e v c o v
Kal
a v T o p .a T o is
a X X o L w a ig ,
i n el
Tpo\ol
ir a X iv
Kal
iK iv e iT O *
vevpa
Kal
el
to is
iy iv o v T O
jx e i^ o v s ,
Kal
fx e v c o v .
S at
d X X o io v o i
at eVvotat.
Kal
tc o v
01
to
iv r o s
at
r) v o r jc n s
20 7t o v
fj
yap
Ta
fx e v
o lo v
vep
Kal
< j> p L T T O va i
/cat
Se
/
T ra d rj
n avTa
?>
fx evcov o
to
yap
Sta
9 e p / x 6 r r )T a
Kal
a X X o io v ~
at
a la d r jo e is
a lc r d r jo e is
77p a y p a n o v
Se
fj
e v tco
tco v
evdvs
fio fio v v T a
Kal
O e p fx o v
t
Sto /cat
jx o v o v .
e lo lv .
o c o / x a T i T a f x e v fx e ii.c o T a
/cat
Tpo-
T vyxdve
eK aoTov,
t roTjcravTe?
d X X o ic o o e is
vtt-
< j> a v T a (J ia
e x o v o i S v v a fx iv
T T p a y fia T c o v
Kal
/x e T a -
o x ^ fx a T a
i/jv iv
o5crat,
auTO
avTo
to etSos* to v o o v / x e v o v t o t o
77Se o s f j (f> o f$ e p o v t o l o v t o v
T iv a
ip v x p o v
oV
25
T 7 ]v t c o v
kvk X co
(/ )a v r a a l a i K a l
a p x o v G i v a X X o ic o o e is T iv e s
fx e v
iX a rro v s
fx o p ic o v
Sta
o v a r e X X o ix e v c o v
iv
e o n v
h vva ra i
avâvo^Levcov
T r a X iv
v rp e fiX a v
ovk
fx e i^ o v K a l e X a r r o v y iv e o Q a i K a l
is f i a X X e i v ,
a i
a jx a ^ io i s
Kav
Se to)
iv
(b s
K iv o v v r a i.
a v ie fx e v c o v
T avTa
dAAotouw
eA aT T W
Se [ i i K p a f x e r a ^ o X r ) y i v o f x e v r ) i v d p x f j
f x e y a X a s /cat TroAAas* Trotet Sta < j> o p a s a i r o d e v , o v k
a S r j X o v o l o v t o v ota/cos* a K a p i a i o v t l f x e d i G T a / x e v o v
7ToX X rj f / r f j s r r p t o p a s y i v e T a i f x e r a o T a o i s .
t l Se
K a r a d e p y L O T r jT a f j i p v i v f j /car aAAo t l t o l o v t o v
y iv e r a i.
o n
Traô? o T a v
30 /cat
iv
T T o X X rjv
Kal
y e v r )T a i
ra vrrj
7 to l l
 p iK a is
iv
nepl
t t jv
S i a < f )o p a v
Kal
K a p 8 (a v ,
a v a L o d r jT c p
T p o /x o is
ix o p iio
ip v d r j/x a c n
Kal
to is
e ip y y r a i,
ttjs
eVai'Ttots*.
'A p x rj
fie v
ovv,
cooT rep
0 The reference is probably to some part of the toycariiage.
464
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vii.-vm.

iron, while the sinews correspond to the strings, the
setting free and loosening o f which causes the move
ment. In the marionettes and the toy-carriages no
alteration takes place, though, i f the inner wheels
were to become smaller and then again larger, the
same circular movement would take place. In the
animal, however, the same part can become both
greater and smaller and change its form, the mem
bers increasing through heat and contracting again
through cold and thus altering.
Alteration is
caused by imagination and sensations and thoughts.
For sensations are from the first a kind o f altera
tion, and imagination and thought have the effect
of the objects which they present; for in a way the
idea conceived of hot or cold or pleasant or terrible
is really o f the same kind as an object possessing one
of these qualities, and so we shudder and feel fear
simply by conceiving an idea ; and all these affec
tions are alterations, and when an alteration takes
place in the body some parts become larger, others
smaller. Now it is clear that a small change taking
place in an origin o f movement b causes great and
numerous changes at a distance; just as, if the rudder
o f a boat is moved to an infinitesimal extent, the
change resulting in the position o f the bows is con
siderable. Furthermore, when, owing to heat or
cold or a similar affection, an alteration is caused
in the region o f the heart and even in an imper
ceptibly small part of it it gives rise to a consider
able change in the body, causing blushing or pallor
or shuddering or trembling or the opposites of these.
V III. The origin, then, o f movement, as has already
b i.e. here, the heart, c f below, 701 b 30 ; see also note on
698 b 1.
465
ARISTOTLE
K iv r ja e c o s
i
to
35 a v T c o v
rrp a K T cp
TO
Kal
ifs v tjis *
TTjSv
c r v fifia lv o v ),
f jS e a
tt a v r a
oêSov
d e p f l O T T jT O S .
TOVTO
Si
fi T a
O e p f jL o r r jT o s
o c b fia
rj
* fJ L v fjfia i
X p c b fie v a t
fia X A o v
jx k v
yap
(d X X d
ecrrt
/ x era
S r jX o V
Se
to cs
atrta t
K a l f jS e a
TCOV
/cat
fiiv
ore
fie v
O K X r jp a
TOV
TpO T T O V
T TOITJTIKOV
X axov
fliv
T T 7 rrjy o T a
a X X r jX c o v .
t o v t c jo v
TOVTOVs
T O ia V T T J V
e lp y jK a jie v ,
TTOITJTIKOV T O
Kal
Tt
l \ O V T (x y V
c57r d r a v
Se
TOV
v v p ififj
Kad
oXov
c IS c o X o ls
t jt t o v
ore
Se
ei5Aoya>S
e/c TTTTrjyoTCov
/cat
TTJV
ra A A a
Kal
7rept Tas* a p x d s
eV ro? /cat r a
vypcov
Kal
/card j x o p i o v
co o t
t c o v S p y a v L K O fv fio p L c o v f i e T a p a X X o v r a
/cat
tc vo s
otov
etcrtV.
a vrcov
7Tpl
X v ir r jp a
T T a d r jfia T C O V .
Se
e A m S e j,
to c o v to is ,
tcDv
Ta
ecrrt, T a
i/s v ^ e to s
Si
97819 S r ) [ i i o v p y L T a i r a
10 u y p a
ra
i p v t je c b s
X v ir r jp o v
X a i 0 a V l
K a l <f>of}oL K a l d ^ p o S i c n a a f i o l
orojfJLaTLKa X v r r r j p a
5 to
to
S lC O K T O V
to v to
d a p p rj y a p
/cat ( p e v K T O V
o ic o k to v
fiiK p d
702 a K a l
ra
tc o
d e p jjL o r r js
Cf )C V K T O V ,
ra
ev
S a K o X o v O e i t t } v o r jc ret K a l t j j < f> a v r a c r la
a v a y K r js
/cat
fx a X a K a
o v jif ia iv o v r c o v
T T a O lJ T lK O V
(f )V O i V
c3ot
O ia V
Kal
TToX-
e tvat
to
Se T T a O rjT L K O V , K a l f i r j S i v aTToXiTTrj
auT<3v e/carepor rwi' i v t o j X o y c p , e v d v s t o j i i v

7T0tet to Se 77acr^;et. Sta touto S afta cis* l t t l v
v o e t OTt 7T o p e v T e o v K a l Tropeuerat, av pafj rt e/ttto S l^ tj e r t p o v .
ra /ter yap o p y a v L K a [ x i p r j r r a p a cr/ceuaêt eVtr^Setcas Ta T r d O r j, rj S opets ra
T r d d r j, t t j v S o p e i v rj (fr a v T a a r la * a v T T j Se ytVerat
O\
/
* > * /D'
'
\
rj ota v o r jo e c o s rj ot a io U r jc r e c o s . a jx a oe /cat raû
20 Sta t o ( t o ) 1 t t o c t j t l k o v K a l T r a d r jr iK O v t c o v ttp o s
a X X r jX a etvat t r jv <f>v<nv.
1to adcl. Bonitz.

466
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vm.

been said, is the object o f pursuit or avoidance in the
sphere of action, and heat and cold necessarily follow
the thought and imagination o f these objects. For
what is painful is avoided, and what is pleasant is
pursued. W e do not, it is true, notice the effect of
this in the minute parts o f the body ; but practically
anything painful or pleasant is accompanied by some
degree o f chilling or heating. This is clear from the
effects produced. Reckless daring, terrors, sexual
emotions and the other bodily affections, both pain
ful and pleasant, are accompanied by heating or
chilling, either local or throughout the body. Re
collections too and anticipations, employing, as it
were, the images o f such feelings, are to a greater or
less degree the cause o f the same effects. So it is
with good reason that the inner portions of the body
and those which are situated near the origins o f the
motion o f the organic parts are created as they are,
changing as they do from solid to liquid and from
liquid to solid and from soft to hard and vice versa.
Since, then, these processes occur in this way, and since,
moreover, the passive and the active principles have
the nature which we have frequently ascribed to them,
whenever it so happens that the one is active and the
other passive and neither fails to fulfil its definition,
immediately the one acts and the other is acted upon.
So a man thinks he ought to go, and goes, practically
at the same time, unless something else hinders him.
For the affections fittingly prepare the organic parts,
the desire prepares the affections, and the imagina
tion prepares the desire, while the imagination is due
to thought or sensation. The process is simultaneous
and quick, because the active and the passive are by
nature closely interrelated.
467
ARISTOTLE
25
T o S e k lvovv rrpcoTov t o cbov avdyKrj elva i ev tlv i

d p x fj . fj S e Ka/iTrrj otl fiev e c r r t t o v jie v apxfj t o v
\ \
/
^ ^
\ yf
\
t
* /
oe t eAevTTj, eip rjT ai . oto /cat eort jxev cos evi, ecrrt
S cSs* Sucrt xPîTai V </>v g ls a v rfj. o ra v y a p K ivfjTai
ivTV0V, avdyKT) TO fJLV fjpfjLLV TCOV G'tjf.LeiCOV TCOV
Se
ia x d r c o v , t o
a7repetSecr0ai
K iv e ia O a i' o t l y a p n p o s fjp e/x o v v

k l v o v v , e ip r jr a i 7rp o T ep o v.
to
Set
K iv eiT a i
jx ev o v v K a l o v K ivei t o e o ^ a T O v t o v fi p a x i o v o s , Trjs S
/ctretrat t o i v avTcp
S etm t Tt /cat a K iv rjT o v ,
i v tco chXeKpavcp Ka/juJjecos t o ji e v

tc o oXcp K L V ovjiivcp , a v a y K r )
30 0
Se
S 77
</>aiiv S v v d f ie i ji e v e v e lv a i a rj/x eiov, i v e p y e l a
ylvecrdat
T a vd
av
eVet S
Suo*
7t o v
et
dor
rjv
fj
coov rjv fip a x L iov, i v -
to
a p x fj
Trjs
evSeêTat /cat 7rpos
*pvxr)s
t t jv
fj
K iv o v o a .
X ^Pa
* X tv
71
o v t c o s t c o v a i/jv x io v, o l o v e l K ivoirj t r jv fia K T rjp la v

iv
35 rj
Trj X lpt> (f>CLvepov o t l

ipvxr)
tco v
K Lvovfxevov
702b
iv X o v
oooTe
drro
io x d T co v,
o u t*
iv
eêt K al a p x f jv K a l
Sta y e t o v t o , el jxfj i v
Trjs
'ftvXVS
&PXV
KapTTov,
ou Sev
K al t o v t o
ya p
to
a v eirj i v
iv
eVepa
rfj
tc o
a p x f j.
T eX os
K al
yap
7Tpos t t j v
to v
to
êtpa.
ouS
iv
rfj
X LP ^
K p ov Trjs x lP $ rrpos t o v
fxepos TTpos t o
hia<])epei T a
ouSerepaj
iorxdrcp
T jj fiaKTTjpla fj Kivovcra
ZvecrTiv,
ofioLCos y a p e ^ e t K a l t o
ovk
o u t
cbX eK pavov.
TTpocrTrefjiVKOTa tcov jxfj
a i.e. the same relation as the forearm has to the elbow.

6 i.e. the end of the stick where it meets the hand.
c i.e. the origin of the movement of the hand which is
situated in the wrist.
d It is impossible to find a word in English which covers
the double meaning given to dpxv here and in the previous line
(see note on 698 b 1). The sentence tcai yaprb^vXov . . . x&Pa
explains why the apxv Ktprivew of the hand is called ij irtpa
a-PXV* viz. that there is another apx?? (in the sense of be
ginning **) in the stick, namely, the point nearest the hand.
468
v iii.
Now that which first causes movement in the

animal must be situated in a definite beginning.
Now it has already been stated that the joint is the
beginning o f one thing and the end o f another ; where
fore nature employs it sometimes as one and some
times as two. For when movement is being origin
ated from it, one o f its extreme points must be at
rest, while the other must move ; for we have already
said that what causes movement must be supported
on something which is at rest. The extremity, there
fore, o f the forearm is moved and does not cause
movement, but in the elbow-joint one part, namely
that which is situated in the actual whole which is in
motion, is moved, but there must also be something
which is unmoved ; and this is what we mean when
we say that a point is potentially one but becomes
actually two. So if the forearm were a living creature,
it is somewhere near this point that the origin o f move
ment set in motion by the soul would be situated.
Since, however, it is possible for an inanimate object
to bear this same relation to the hand,a for instance
if one moves a stick in one's hand, it is clear that the
soul could not be situated in either of the extremities,
neither in the extremity o f that which is moved b nor
in the other origin o f movement (dpxv) c >for the stick
has an end and a beginning (dp \y ) d in relation to the
hand. So, for this reason, i f the origin o f movement
set up by the soul is not situated in the stick, it is not
situated in the hand either ; for the extremity o f the
hand e bears the same relation to the wrist as the
latter does to the elbow. For there is no difference
between what is attached by growth and what is not
i.e. the point where the hand joins the stick.
469
ARISTOTLE
y iv e r a i
y ap
tb o ir e p
avayK rj
a p a
iv
rj
to v
[le v
apX V >
iv
a v (jjT p (x )
to v
io x a r o v
et
K a p T T tp .
tl,
(h X eK p av ov
rj
f}a K T r jp ia .
e/cetVou i i j c o r i p c o ,
ir e p o v
fia K T r jp ia s
to v to v
lo ^ e tp t, o t l
y ap
ttjs
[ lip o s
e tV a t d p x f j , V c c r rtv a A A o v
et r t i o r l v
T tX z v T r j, [ ir jS e
o lo v
a < f> a ip T o v
[ ir jS e jiia
rj
iv
Se
o v S
apx?)
[iIv o v to s
r fj
fir ) S
X lp i
iv
r fj
iv T a v d a *
ert
K iv e iT a i
arrav
to
K a rco o w e ^ e j.
IX .
Kal
E êt
a rro
tc o v
cScrre [ i f j
etva i
a p io T e p o v
15 a v c o T e p w
fir jS
tco
Kal
yap
tw v
tco
d [i < j)O T i p (x )V
aK pcov t o
K a T w , o lo v
Tas
c r v jip ip T jK e v
< f> a (i v ,
TOTTOV
w o t
TOV
ix o fic v a
[i v a
d rro
Kal
T r js
r fs
yap
to
TTJV
d p x ty
Kal
T a fio p ia , c o o t i
c p o is .
1 xal scripsi:
tc o
to
rw
[l i o c o
to v
K a l1 T a s
S e^ et
a vcu K a l
and
t t js
Se t o v t o
iv T a v O a
e lv a i
S ta
t t jv
KO.I
[l T a f } d X X o V T O S
a v a y K r js
to
iv
evX oycos
o v [i [i T a f i d X \ i iK T C L v o f ie v a
25 TTJV KLVTJOLV t o l s
K iv e io d a i
o fio ic v s
and
a lo O r jT L K o v
a X X o L o v jiiv o v
TTpl
Tas
K (f )a X f js
paxw .
a p iO T p c b v
K iv e iT a i,
k l v o v o t j s ' d [i < f )O T p o jv
e c r^ a ro v .
Kal
tu > v
e/cetvo, a e t S i v
a p x r /, a v a y K r j
rj
[l i o o v
exovoL
a iro
r d v a v T ia
Set o v
to
to v to
K iv r jo e is t o v t o
20 p a x ^ c o s t o l s
a jia
r jp e jie iv
av
c i v a i t t j v a p x r jv T r js f a x y s
7 rp os T a s
eêt
o fio lw s
S e g ic b v ,
a io d r jo iv
to v
T<X
re K a l o v v a y o -
S ta r a t r r a y i v e o d a i
Se j i i o o v t o v
o d /ia T o s
ttpos libri.
This is simply a restatement of the doctrine of 702 b 1-4.

The true dpxv is not situated in the extremity of the stick
nearest to the hand (which is an Apxv as being the place
where the stick begins in relation to the hand), nor yet in any
other member, such as the wrist, which is still farther away
from the stick and is an apxv as being the origin of motion
in the hand. The wrist, elbow, and shoulder are all of them
470
v i i i . - ix
so attached ; for the stick becomes a kind o f detached

member. The origin o f movement, therefore, cannot
be situated in any origin which is the termination of
something else, nor in any other part which is farther
from i t ; for example, the origin o f movement o f the
extremity o f the stick is in the hand, but the origin
of the movement o f the hand is in the wrist.0 And
so if the origin o f movement is not in the hand, be
cause it is still higher up,6 neither is it in this higher
position ; for, again, i f the elbow is at rest, the con
tinuous part below it can be set in motion as a whole.
IX.
Now since there is similarity in the left and the
right sides o f the body, and the opposite parts can be
moved simultaneously, so that it is impossible for the
right side to move just because the left is at rest or vice
versa, and the origin o f movement must be in that
which lies above both sides, it necessarily follows that
the origin o f movement in the moving soul must be
between them ; for the middle is the limit of both
extremes. And it stands in the same relation to the
movements above as to those below, to those, for
example, which proceed from the head and to those
which proceed from the spine in animals which have
a spine. And there is good reason for this ; for we
say that the organ of sensation is also situated in
the centre o f the body ; and so if the region round
about the origin o f movement is altered by senseperception and undergoes change, the parts which
are attached to it change with it by extension or con
traction, so that in this way movement necessarily
takes place in animals. And the central part of the
apx&i in relation to the parts below them, but the true apx'fj
is situated in the soul, which lies in the centre of the body.
b i.e. the wrist.
471
ARISTOTLE
702 b
/
jx ep os
8v v a /x ei
yap
dpxrjSy K a l
Q a repov
Se t o
80 t o
a jxa
to
ti
KcbXa
d a rep ov
and
Trjs
K iv e iT a i .
K iv e iT a i, K tvei
rjp ejx eiv, e l jxeXAei
Se K iv e iv .
ev
apa
S vva /x ei o v
e v e p y e la S v o e o r a i , d io r * a v a y K rj jxrj O T iy /ir jv
aAAa
jx ey eO o s t i
a/xa tco
aAAa
e lv a i.
aSot
K iv e io O a i,
a p x d s T a s e v tco A
/xrjv
jx ev o v .
e v tco
Set
K iv o v fx e v a s K iv e iv .
a n e p e iS o iv T O
at
apx<xl
evSe'êTat
to
a va y K rj afx<f>OTepas T a s
e lv a i n a p a T a v r a s e r e p o v t o
35
a v a y K rj y iv e o O a i
ra
rjp e/x ovvT os
/xev K iv e io O a i t o
to
K iv e ir a i
S o l o v i n i Trjs A B T
A . aAAa jxrjv Set y e
Xeyco
fxev e v , i v e p y e i a
nXelco K al
t i apa
k l v o v v K a l fxrj k l v o v -
jxev y a p
av
Ta
aKpa
K al at
n p o s aXXrjXas K ivov/xevcov, w o n e p
703 a a v ei T ive s T a vcoTa a vT e p e iS o v T e s K iv o ie v T a OKeXrj.
aAAa
k ivo v v
to
ajxffxo
a v a y K a io v
e o T iv rj tyvxrj, e r e p o v jx ev o v o a
t o lo v t o v , ev to v tc o
X.
K a ra
5 a lr ia v
T rjs
K iv e i
Tt
fx r j
o c b jx a
T tva
tovtco
K al
eôvTa
(t l s
n v ev /x a ro s,
ttjv
Se
a p x r jv
/x ev
r jv
to
Se
lo x v v .
ovv
rj
iv
/x ev
to
8*
n d v ra
o c o T rjp ia
i/jv x ^ K r jv e o i K e v
n a o x ^ iv
Se
S et
K iv o v /x e v o v
a v a y K a io v
o v /x < j> v r o v
a X X o is .)
A eyovra
jx eo o v ,
o c o /x a o i
ovv
SvvaT ai
klvo vv
k o t
e ^ e tv
< f> a lv e r a i
K al
tov
tovto
Ta
lo x v o v r a
o v /x < j> v T O V
Se
n pos
o / x o l c o s e ^ e tv o j o n e p
a See Introd. p. 436.

472
tov
o p e ^ is
i/x ijjv x o is
t o is
n v ev /x a
e ip r jT a i
rj
K iv e iv
to
S v v a /x iv
S v v a /x iv
K al
Se
X oyov
tov
io r lv
to lo vto v
7T e< j)V K d s
aAAo r p i a v
10 <pa
ev
to v to
jx e y e O o v s t o v
ovoa.
ovv
K iv r jo e c o s
K L V O v fx e v o v
e lv a i
jx e v
jx ev
e lv a i.
to v
T r jv
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ix.-x.

body is potentially one, but actually must necessarily
become more than one ; for the limbs are set in
motion simultaneously from the origin o f movement,
and when one is at rest the other is in motion. For
example, in ABC, B is moved and A moves it ; there
must, however, be something at rest
if one thing is to be moved and
another is to move it. So A, though
potentially one, will be actually two,
so that it must be not a point but a
magnitude. Again, C may be moved
simultaneously with B, so that both
the origins in A must cause movement by being
moved ; there must, therefore, be something other
than these origins which causes movement without
being itself moved. Otherwise, when movement took
place, the extremities, or origins, in A would rest
upon one another, like men standing back to back and
moving their limbs. There must be something which
moves them both, namely the soul, other than such
a magnitude as we have described but situated in it.
X.
In accordance with the definition which defines
the cause o f motion, desire is the central origin, which
moves by being itself moved ; but in animate bodies
there must be some bodily substance which has these
characteristics. That, then, which is moved but does
not possess the natural quality o f setting up move
ment may be affected by a power external to it, and
that which causes movement must possess some
power and strength. Now all animals clearly both
possess an innate spirit and exercise their strength
in virtue o f it. (What it is that conserves the innate
spirit has been explained elsewhere.) This spirit
seems to bear the same relation to the origin in the
473
ARISTOTLE
703a
> ,
^
to ev r a is
fievov,
7T v e v f i a
15 r r o r e p o v
y iv e r a i
yap
del
Set
'
o ls
eêt
Kal
Ta
K a rco
S ta
Ta
rrp o s
ov.
del
(o
rj
a vros
avco
to v
a v r r jv
rrvp coS rj
to
vtto
Kal
Kal
Kal
a lr ia v ,
Kal
K o v < f > 6 r r jr a
/xeXXov Kiveiv jxrj
f ia p v r e p o v
to v
e X is ,
T r v e v jx a r o s
Kara
aXXrjXcov,
o cb fx a ra
to v
Kal
S vva o9ac
e lv a i KpaTet y a p
c f y v o iK a
v i to
re
o v o r e X X o jx e v r j,
t r jv
Sec Se
to lo vto v
Se f i a p v
to
rrjv
fxev
a n o v iK c o f x e v o v ,
K o v < f> o re p o v .
j x e v o v v K i v e i k l v o v f x e v c p jx o p i c o rj i f j v x r j t t i p r j r a i ,
V T T o X r jT r r e o v
Se
30 > q )o v c o o i r e p 77oAtv e v v o i x o v i i e v r j v .
ev
St* r j v
a ir ia v
orav dnag o v o rfj1 rj racs, ovSev

jx o v a p x o v ,
y c v o jx e v c o v ,
co s
tovto
K a l n a p e x ^ iv
cools
rj
S e o T iv
a fila o r o s
eva v ria .
Ta
e lv a i
avdveo9ai
(h o n K r j
fia p o s
v r r e p o x r jv
Kal
to ls
(f r a i v e r a i
Aoyoj
aXXos
K iv r jo e c o s
ro ca v rrj
yap
Kal
25 aXXoicooei
rQ t
a p x rj
T T v e O fia
to
k lv t jt lk o v
T r js
opyavov
Kal
npos
to
eorco
^ p o s to
to
ftla o r iK r j
K o v c fy o v
iv r a v d a
eon
ra vrov
8 e p y a
Ta
o v o re X X e o 9 a c.
<J)v
rj
/
klvo v
K a l r r e p l r c b v a X X c u v { x o p l o o v ) * (f > a i v e r a c S
e o n
20 & o r e
\
/cat
k iv o v v
7T e l
o vjxc ^ v t o v
erep ov}
e v (f> v a > s X o v
lo x v v .
to
S e v r e p a v a X o y o v , S ta
to ls
to
ovv
ju e v
o r jp c e io v ,
a K iv r jT o v .
to
T fj K a p S ia
to
K a jn r a is
npos
jx e v e v
Kal
ov
Set
aAA*
r e r a K r a i,
T r a p e iv a i
auT o?
Kal
Set
T ra p '
eK a oros
y iv e r a i
ovveoT a va c
t
ToSe
to
y a p T f j iro X e c
Kexojpcojxevov
eK
T r o ie i
f ie r a
a u ro v
ra
to
tc o v
a vrov
Se
Sta
1 (Ti'flT# P : arr) ESY.

For this meaning of aplaaTos c f . Plato, Tim. 61 a . The
action of the trvevna is represented as resembling that of the
breath in the lungs ; when the breath contracts it lacks force
and the lungs collapse, when it expands it thrusts outwards
and exercises force.
b Namely, expansion.
474*
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, x.
soul as the point in the joints, which moves and is
moved, bears to that which is unmoved. Now since
the origin is in some animals situated in the heart, in
others in what corresponds to the heart, it is therefore
clear that the innate spirit also is situated there.
Whether the spirit is always the same or is always
changing must be discussed elsewhere (for the same
question arises about the other parts o f the body) ;
at any rate it is clearly well adapted by nature to be
a motive power and to exercise strength. Now the
functions o f movement are thrusting and pulling, so
that the organ o f movement must be able to increase
and contract. And the nature o f spirit has these
qualities ; for when it contracts it is without force,
and one and the same cause b gives it force and en
ables it to thrust, and it possesses weight as compared
with the fiery element, and lightness as compared
with the contrary elements.6 Now that which is to
create movement without causing alteration must be
o f this kind ; for the natural bodies d overcome one
another according as one of them prevails, the light
being conquered and borne down by the heavier and
the heavy borne up by the lighter.
W e have now stated what is the part by the move
ment o f which the soul creates movement and for
what reason. The constitution o f an animal must be
regarded as resembling that o f a well-governed citystate. For when order is once established in a city
there is no need o f a special ruler with arbitrary
powers to be present at every activity, but each indi
vidual performs his own task as he is ordered, and one
act succeeds another because o f custom. And in the
c The contrary of fire is water, cf. Be gen. et corrupt. 331 a 1.
d i.e. the elements.
Q
475
ARISTOTLE
to
35
e8os'
4 >vcn v
ev
a va ra vrw v
S e iv
703 b
ev
re
y iv e r a i
 v K e v a i
eK a orov
epyov,
aAA*
r jv f i e v
rcb
ev
a jc r r e
n v i
ttjv
ovrco
f ir jS e v
a p x fj T v
7 r p o o T r e < f> V K e v a i,
Se to e p y o v to a v r c b v Sta r r j v < f)v c riv .

X I . IT cos fiev ovv K iveirai ra s eKovaias Kivrjcreis
r a cbas Kal Sta rlvas a ir (as, e ip rjra r Kiveirai Se
5 n v a s Kal aKovaiovs evia rcbv fiepcbv, ra s Se
7rXelaras ox>x eKovaiovs. Xeyco S aKOvaiovs fiev
olov rrjv rrjs KapSlas re Kal rrjv rod atSotou (noXXaKis
yap <j>avevros n v o s , ov fiiv r o i KeXevcravros r o v
vov Kivovvrai), ovx eKovaiovs S olov v t t v o v Kal
eyprjyopaiv Kal avam otfv, Kal ocrai aXXai r o ia v r a l
10 elcriv.
ovOevos yap rovrcov Kvpia arrXcbs earlv
ovO rj <f>avraa(a ov9 rj opeis, aXA eirei^r) avayKrj
aXXoiovodai r a a)a <f>vaiKTjv aXXolojaiv, aXXoiovfievcov Se rcbv fiopicov r a jxev avea6ai r a Se (f>6lveivt
u>ar rjSrj KiveiaOai Kal fierafiaXXeiv ra s ire^vKvias
exôOai fierafioXas aXXijXcov (a lr ia i
Se rcbv
is Kivrjcecjjv Oep/jLorrjres re Kal ipvtjeis, at re OvpaOev
Kal a t evros vrrapxovaai (f>vaiKai), Kal at irapa
ro v Xoyov Srj yivofievai Kivr/creis rw v prjOevrwv
fjLoptcov aXXoidxrecDs avfirreaovarjs y ivovra i. rj yap
vorjais Kal rj <j>avraaias warrep eiprjrai nporepov, ra
TroirjriKa rcbv Tradrjfiarcov 7rpoa<f>epovaiv r a yap etSrj
20 rcbv 7TOirjriKcbv 7rpoa<j)epovaiv. fiaX iara Se rw v
fxopicov ra v ra rroiel emStfXcos Sta t o coarrep cbov
Kex^Jpicrjievov eKarepov elvai rcbv fiopicov [ ro v ro v
T T O ie iv
a See note on 698 b 1.

b Viz. the heart and the privy member.
45 701 b 18 ff.
476
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, x.-xi.

animals the same process goes on because o f nature,
and because each part o f them, since they are so
constituted, is naturally suited to perform its own
function ; so that there is no need o f soul in each
part, but since it is situated in a central origin o f
authority over the body, the other parts live by
their structural attachment to it and perform their
own functions in the course o f nature.
X I.
W e have now discussed the manner o f the
voluntary movements o f animals, and the cause o f
them. Some o f their parts, however, undergo certain
involuntary movements, though most o f these are
really non-voluntary. By involuntary I mean such
movements as those o f the heart and o f the privy
member, which are often moved by the presentation
o f some image and not at the bidding of reason. By
non-voluntary I mean sleeping and waking and respira
tion and the like. For neither imagination nor desire
is strictly speaking responsible for any o f these move
ments ; but, since animals must necessarily undergo
physical alteration, and, when their parts undergo
alteration, some increase and others decrease, and so
their bodies immediately move and undergo the
natural sequence o f changes (the causes o f their
movements being the natural heatings and chillings,
both external and internal), the movements too of
the above-mentioned parts 6 which occur contrary to
reason are due to the occurrence o f a change. For
thought and imagination, as has already been said,
induce the states which cause the affections ; for
they present the images o f the things which cause
them. Now these parts act in this way much more
conspicuously than any others, because each is as it
were a separate vital organismf, the reason being that
477
ARISTOTLE
703 b
0 a lt lo v
K a p S la
rcbv
,/
otl
cba rrep
al
K iv r ja e is
to ls
(l o p i o i s
Kal
7T p o s
v o r ja a
v o v v r a i,
Se
a r ffie lo v
Ic o o v
T fj
a7t o
tl
T r js
Kal
rj
re
a X X r jX a s
to v
a p x fj
o vtco s
a?to
T r js
errl t o
\n
to
a7ro Se t o v B
cos
1 cos arr a p x t fs -
tcov
o tl
a n e p fia r o s
tc o v
t t jv
Kal
a v fi/H a iv o v a i,
Set
a < f> iK V o v v T a i.
K iv r ja e is
S v v a fiis .
fio p ic o v
KaO*
ap x ty
K L v o v / i e v 7 ]s
yap
eK a a rov
Kal
a < f> iK fie r a -
e V e tS ^ 7roAAa S v v a f i e i e a r i v , r j j x e v r o v
A e X Q e iv
>>>
a
yiv er a i rj
704a flOpLOLS, OT
it je p x e T a i
^vX oycos
d p x r js
y e v v r jT L K O v
yap
d rro
dpXVs
B a p x v ^7Tt t o B , r j S e t o v
677* d f i (f )c o .
<
rj f ie v o v v
a p x & S * X L
yap*
to
t c o v e m y e y p a fifx e v c jo v e m
Kal
P a X X o v c r r js ,
3*> B
/i i
ra s
fio p io v
A a PXVV% a 'L ^ v
t to
30c j T o i x e i o v
to
ic r T L ,
a vT od
Se
St r j v a i r i a v
< f> a v e p o v
a ia d r ja e c o v
25 t o l o v t o v
e x o v a i v v y p o r r jr a QcoTLKrjvj.
T e7rt t o T , rj S a fi< f )O iv
errl
t o T t c o 2 a n to f i e v t o v
t o v A
e7ri
o\ < \ \
'4
f
oe oT e fie v r a v r a vorjaav rj rrapa t o v Xoyov ev t o l s
eV* a p X V v > <*770 Se
*f
otl
klvtjgls
OLTLOV TO OT flV VTTapX^V TrjV
OU,
Se firj r o a a v r r jv rj r o i a v r r jv ,
H epl fie v o v v tc o v fiop icov e K a a r o v t c o v cocov,
704 b Kal rrepl tftvxrjs, e n Se rrepl alaOrjaecos K a l v t t v o v
TraOrjTLKrjv vX rjv o r e
Kal fivrffiiqs Kal Trjs

r a s a ir ia s Xolttov
Koivrjs Kivrjaecos, elprjKafiev
Se rrepl yeveaecos elrreiv.
ut interpolamentiim del. Jaeger.

3 yap om. EY.
3 t< E P ; T<p Y : to 8t S.
4 ravra Jaeger: ra aira P : raGra ESY.
1 toutov . . . ôniK-qv
* These words are probably an interpolated gloss; they
478
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, xi.

each contains vital moisture]. The reason for this as
regards the heart is plain, for it contains the origins
o f the senses. That the generative organ is o f the
same nature is shown by the fact that the seminal
force comes forth from it, being as it were a living
thing. Now it is only in accordance with reason that
movements are set up both in the central origin by
the parts and in the parts by the central origin,
and thus reach one another. L e t A be the central
origin ; the movements at each letter in the diagram
drawn above b reach the central origin, and from the
central origin, when it is moved or undergoes change
(for it is potentially many), the origin o f movement
in B goes to B, and the origin o f movement is C to C,
and o f both to both ; but from B to C it travels by
going from B to A as to a central origin, and from
A to C as from a central origin. M ovem ent, however,
contrary to reason, sometimes takes place and some
times does not take place in the organs as the result
o f the same thoughts, the reason being that the
matter which is liable to be affected is sometimes
present and sometimes not present in the proper
quantity and quality.
W e have now dealt with the reasons for the parts
o f each animal, the soul, and also sense-perception,
sleep, memory, and general movement. I t remains
to deal with the generation o f animals.
are unnecessary in view o f the follow in g sentences and con
tradictory in doctrine to them.
b See figure on p. 473.
479
PROGRESSION
OF ANIMALS
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction. Problems which arise about
animal locomotion.
Different number of limbs and
different modes of bending them found in different animals.
II. Assumption o f gcnerally-accepted principles and
definitions.
III. Animal movement requires (1) a resisting surface
against which the limbs can press, (2) a distinction of
active and passive parts in the animal.
IV. The dimensions of living bodies. Superior and
inferior determined by function and not by position.
Plants and animals compared. Distinction of front and
back, right and left. The right, as the source of move
ment, superior to the left. Man the most highly differen
tiated of the animals.
V. Bipeds, quadrupeds, polypods and footless animals
distinguished. Quadrupeds inferior to bipeds. Man the
highest form of biped, being the most natural.
V I. All movement in the animal must originate in a
common centre, equidistant from the centres of movement
in the limbs.
V II. Red-blooded animals move at four points: such
animals are a continuous whole, while bloodless animals
and polypods are composed of a number of separate
entities.
Even limbless red-blooded animals move at
four points.
V III. Reason for the absence of limbs in snakes. Limbs
necessarily even in number.
IX . Flexion necessary to movement, even in limbless
animals. Its mechanism explained. Illustrations from
leaping, flying, and swimming animals.
X. Movement of birds. Use of the tail to guide flight,
482
C h ap.
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
X I. Man, the only erect animal, compared with the
birds. Winged human beings an impossible invention of
the artists.
X II. Differences of flexion in the limbs of man and of
the quadrupeds explained.
X III. The different modes of flexion enumerated and
illustrated by diagrams.
X IV . Diagonal movement of the legs of quadrupeds.
Movement of crabs.
XV. Birds and quadrupeds compared. The structure
of the legs of birds. Oblique attachment of wings and
fins. The structure of oviparous quadrupeds.
X VI. Movement of bloodless animals. The peculiar
movement of the crab.
X V II. Crabs, lobsters, flat-fish, and web-footed birds.
X V III. WTiy birds have feet, while fishes have not.
Fins and wings compared.
X IX . The movement of testaceans. Conclusion,
ABBREVIATIO NS USED IN TH E
A PPARATU S CRITICUS
Z = Codex Oxoniensis Collegii Corporis Christi W.A.
2.7.
U=Codex Vaticanus 260.
S = Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.
P = Codex Vaticanus 1339.
Y = Codex Vaticanus 261.
Leon. = Latin translation of Nicholas Leonicus.
Mich.= Greek commentary of Michael Ephcsius.
483
IIE PI nOPEIAS ZQIQN

704 a
I.
ii p i
TCOV
X p rjC lfliJ O V
y /
fJLOplCOV
TO LS
l,< {)O lS
5 7T p O S TTJV K L V T ja iV TTjV KCLTOL T07TO V 7 n (T K 7 T T O V S t a

tlv
a ir lav
V K V
rcbv
ia rtv eKacrrov avrcbv Kal rivos
tolovtov
V 7T apX ^ L
aV TO LS,
S e 7Tpl TCOV 8ia<j>O pCO V
TL
r e n p o s a X X r jX a
tols
t o v
7T p o s T a
tcov
aX X cov T W V
fjLOpLOLS, K a l
<f i o p c o v .
7T p c b T O v
Se
a vrov
A a f i c o f ji e v
K al iv o s
nepl
coov
S ta -
y iv e i
tco
oacov
im
OK7TTOV.
10
"E c rrt Se n p c o r o v
K iv e ir a i
fie v
a r jfie lo is ,
r e r r a p a t r a S a v a i f i a
tlv *
ra
a v r ia v
ra
T eT pdrroS a
S ta t l
n a v r
u n 6 8 a s
ra r
av rcb v
Se
484
ra
Se
tco v
eêt t o v s
oX co s S o l s
ol
fie v
toa
e v a ifia
S tV o S a
ra
e o rt,
cocov
noSas, o a a n e p
K iv e ir a i
a lr ia v
a r jfjie io is ,
tco v
aK eX & v.
7 T p l< f> ip ia V
to
av O p con os fie v
S t^ 0 u e ? aôSe's* e l o i v
re avO pcon os K al o
ex ov ai
in i
ra
t l
n X e i o a i , K al K a O o X o v S e S ta
noX vn o8a
a p r io v s
ra
iX a x ia r o is
Se
/cat
eêt
a p T ia
e a r tv.
8l t t o v s ,
20 TTJV
S ta
a 7 ro S a
fie v
* E r t S e S ta rtv *
n o a o is
e n e ir a
k o lX o v .
o p v is
o
K a/J1 7 T T L
K al
fie v
TO
K a l o p v is
/cat r a ? K a f i i p e i s
8 ln o 8 e s
y ap
aK eX oS ,
avdpcon os
o w es
iv a v r ia s
avO pcon os
O
a v ros
in i
O pV LS
a u ra )
I.
W e must next discuss the parts which are useful
to animals for their movement from place to place,
and consider why each part is o f the nature which
it is, and why they possess them, and further the
differences in the various parts o f one and the same
animal and in those o f animals o f different species
compared with one another. We must first decide
what questions we have to discuss.
One question is, what is the smallest number o f
points at which animals move ; the next is, why redblooded animals move at four points, while bloodless
animals move at more than four ; and, in general,
why some animals are without feet, others biped,
others quadrupeds, and others polypods, and why all
that have feet at all have an even number o f f e e t ;
and, in general, w hy the points at which movement
is made are even in number.
W e must further consider why a man and a bird are
bipeds, while fishes are without fe e t ; and wrhy a man
and a bird, being both bipeds, have opposite bendings o f the legs. For a man bends his legs in a convex
direction, a bird in a concave direction ; and a man
485
ARISTOTLE
iv a v r lc o s
7r l
yap
ra
a K eX rj
to
k o iA o v
Kal
< f> e p e ia v
KafJL7TTL .
TOLS
& vd p(I>T T O LS
a vroLS '
704 b T r j s
ra
fie v
Se
oaa
v
n p o a O ia
lS l c o s
et? t o
Kal
S ta
oTt f i e v y a p
T r jv
V
aAA
fliv
07TLCr6ia
n X a y io v
K a fin T e i.
Ta
T erp a n oh a
8 fj n a v T C 0 v t o v t c o v ,
T a vra
Ta
Se, v v v a K e n r e o v .
v n o 0 e fie v o is
npos
r jv
<f>VCTLS OV0V
o vtco s
K al
eêt
a p ia T o v
K a ra
fie y e 0 o vs, n o a a i
Set X a fie iv . e la l
20 Se T p e is , fiia f ie v
8 io n e p
<f>vaLV.
el
eVt
ols
fie 0 o 8 o v
exovra
to vto v
d e l iK t c o v iv S e x o fie v c o v T jj o v a i a
to
e/c
a v f i f i a i v e i , S r jX o v
lo tl
a K e i / je c o s
X a j3 o v T s
<t)ov
TO
cpO TO K l
, T a s a i r l a s 0 e c o p r ]-
noXXaKLs
icTTLV OTL rj
in i
f ir j
TTaOL TOLS Trjs <f>liaCOS epyOLS.
yevos
rov
T r js
aVTCL
KVpTOV
to
nepl
ovtco
x p r jo O a i
< j> v a iK r )v ,
TpOTTOV i v
15 S
Se
A p x r )
e lc o O a fie v
Kal
to vto ls
S ia fie T p o v .
aAAa a v y y e v r j
co o r o K a
ra
in i
a iT ia v
tlv
io T r js L c r T o p l a s T r j s <f> va L K rjs, S
I I.
TCL
n e p i-
ttjv
K(XfJL7TTL
aK eX r)
f ie v
to vs
in i
T erp a n oS a
K(lfJL7TTL,
TOUTOt?
K L v e iT a i K a r a
Kal
ra
yova ra
Tt Se TO>V T T p a n 6 8 c O V o a a
aA A (b o T O K e i,
npos
Se
iv a V T L C O S
yap
7T pL(/) p La S
5 K O lX o V .
Kal
fip a x io v a s *
to vs
ra
rov
TOVTOJV
7TOLL fiaTTTfVs
7rept
eK a a rov
p e X rio v
tuSt,
Tas
S ia a T a a e is
K a l n o ia L n o l o i s
v n a p x o v a i,
e, a v ^ v y l a i
t o avco K a l t o koltco, Se v r e p a Se
t o efiTTpoaOev K al t o o n ia O e v , Tpvrrj Se t o S e g io v
K a l t o a p ia T e p o v . n p o s Se t o v t o l s o t l t c o v KLvrjaecov
tcov
K a ra
yap
to tto v
a v T a s fie v o v v
S ia a ra a eL S fie v
apxal
cba is
a v r a i, K a ra
K al
e A fty .
/ca#
Se
K iv e i -
a vfifiefirfK os
i.e. the front right foot with the left back foot, and the left
front with the right back.
b The Hhtoria AnimaUum.
c Leon, renders eodem . . . modo which seems to im
ply that he was translating tov avrov fyoj/ra rpbirov.
486
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, i .-ii .

himself bends his legs and his arms in opposite
directions, the arms concavely and the knees convexly. And viviparous quadrupeds bend their limbs
in the opposite way to a mans and in opposite
ways to one another ; for they bend their front legs
convexly and their back legs concavely. Further,
quadrupeds which are not viviparous but oviparous
have the peculiarity o f bending their legs sideways.
A further question is why do quadrupeds move their
legs diagonally.
W e must examine the reasons of all these and
similar facts ; that they are facts is clear from our
N a tu ra l H isto ry ,6 and we have now to examine their
causes.
II.
W e must begin our inquiry by assuming the
principles which we are frequently accustomed to
employ in natural investigation, namely, by accept
ing as true what occurs in accordance with these
principles c in all the works of nature. One o f these
principles is that nature never creates anything
without a purpose, but always what is best in view
o f the possibilities allowed by the essence o f each
kind of animal; therefore, if it is better to do a thing
in a particular manner, it is also in accordance with
nature. Further, we must accept the dimensions of
magnitude in the size and quality in which they are
present in various objects. For there are six dimen
sions grouped in three pairs, the first being the
superior and the inferior, the second the front and
the back, and the third the right and the left. W e
must further postulate that the origins of movement
from place to place are thrusting and pulling. These
are movements per s e ; that which is carried by
487
ARISTOTLE
rat to <f>epopievov vit* aAAoir ov y a p a v r o SoKei
705a Kiveiv a v r o aXX9 V7T* aAAov KiveioOai t o vtto tiv o s
<f>epO}JLVOV.
III.
T ovrcov Sc Sicopiafievcov X eyw pev r a rovroov
<f>^rjs.
rcbv Srj ^(Lcjdv oara fierafidXXei Kara
rorrov, r a jxev a Opoco Travrl toj aci/xan pLerafiaXXei,
5 KaOanep r a aXXo/ieva, r a Se Kara fiep os/ KaOdnep
rcbv 7Topevojxevcov eK aarov. ev afjufrorepais Sc rat?
fierapoX ais r a v r a is del fierafidAAei to Kivovfievov
a7Toarr]pit,6fxevov irpos to VTroKeifievov a v r(b .
8tonep edv r e V7TO</>epr]rai tovto Odrrov fj a*ar
10 exîv aTrepeiaaaOai to rroiovfjievov 77* a v r o v rrjv
KivTjaiv, edv 09 oAto? firjBefilav exj] tols Kivovfievois
dvrepeiaiv, ov&ev eir' a v r o v Svvarai Kiveiv eauTo.
Kal ya p to aAAofievov Kal 7rpos a v r o 2 d7reptSd/ivov to avco Kal irpos to vtto tovs 7rdSa? Troieirai
rrjv a X a iv e^ct ya p n v a dvrepeiaiv 7Tpos aXXrjXa
15 r a jxopia ev r a is Ka/jnrais, Kal SXcos to iriitp v
7rpos to 7Tieôfjievov. 8id Kal o i TrevraOXoi aXXovrai
TrXeiov e x o v res tovs aXrrjpas f} fxr) e x o v r e s , Kal
o i Oeovres Oarrov Oeovai n a p a a elov res r a s Xefy a S'
y iv era i y a p n s airepeiais ev rfi S iaraaei irpos r a s
Xîpas Kal r o v s Kapirovs. del Se to Kivovyievov
20 Svalv eX axiarois XPc^fiV0V opyaviK ois jiepea i
TTOieirai rrjv fierapoXrjv, rcb fxev w anepavel OXifiovn,
t w Se OXtfiofjievw. to fiev y a p fievov OXiperai Sta
1 Kara fxipos 7j : fiipei S : r o t s fioplots
* a M P U Y : aOrb S : eaurd Z.
cet.
a Special weights (d\r?)p) or sometimes stones were held

in the hands and thrown backwards by jumpers while in the
air to add to their impetus; cf. Norman Gardiner, Greek
488
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ii.-m.

something else is only moved accidentally, for what
is carried by something else is regarded not as mov
ing itself but as being moved by something else.
II I.
These points having been decided, let us
proceed to the considerations which follow from
them. O f the animals, then, which change their local
position, some do so with their whole body at the
same time, for instance those which jump ; others
move part by part, for example those that walk.
In both these changes the animal that moves makes
its change o f position by pressing against that which
is beneath i t ; and so, i f the latter slips away too
quickly to allow that which is setting itself in motion
upon it to press against it, or i f it offers no resistance
at all to that which is moving, the animal cannot move
itself at all upon it. For that which jumps performs
that movement by pressing both on its own upper
part and on that which is beneath its fe e t ; for the
parts in a way lean upon one another at their joints,
and, in general, that which presses leans on that
which is pressed. Hence athletes jump farther if
they have the weights in their hands than if they
have not, and runners run faster if they swing their
arms 6 ; for in the extension o f the arms there is a
kind of leaning upon the hands and wrists. Now that
which moves always makes its change of place by the
employment o f at least two organic parts, one as it
were compressing and the other being compressed.
For the part which remains still is compressed by
Athletic Sports and Festivals, pp. 298 ff., who proves by
experiment the truth of the statement made in the present
passage.
b On the importance attached by the Greeks to armaction in running, especially in short races, cf. N. Gardiner,
op, cit. p. 282.
489
ARISTOTLE
TO <f>epLV, TO 8*
to
cfropTiov.
Sw aTOV
alpO[lVOV TWTai TCO <j>pOVTl
S io n e p
d fie p e s
ovSev
y a p eêt TV V r v
ov
ovtco
K iv r jO ijv a i
n e ia o fie v o v
Kal
tov
25 TroirjaovTOS i v avrcp 1 h i a X q i j j i v .
I V . *E7ret
e lo lv
8la o T a o eis
al
ats 6pit>eo9aL 7re<f>VKe t<x cpa, 2
tov
apiOfiov
T ava) Kal
to
Katco Kal t o e[nrp oo9ev Kal oTTia9ev, ert 8c 8etov

K a l apiOTepov,
to
[le v avco K a l
to
e y e i T a <covra.
o v [lo v o v y a p
avco Kal KaTQj, aA A a
80 eiXqTTTai 8* e p y a j,
TTjv yrjv Kal
tov
Kal
iv
fiop iov tto v t
koltco
iv
tols
to
o vp a vo v.
eax^LTOV
[le v y a p dpyr\
KaLTOL 8oetev av
8 t-
Kal o v Oeoei [l o v o v Tfj Trpos T

o9ev [le v ya p rj Trjs Tpo<j>rjs
StaSocrt? Kal rf av^rjoLs eK aoTois, avco

705 b n p o s
cools eaTt
<f>VTols.
tols
tls,
tols
avTT]
irepaLvei,
tovt
io T L V
tovto
koto),
t o Se Trepas* d.px*] ^ T d v w ,
<f>VTOis oiK eiov elvaL t o Ka t w
/xaAAo v ov% o[ioIco$ y a p eêt Tfj 9eoei t o ava) Kal

KOLTO)
6 to
TOVTOLS Kal TOLS >COOLS.
oAov o v x
ofioLcos, K a ra
^l Se TTpOS fieV
Se t o
ep yov
OflOLCOS.
a t y a p ptat etat t o avco t o l s $ v t o l s ' iKeiOev y a p
7] Tpo<f>rj StaStSoTat Tots c^vofievoLS, Kal Aaji/idvei

ra v T a is avTrjv, Ka9drrep T a a)a rots* OTOfiaaiv.
*O aa
Se [irj [lo v o v fj aA A a Kal <a eV rt, tols
to lo vt o ls
vrrapxei t o t e[n rp o o 9 ev Kal t o ottlg9v .
10 a io9rjoiv y a p e\e i TavTa 7ra vra , opteTat Se K a ra

ra vT rjv
to
T e[i7rpoo9ev
to
Kal
oTTio9ev
i<f>y o
[le v y a p rj ato9ir)ois tte<f)VK Kal o9ev i o r l v eKaoroLS,

1 a&T$ J a e g e r ; avrtf lib ri.
Cf1a b ove,
Y : fw vra ceteri.
704 b 19 ff.
b C f De caelo, 294 b 17.
c M o r e lite r a lly p e rson a l.
d C/. Zte vit. long. et 6 m \ 467 b 2 ; P/j^s. 199 a 28.
490
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, m.-iv.

having to carry the weight, and the part which is
raised is extended by that which carries the weight.
And so nothing that is without parts can move in
this manner ; for it does not contain in itself the
distinction between what is to be passive and what
is to be active.
IV.
Now the dimensions by which animals are
naturally bounded are six in number, namely,
superior and inferior, front and back, and also right
and left.0 Now all living things have a superior and
an inferior p a rt; for the superior and the inferior is
found not only in the animals but also in plants.6
The distinction is one o f function and not merely o f
position in relation to the earth and heavens. For
the part from which is derived the distribution o f
nutriment and the growth in any particular thing is
the superior ; the part to which the growth extends
and in which it finally ends is the inferior. The one
is a kind o f origin, the other a termination ; and it is
the superior which is an origin. It might, however,
seem that in plants the inferior is the more essentialc
p a rt; for the superior and the inferior are not in the
same position in them as in the animals. Though in
relation to the universe they have not the same posi
tion, they are similarly situated as regards function.
For in plants the roots are the superior partd ; for it
is from them that the nutriment is distributed to the
parts that grow, and it is from their roots that plants
receive it, as do animals from their mouths.
Things which not only live but are also animals have
both a front and a back. For all animals have senseperception, and it is on account o f sense-perception
that the front and the back are distinguished; for
the parts in which the sense-perception is implanted
491
ARISTOTLE
705 b u
_
j
/
efin p O a U eV T a V T
CFTl}
\ cv
t
t
T a 0 aVTLKlflVa TOVTOLS
o n ia d e v .
"O a a
15 a A A a
S e r c b v c p a * v f i r j f.l o v o v a i a d r j a e c o s K o i v a i v e i ,
Svva ra c
avra
f3 o A r jv
npos
n o ie ia d a i
S t
a vrcbv,
X e x d e ia L
tols
to
o f io ic o s tols n p o r e p o v
deaei
ia n
S t a \ p ia fie v o v
r r jv
iv
K a ra
a p ia r e p o v
eK a rep ov
fie r a -
S r j1
S ic o p ia r a i
Kal
to
epya>
e lp r jfie v o is
r o v a c b f i a r o s rj r r j s
ron ov
tovtols
a vrcbv
n v l
oO ev
S e io v ,
Kal
fie v
ov
yap
K a r a tottov f i e r a f i o X i j s i p X V
20 <j)V(7 L, T O V T O f i e v S e l O V e K a a r t p , T O S a V T L K e i f i e V O V
Kal
Se
tt(/)v k
tovtco
S n jp d p c o r a i
yap
S p y a v iK O L S
n o a lv
fie v r jv
fj
6s
a K o X o v d e iv
fia X X o v
e r e p o is
n r e p v iv
rj
n v i
Se
a vrcb
T T p o e p x ^ r a i,
aXXu)
n o ie ir a i,
25 f i a X X o v S i r j p O p a j r a i t o
flo p lo is y
^ p cu / x era
fie p e a i
f ie r a ^ o X r jv
rcb
A eêV *
e v ia
(A e y c o
tolovtco)
ir e p l
a c o fia n
K aO anep
a p ia r e p o v .
ir e p c o v .
fie v
olov
r r jv
e ip r j-
fie v
ra
r o ia v r a
Se
firj
t o l o v t o is
o aa
S i a X i ji f t e i s
rcbv
tovto
oaa
n o io v fie v a
anoScuv,
o lo v
ol
r e o (f> e is K a l t o t c o v K a f i n c b v y e v o s , K a l n p o s t o v t o l s
a
K aX ovai
BO
y fjs
A e ^ fle V ,
to
e/Ort S
a r jfie io v
ov
iK
K al
evrepa
f ir jv
, v n a p x et f i e v K a l i v
h ia a e a a < f> r jr a l
tcov $ e i c b v
to
< j> e p e iv
tovtols
o fio lc o s .
77 apx1? TVS K i v r j a e c l j s
r a
(f> o p r ia
n a v ra s
i a n ,
in i
roT s
a p i a r e p o i s * o v r c o s y a p e V S e ^ e T a t K i v e i a d a i t o < f> e p o v ,
706 a
X e X v fie v o v
ro d
paov
roT s
in i
K iv r ja o v r o s .
B e g lo v , K iv e ia d a i
<f)opriov
ovk
(Sto /cat
a p i a r e p o i s * K iv e iv
Se
to
a p i a r e p o v .)
i n i t < 5 K iv r ja o v n
aAA
492
K al
to
to
i n i rcb K iv rja o -
V iz. superior and inferior.

from place to place.
b i.e .
n e < f) V K e
u ta re
1 Si? J a e g e r: 5t libri.
a
a a K C o X ia ^ o v a i
y ap
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iv.

and whence every kind of creature derives it are at
the front, and the opposite parts to these are at the
back.
Those animals which not only partake o f senseperception but can also o f themselves make the
change from place to place, in addition to the dis
tinctions already mentioned, have a further distinc
tion o f left and right, these being each, like the above,
distinctions o f function and not o f position. For the
part o f the body where the origin o f change from
place to place naturally arises is the right in each
kind o f animal, while the part which is opposed to
this and naturally follows its lead is the left.
There is a greater differentiation between right
and left in some animals than in others. A ll animals
which make the above-mentioned change b by the use
o f instrumental parts for example, feet or wings
or the likeshow a greater differentiation between
right and left in such parts ; those, on the other hand,
that progress not by means o f such parts but by
moving the body itself in sections like some of the
footless animals, such as snakes and the caterpillars,
and also earthworms possess, it is true, this differ
entiation, but it is not nearly so clearly defined.
That the origin of movement is from the right side
is shown by the fact that men always carry burdens
on the left shoulder ; for then it is possible for that
which bears the weight to be set in motion, that
which is to initiate the movement being free. (For
this reason, too, it is easier to hop on the left-leg ; for
it is natural to the right leg to initiate movement,
and to the left to be set in motion.) The burden,
therefore, must rest not on the part which is to
initiate movement, but on that which is to be set in
ARISTOTLE
6a
jievcp
Set
in iK e ia O a i' i a v
in i
tc o k i v o v v t t
/cat
rfj
oAoos o v K tvrja eT a i
5 rj xaAem orepov. (jr jji e i o v S ort a n o t c o v Se^tcov
V
Q-PXV TV$ K ivrjaecos /cat a t n p o f i o X a r n a m e s
y a p T a aptarepa n p o /ia X A o v T a t, K a l eVnwres* n p o fcefiXijKaaL1 T a aptarepa fia X X o v , a v jirj a n o r v \ r js
cnjjjifif}.
o v y a p tco npofizfirjK O Ti K i v o v v r a i , aAAa
tco
d n o fie jirjK O T i'
K al
a fiv v o v T at
rots* Seto&.
10 Sta TavTTjv Se t t j v a tria v K a l r a Se^ta r a v r a ecrn
n a v T c o v . o d e v /xev y a p rj a p x *j Trjs K ivrja ecos, t o
d p x fj Trjs Kivrjaecos in tT e O fj, rjro t
a v r o n a v i K a l i v tco avTcp t t j v d e a iv
eêt /card cjyvoiv'
Sector S ic rrlv o d e v rj apx^j Trjs K ivrja ecos e a r tv.

/cat Sta t o v t o T a aTpofxpcoSrj t c o v oarpa/coSep/tajv
Seta n d \ n eortv. o v y a p i n i Trjv iXiKKjv /ctvetrat,
15 aAA i n i t o /caravTt/cpv n d v T a n p o e p x ^ T a i, o l o v
nop<f>vpai
ano
tco v
Kal
K rjp V K es .
Seta>v,
K iv o v fie v c o v
K aK eivcov i n i
ra v ra
ovv
n a v T co v
K iv o v fiev co v
Seta etvat o jio ic o s . anroaptarepa t w v cpcov /xaAtora a vd p c o n o i Sta ro /card (f>vaiv eêtv fxa A tora
20 ra>v ojcov <j>vaei Se /Je'Artov re ro Setov rov
a p ia T e p o v K a l K e x c o p ia jie v o v .
Sto /cat r a Seta
ev ro?? a v Q p cb n o is /xaAtara Seta e a r tv. Sttopta/xe'vcov Se ra>v 8eicbv ev X o y c o s r a a p ia r e p a a K i v r jT OTepa ecrrt, /cat a n o X e X v /ie v a /xaAtcrra ev rovrot?.
/cat at aXXai S apât /xaAtora /card <f>vaiv St25 co p iG fieva i i v tcx) avOpconcp v n a p x o v a i , ro r* avco
i a v T o i s , a v a y K rj n d v r a
X e X v jie v a
/cat
to
exova i
ra
e jin p o o O e v .
1 TrpofiefiX-qKacrt P S U :
pOj3e^T]Kaai Y Z .
7r
a / .f. in t h e s e n s e t h a t m a n is r i g h t - h a n d e d .
494
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iv.

motion ; and if it be placed on that which causes
and is the origin o f movement, it will either not be
moved at all or with greater difficulty. The manner
in which we step out also shows that the origin o f
movement is in the right side ; for all men put the
left foot foremost, and, when standing, preferably
place the left foot in front, unless they do otherwise
accidentally. For they are moved, not by the foot
which they put in front, but by that with which they
step o ff; also they defend themselves with their
right limbs. Therefore the right is the same in a ll;
for that from which the origin o f movement is derived
is the same in all and has its position by nature in the
same place, and it is from the right that the origin
o f movement is derived. For this reason, too, the
stromboid testaceans all have their shells on the
rig h t; for they all move not in the direction o f the
spiral but in the opposite direction, the purple-fish,
for example, and the trumpet-shell. Since, then,
movement in all animals starts from the right, and
the right moves in the same direction as the animal
itself, they must all alike be right-sided. Now man
more than any other animal has his left limbs de
tached, because of all animals he is most in accord
ance with nature, and the right is naturally better
than the left and separated from it. Therefore the
right is most right-sided in man. And since the right
is differentiated, it is only reasonable that the left is
less easily set in motion and most detached in man.
Moreover the other principles,6 the superior and the
front, are in man most in accord with nature and most
differentiated.
6 The apx^l here are the 8ia<rrd<ris of 704 b 19, 705 a 26,
from the point of view of function rather than position.
495
ARISTOTLE
V.
Ots*
c b p ia r a L ,
ra vra
ro ts
fie v
K aXcb
TOV
to
ro
/o>
TTeOOV
706 b f i a X a K i a
Kal
Oi
ra
Kal
e fin p o a O e v
tols
o p vta L ,
S vo
a r jf ie t a
ro
im
Kal
7r e ^ c b
klvyjtlkco
e lX r )c [> e v a i
5>
if
Vta
rcbv
n porepov
771 TO
6 n (a 0 L O V ,
a r p o fi^ c o S r j
Kal
anoSa.
io c K a a iv
a r jf ie u p
to
Kal
eêt
npoaO ev
o v o fia
7TOOS .
j^pa^/ove?
Kat
noX vnoSa
to
Se i r e p l a v r c b v
e ip r jr a i
to
Kal
X W S
a vro
fie p o s
n p o a O io v
Se
Kal
Kal ya p
e;t
im
noSa
ro n o v
<X7TO
ro ts
t tp a T roS a
yap
Ka ra
9
oaa
avco
avO pconoLs
(r c b v S e r e r r a p c o v r a
n rep vyes
a vco,
to
to
ovv
t o is
S ln o S a
fie v
30etcrtv).
fie v
K aO anep
o lo v
<Xt>TO
ra
re
o a r p a K o S e p fic o v
CTepotS.
iv
Tpccbv S o v t c o v roncov, r o v avco Kal fiea ov

Kal Karco, r a fiev S t V o S a t o avco 77pos r o r o v
V\
*f
/
\ ClV
\/
O
\
oAov
5 to
ra
otl
e ^ e t,
avco
fie a o v ,
fie v
<
oe
7)
noA vnooa
< f )v r d
a K U T jr a ,
o \
ra
Se
ra
npos
npos
ro
r r jv
anooa
K a rco,
r p o (j)r jv
'
'
77p o s
a in o v
Se t o a v c o ,
/
5
> \
rj oe rpocprj eK t t j s y ^ j s *
r a oe r er p a n o o a em
to
fiea ov, Kal r a noXvnoSa Kal anoS a, S t a t o
\
fir j
10 t o
> n\
e iv a i.
op9a
eh aL,
yap
K a ra
apât
apx^J
t o v
o p tta
ra
fia X ia r a
cf>vaLV
e la iv
and
T L fiio v ,
ro
onLaO ev K al
K aX cos
oe
ia r l
oLnooa
rovrcov
t o S e ^tov
t o v
ro
avO pconos'
evX oycos
tcov
S avco r o v
S e ^ e t /cat t o
S in o v s .
npos
fio p ic o v
K a rco
* rj
Kal
avco
ota
/ x a A ta ra
Se K a l a t
fie v
to
yap
npoadev
a p L a r e p o v T L fiL c b r e p o v .
a v a n a X iv
X eyeLV
nepl
a vrcbv,
a The whole of man is front, and his front is divided

into superior and inferior; in a quadruped only that part
is front which is superior in man.
b P. A. 684b 14 f f . ; H.A. 523b 21 ff.
e *Apxt has here the double meaning of starting-point
and centre of authority ; see note on De mot, anim,
698b 1.
496
81-
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.
V.
Animals in which the superior and the front are
differentiated, man, for example, and the birds, are
bipeds (two o f the four points being wings in birds,
and hands and arms in man). But the animals in
which the superior and the front are in the same
position a are four-footed (quadrupeds), many-footed
(polypods), and footless. By foot I mean the part
that is at a point which has connexion with the ground
and gives movement from place to place ; for the
feet (tto& s) seem to have derived their name from
the ground (ttcSov). Some animals have their front
and their back in the same position, for example the
molluscs and the stromboid testaceans ; with these
we have already dealt elsewhere.6
Now since there are three regions, the superior,
the middle, and the inferior, bipeds have their
superior part in a position corresponding to the
superior region o f the universe, polypods and footless
animals in a position corresponding to the middle
region, and plants in a position corresponding to the
inferior region. The reason is that plants lack
movement, and the superior part is situated with a
view to nutriment, and their nutriment comes from
the earth.
Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless
animals have their superior part in a position corre
sponding to the middle region because they are not
erect; bipeds have it in a position corresponding to
the superior region because they are erect, especially
man, the biped most in accordance with nature. And
it is only reasonable that the origins c should come
from these parts ; for the origin is honourable, and
the superior is more honourable than the inferior, and
the front than the back, and the right than the left.
It is also true if w e reverse the proposition and assert
497
ARISTOTLE
*
'
15 a>s
'
o ia
'
Tas
to
'
apxas
'
ev
ra v ra
e iv a i
t o v t o is
r ifiid o r e p a r c b v a v r iK e ifie v c o v fio p ic o v i a r i v .
V I.
" O r t f i e v o v v e/c t c o v Set c o v rj T r j s K i v r j a e c o s
ea n v
a p \ r jf
a va yK rj
S*
to
r jp e fie l,
20d a r e p o v ,
ti
fj
avvexovs,
K iv e iT a i
V T ra p xew
fie p c b v
K iv r ja e c o s
S r jX o v
tS ta
25 e K a r e p c o ,
r r jv
re
oaas
Kal
e fiirp o a d e v
ro ia v r r j
ir e p l
fie p c b v
30 < f> v a iK r jv
v n a p x e iv
S io p ia fio v
e/ c a re p a
Set o v
e x ^ iv
Kal
Kal
Sto
707 a XP(*) lJLeva
rcbv
O7rtcr0ev St a c jjo p a
Se X o n r a i s ,
t o
& e io v
o v k
fie p c b v
* X L
avco
to
oaa
to
fie v
S ta
Kal
K a rco
ecrrt
ovk
ro
f ir jd e v l
om adev,
Kad9
avco
ov
Kal
f ir jS e
t t jv
/card
jie p e a iv
ro v
K a ra 2
Se t c o v
K a r a fie v o v v
ir o ie lr a r
Kal
rfj
e<f>*
Se
to
ro
K a rco
o p y a v iK o ts
e fiir p o a d e v
Kal
eêt S ic o p ia f ie v a r a v r a , r a t s
a f if f jo r e p a is
/cat
e ls
K iv o v fie v o v
cvcov
a vndeaecov
S i a X r ji p i s
ea vro,
fie r a fio X r jv
T r p o e p x ^ r a i,
tc o v
tc o v
a r a a e c o s ),
a P X * )V
om adev
a p ia re p o v
T r js
om adev.
K iv r ja iv
to
t o v t o jv
ye
e a r iv .
to
k iv o v v
a X X r jX o is ,
eK a rep ov
a v f ic f jv a iv , X e y c o
a p ia re p c b v
to
e a r lv
a v riK e ifie v c o v
K o iv r jv
Kal
ea rw ros
K iv r ja e is , e l v a i
X e ^ d e ia c o v
K a l t c o v e fiir p o a d e v K a l t w v
to
K iv e ia d a i
Kal
tco v
ra vra
e lp r jf ie v c o v
8 e i< b v
tco v
K iv e ir a i
T r js
Sc
enel
fie v
ra v r
a p y rfv
v ira p x e t
ira v ra
tcov
r r jv
(o f i o i c o s
o n ,1 Kad9
K iv r ja is
to
e v a v r ia s
a vvexrj
K avTavO
e lp r jf ie v c o v .
ov
Sv v a f ie v o v
oXov
a fic jx jo
KaO
k o iv o v
e/c t c o v
(j j a v e p o v
rra v r o s
fie v ,
a p ia re p o v
irp o re p a
S io p i^ o v a r j,
Se r f j
S ta
ro
K a ra
r r jv
1 8t}\ov 8n (Leon, manifestum est q u o d , etc.): driXovdrt libri.

3 K a r a P Leon. ; om. ceteri.
a i.e. the three pairs of dimensions (70 i b 19).
498
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.-vi.

that, because the origins are situated in these parts,
they are therefore more honourable than the opposite
parts.
V I.
It is clear, then, from what has been said that
the origin o f movement is on the right. Now in
anything continuous of which part is in motion and
part at rest (the whole being able to move while one
part stands still), there must be, at the point where
both parts move in opposite movements, something
common to both which makes these parts continuous
with one another (and at this point must be situated
the origin o f the movement o f each o f these parts,
and likewise also of their immobility) : it is evident,
therefore, that in respect o f whichever o f the abovementioned contraries the individual movement o f
each o f the opposite parts takes place, there is in
all these cases a common origin o f movement by
reason o f the interconnexion o f the said parts, namely,
o f the right and the left, the superior and the inferior,
the front and the back. The differentiation accord
ing to front and back is not one which applies to
that which moves itself, because nothing possesses a
natural movement backwards nor has the moving
animal any distinction in accordance with which it
can make a change from place to place in each o f
these two directions 6; but there is a differentiation
o f right and left, superior and inferior. A ll animals,
therefore, which progress by the employment of in
strumental parts have these parts differentiated, not
by the distinction between front and back, but by the
other two pairs, first, by the distinction o f right and
left (for this must immediately exist where there are
6 In other words an animal cannot divide itself into two
parts, one of which goes forwards and the other backwards.
499
ARISTOTLE
fiev iv
5 apxtW t
rots
t t jv
Svalv evOecos avayKaiov elvai v irS iv ro ls re rra p a i npcorois.
E7Tt o v v t o
re
avco
Kal
K a rco
a p ia re p o v r fj a v r fj a p x fj K a l
iv
r r jv
d ir a v r t
d cf)y
10 x ^ a i
apxds,
re
r o ls
K t v r ja iv
anaacov
a p ia re p o v
rcbv
K iv r ja ls
K a r c o ), r a v r r j v
c^ct*
77p o s
apx& v
, V II.
ro v ro is
to tto v
20 r o v r o
rj
rcb
ia n v ,
ttc o s
Kal
ra s
ra s
to
cua> r j r e
re ra
p r jO e ia a s
a v a r o ix o v s
tco v
(a v r r j
T ro ie la d a i
Kal
X e x O e ia c o v
ia r lv
ro v
a<jS
fjs
Sct o v K a l
Sc K a l r j r o v a v c o
o ji o i c o s
S 1 e x ^ i v e K a a r c p f j T r a p a n X r ja i c jo s
tc o v
ovv
tc o v
rerra p a i
fia X ia r a
rp on ov
npos
to v to is
iv
B r jX o v
f ie r a p o X r jv .
a r jf ie io is
r a ls
a in o v
e K a a r r jv
vtta p x ^ i
Sv a lv
K a ra
c o p ia Q a i
a v n a ro ix o v s
fie p e a i
a P X V S K o iv r js
re
fie X X o v n
d n oa rd a ea i
ra s
iv
K iv r ja e c o v
rep
eK a a rov
ra ts
rcbv
15 K a l
8 e id v K a l
(Aeyou Se r a v r r j v r r j v T r j s K i v r j a e c o s K v p i a v ) , S e l
a vra
Kal to
K o iv fj a v v r jp r r jr a i n p o s
iv
ro ts
cos
i^cbcov rj
K a ra
n o ie lr a i
coa ry in e l
a v f ip e p r jK e ,
rerra p cov
i v a l f i c o v t,c p c o v , K a l e i n
ovO ev
p r jd e la i
fio v o is
rj
to tto v
a r jf ie io is
fid p e a tv
fid X ia r a
K iv r ja is ,
r r jv
K a ra
a^cSov r o l s iv a ifio is
(f > a v e p o v
o lo v
re
o n
rrX e io a i
K iv e la O a i
rcbv
r e r r a p a i a r jf ie io is K iv e la O a i
7T<j)VK f i o v o v , a v a y K a i o v
ro v r
e lv a i
e v a ifio v .
'O fioX oy el Sc ro ls XexOelai Kal r a avfifSaivovra

nepl ra cba.
rcov fiev yap ivaificov ov8ev els
25 nXeico Sta tpovfievov Svvarai t,rjv ovOev a X PV0V
1 5 P U Z : om. SY.
Z : om. cet.
i.e. the distinction of superior and inferior.

b Namely, the soul situated in the heart (Mich.).
e The legs move in pairs, either the front and back legs
on the same side together, or the front leg on one side with
the back leg on the other (c/. 704 b 7).
0
500
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vi.-vn.

two things), and, secondly, by the distinction which
must arise as soon as there are four things.
Since, then, the superior and the inferior, and the
right and the left are connected with one another by
the same common origin (and by this I mean that
which controls their movement &), and since in any
thing which is to carry out the movement o f each
part properly the cause o f all the said movements
must be somehow defined and arranged at the right
distance in relation to the said origins, namely,
those in the limbs, which are in pairs opposite or
diagonal to one another,c (and the cause o f their
movement is the common origin from which the
movement o f left and right and likewise o f superior
and inferior in the animals limbs is derived), and
since this origin must in each animal be at a point
where it is in more or less the same relation to each
of the origins in the said parts,4 (V II.) it is, therefore,
clear that movement from place to place belongs
either solely or chiefly to those animals which make
their change o f place by means o f two or four points.
And so, since this condition occurs almost exclusively
in red-blooded animals, it is clear that no red-blooded
animal can move by means o f more than four points,
and if an animal is so constituted by nature as to
move by means o f four points only, it must neces
sarily be red-blooded.
What actually occurs in animals is also in agree
ment with the above statement. For no red-blooded
animal can live for any time worth mentioning if it be
d There are two kinds of apxai in, e.g., a quadruped, (a)
those in each of the four legs and (b) the central apx'fi in the
heart; the former must each be approximately equidistant
from the latter,
501
ARISTOTLE
8
COS ITTIV, TTJS T K a r a
/) )
TOTTOV KlVTjaeCOS, KaU
7]V
eK iveiTO a v v e x ^ s o v K al fjLrj 8 irjp rjp e v o v , o v S v v a r a c

K o iv c o v e t v t c o v S avalpccov r e
8 la ip o v fie v a
S vva ra i
tg jv
Kal
fxepcbv,
so Trplv
tpjv
K iv e ia d a i
8 ia ip e d rjv a i
K a l ttoX vttoScov e v ia
tto X v v
K iv rja iv,
t t jv
at
o lo v
e/caorw
x P v v
a v r r jv
rjvrrep
K al
K a X o v fie v a i
a K oX orrev8 p a i K a l aXX a t c o v iv r o fio u v K a l 7Tpo/Jir)Kcbv

ttavTcov
707 b
yap
t o v to jv
K al
to
om adev
fie p o s
T a vT O TTOieiTai r r jv rro p eia v tco epLrrpoadev.
Se
to v
8 ia ip o v p ,e v a
rjv
o ti,
Kadarrep
a iT io v
et
av
ti
GVVXS K TToXXcbv 17] ^CpCOV GVyKelfJLCVOV, OVTCOS

<f>avepov Se t o v t o
tK a o T O v a v tc o v a v v e a T r jK e v .
TCOV 7TpOTpOV
SlOTt
lprjjXVCOV,
êt
TOVTOV
TOV
5 TpOTTOV.
A v a l y a p rj TeTTapai arjpieiois TrecjjVKe Kiveiadai
ra
fiaXiGTa
/cara <f>voiv, opioicos Se
avveaTrjKOTa
Kal y a p r a u r a
Kal oaa tcov evaipcov arroSa eaTiv.

KiveiTai
TeTTapai
St*
a rjp elois,
c&v ttjv
Kivrjaiv
TroieiTai.
Sval y a p x P c*)lXva
^ poep x^T a i Kap,10 7rat9* r o ya p 8eiov Kal apioTepov Kal t o rrpoaOiov
Kal OTTiadiov ev tco TrXaTei eaTiv
Kaprrfj
piepei
a v r o is ,
Trpoadiov
to
aTepov,
eV
ev
Se
tco
fxev
arjfieiov
rrpos
ev eKaTepa
rrpos
tco
re
Sei6v
ttjv
o vp a v
Tfj
Kec/jaXrjv
ttjv
/cat
ra
a p t-
oTTiadia
So/cet Se Suotv a rjpeioiv K iveiadai, Tfj t
arjfieia.
ep,Trpoadev
acfjfj
Kal
Tfj
vo T ep o v.
a in o v
S*
oti
15 OTevdv /cara 7tX<xtos eaTiv, errel Kal ev t o v t o i s t o
8eiov rjyeiT ai, /cat avTa7ro8i8coai /cara t o o m a d e v ,

coarrep
ev
aiTiov t o
t o is
TeTparroaiv.
pirjKos* ajarrep y a p
dpcoTTcov Xop8ol /3a8lovai,
Kal t o v
Centipedes.
502
tcov
Se
Kapapecov
oi [xaKpol tcov a v S e ft o v
cojjlov
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS,
v ii.
divided into several parts, and can no longer partake

o f the motion from place to place whereby it moved
while it was still continuous and undivided. On the
other hand, some o f the bloodless animals and poly
pods can, when they are divided, live in each of
these parts for a considerable time and move with
the same motion as before they were divided, the socalled scolopendrae,for example,and other elongated
insects ; for the hinder part o f all these continues to
progress in the same direction as the fore-part. The
reason why they live when they are divided is that
each o f them consists as it were o f a continuous body
made up of many animals. And the reason why they
are o f this kind is clear from what has been said above.
Animals which are constituted most in accordance
with nature naturally move by means o f two or four
points, and likewise also those among the red-blooded
animals which are footless ; for they too move at four
points and so effect locomotion. For they progress
by means o f two bends ; for in each o f their bends
there is a right and a left, a front and a back in
their breadth a front point on the right and another
on the left in the part tow ards the head, and the two
hinder points in the part towards the tail. They
appear to move at twro points only, namely, the points
o f contact writh the ground in front and behind. The
reason for this is that they are narrow in breadth ;
for in these animals too, as in the quadrupeds, the
right leads the way and sets up a corresponding move
ment behind. The reason o f their bendings is their
length; for just as tall men walk with their backs
hollowed b and, while their right shoulder leads the
* \op86s is the opposite of
Fract. 763).
kv<{>6s9 hunchbacked
(Hippocr.
503
ARISTOTLE
707 b
to
e is
/j
y iv er a i
fia X X o v
K al
o fio ic o s
a n o K X iv e i, K a l
X opS ov, o v tc o
77t TT]
K iv o v fie v o v s
K iv o v v r a i
y fj
to
y ap
a p ia r e p o v
r r a X iv
to
e v a v ria s
ir a X iv
edS
A ,
o i
a p ia r e p o v
t n
>
'
I , a p ia r e p o v
O v rco
rcbv
Se
K al
rcbv
>/
K iv o v v r a i
ov
\
ZA.
ra> v
o < f> ic o S e a r e p a v .
r o io v r c o v
ouSev
ttX tjv
aX X cov
e v ia
o < f> e is
S*
fie p e i
K vprov.
to
e is
k o iX o v
to v s
T r p o a O ic o v
o ti
y ap
orav
fjy r jo T jT a t ,
y ap
S e io v
8e id v
n p o a O io v
B , o ir ia O io v S e io v
fie v
8 s e v v S p c o v a i e y x ^ X e is K a l
30 fivp aivai, Kal rcbv
K al
o r jfjie to v
a r jfie io v
(/>' o v
e<p
la x io v
fie a o v
y iv e r a i* to
k o iX o v
y iv e r a i.
ov
S e i v o e iv
X opS ovs.
k o iX o v
T r a X iv r o
ev ros
to
r e r p a T r o a iv ev
to is
p .e r a fia X \ o v a i
j
t o a p ia r e p o v
T rp o a o e v r jy o v fie v o v
20 r o v m a d e v
25
o a a
fie v
x e p a a iw v
o i
o i
y oy y p oi
eêt
rcbv
%t m e p v y i o v > o l o v
r r jv
o < j> e is ,
K al
a i
fio p c fr r jv
evvS pcov
a i
edS
rcbv
fiv p a iv a i,
708 a aAAa xPVrac T7) daXarrr) cbanep oi o(f>eis rfj yfj

K al r f j daXdrryj (v eo v a i ya p o i o<f>eis ofioicos
K al o r a v K ivcbvrai ttI rrjs y ^ ? )' r a Se S v * e x *i
Trrepvyia fio v o v , o lo v ot r e y o y y p o i K al at c y X^Xeis Kal yeVos* n
Kearpecov, ot y iv o v r a i ev
5 rfj
Xifivrj r f j ev S t o a t s .
Kal S ta t o v t o r a is
K a fin a ls e X a r r o a i K iv o v v ra i ev rep vypcb fj ev r f j
y fj r a t,rjv elcoOora ev r f j y fj, KaOairep r o rcbv
eyxeXecov y e vo s . ot Se Svo Trrepvyia e xo v re s rcbv
Kearpecov r f j Kafirrfj a via a ^ o v a iv ev rcb vypcb r a
r e r r a p a a rffiei a . V III. t o i s S o<f>eaiv a in o v rrjs
10 cbroSt'as
t o T TT]v cf)Voiv firjdev Troieiv fxarrjv,
On the Boeotian coast of the Corinthian Gulf, the Tipha

of Paus. ix. 32. 8.
b i.e. two of its points are fins and the other two are
made by bends.
504
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vii.-vm.

way forward, their left hip inclines towards the rear
and the middle o f the body becomes concave and
hollo\v, so w*e must suppose that snakes too move
upon the ground with their backs hollowed. And
that they move in the same manner as quadrupeds
is shown by the fact that they change the concave
into the convex and the convex into the concave.
For when the left forward point is again leading
the way, the concavity comes in turn on the other
side, for the right again becomes the inner. L et
the front point on the right be A , and that on the
left B, and the rear point on the right C, and that on

the left D.
This is the way that snakes move as land-animals,
and eels, conger-eels and lampreys and all the
other snake-like creatures as water-animals. Some
water-animals, however, o f this class, lampreys for
example, have no fin and use the sea as snakes
use both the sea and the land *, for snakes swim in
just the same manner as when they move on land.
Others have tw*o fins only, conger-eels for example,
and ordinary eels and a species o f mullet which occurs
in the lake at Siphae. For this reason too those
which are accustomed to live on land, the eels for
example, move with fewer bends in the water than
on dry land. The kind o f mullet wrhich has only tw*o
fins makes up the number o f four points in the w ater
by its bends.6 V III. The reason why snakes are
footless is, first, that nature creates nothing without
505
ARISTOTLE
aAAa
tco v
ira v T a
o v a ta v
r e p o v
K a l
r jfx lv
elv a i
t o v t o jv
is to
fx r jK O S
o v x
O'
a K iv r jT a
to
t l
a v r q j
e ip r jfie v o v ,
y a p
t o
(jja v e p o v
a a v fifx e r p a
o v o
o t l
7 rooa s
T r jv
o v to j
rcb v
ot
exîv
rj
fj
fie v
r e r r a p a s
fip a S e ia v
o lo v
o o a
K a ra
aAAr j v
ov O ev
y a p
(a v a ifia
7r p o ~
r e r r a p G iv ,
ttjv
c x p e is ,
IS la v
t o
fx r jO e v
ev a ific o v
7rp os
eK aoT C p
ttjv
Sc /cat
e n
e v a ific o v
r r X e lo v s
7roSas
eK aoT O V
a r jfx e io is
i o n
e lv a i.
r r d fn r a v
d v c o c / je X r j
rcb v
K aO d rrep
a v r a
a7ro^ X e7rovG a v
e lv a i*
K iv e ia O a i
(jjiia iv ,
o e
d p lo to v
S ia o c o l^ o v a a v
r jv
V7T07T0W
< > v
e x o v r a
20 /cat
t o
r r X e io o i
c r c b fia ro s
o lo v
7r p o s
iv S e x o fie v w v ,
t o v
a v r c o v
r e r r a p c o v
y a p
a v
a x e o o v
a v a y K a io v
r jv ),
r jv
a v
e lv a i
K iv r ja iv .
"A n a v Sc TO 7$7T0770W c dvayKlTjS apTLOVS X*l

tovs 7roSas ooa fiev ya p aXaei x P ^ fiev a fiovov
TTOieiTai rrjv /cara to 7tov fierafioXrjv, ovOev 7roScov
irpos y e Trjv roiavrrjv Selrai Kivrjaiv o o a Se
XprjTai fiev aXaei, firj i a n 8* a v r o is avrapKrjs
25 avTTj rj Kivrjais aAAa Kal Tropeias TrpooSeovTat, 8rjXov chs tols fiev fieX n ov tols S (aAAous*) oAa>?
a S tW tov1 TTOpeveaOai.
[StoTt rrav cbov avayK aiov
apTiovs exîv tovs 7rdSa?.]8
oiiarjs ya p Trjs
roia v rrjs fierajHoXrjs Kara fiep os, aAA ovk aOpotp
Travrl tco ocbfjiari KaOdrrep Trjs aXcrecos, avayK aiov
30 eoTt Tots* fiev fieveiv fierafiaXXovrcov t Gjv rroScbv
tols Se KiveioOai, Kal tols dvriKeifievois rovrcov
TToieiv eK arepov, fxerafiaXXov arro tojv Kivovfievcov
errl Ta fiev ov ra to fia p os. Si07Tp o v r e rp ia l fiev
1 <tf\\ws> &\us aStWrot'] oXws advvarov <d\Xws> Farquharson.
* 8l6ti . . . 7
r o a s om. P S U : tanquam glossema del. Jaeger.
Mich.s explanation of this passage is that certain poly
pods, which can walk with an uneven number of legs (cf,
506
v iii.
a purpose but always with a view to what is best for

each thing within the bounds o f possibility, preserv
ing the particular essence and purpose of each ; and,
secondly, as we have already said, because no redblooded animal can move by means o f more than four
points. It is clear from this that all red-blooded
animals whose length is out of proportion to the rest
o f their bodily constitution, like the snakes, can none
o f them have f e e t ; for they cannot have more than
four feet (for if they had, they would be bloodless),
whereas, if they had two or four feet, they would be
practically incapable o f any movement at all, so slow
and useless would their movement necessarily be.
Every animal which has feet must necessarily have
an even number o f f e e t ; for those which move from
place to place by jumping only do not require feet
(at least not for this movement), while those which
jump but do not find this mode o f locomotion suffi
cient by itself and need to walk also, must clearly
either progress better with an even number of legs
or else cannot otherwise progress at all. For since
this kind o f change from place to place is carried out
by a part and not, like jumping, with the whole o f
the body at once, some o f the feet during the change
o f position must remain at rest while others are in
motion, and the animal must rest and move with
opposite legs, transferring the weight from the legs
in motion to those at rest. Hence no animal can
708b 5 flf.), would walk better with an even number; quad
rupeds and bipeds, on the other hand, cannot walk at all with
an uneven number of legs. Farquharsons insertion of &\\u>s
seems therefore a certain emendation : the omission of
however, in our m ss. would be better accounted for i f it is
inserted before #Xws rather than before TroptfcaOai.
R
507
ARISTOTLE
o v 6* e v t1 x p c jf ie v o v f }a 8i e iv o t o v
708 b o v O e v
ya p
ovO ev
SAws
VTrooTrjfia
a w fia T O S
eet
a V T id ea iv
fxovrjv,
im x e ip o v v
5 ioT iV y
fia p o s ,
cSor
KiveicrOai
otov
to
eêt i<f>
Se K a T a
a va y K a io v
ttittt iv .
re*
w
to v
r r jv
eT ep a v
avT O
o vtw s
tto A v 7to 8(x
Se
ocra
fiev
to
to
a i OK oAoirevSpaiy t o v t o i s
S v v a T o v fie v
K a l a iro rrepiT T w v tto S w v rro p ela v y iv e a O a i, K a d a n e p

<f>aiveTai
T roiovfie va
TTTjpwejrj TWV
K al
7ToSwV,
vvv,
av
ris
a vT w v
ev a
S id TO TTjV TCOV d v T lG T O lX ^ V
7t o 8<jl)v
K o A o fiw o iv
i(j>y
7t o S c o v y L v e r a i y a p t o v t o i s o t o v
TOV 7T777jpCOfJiVOV (JlOplOV TOIS dAAoiS ,
P a S i a i s . o v firjv aAAa (j>avepov S t i /3 A tiov
10 (/)AlS
aAA o v
av
K al
T a vT a
e^ ovra to v s
a vT K J T o ix o v s
a vT w v
tw v
ito io ito
TroSa?,
ex ovra
a v ia a ^ e iv
15 r a A a v r e v e i v i m
ip e i a f ia T
eôt
tw v*
la o O a i
tco
Aoittco
7rA ^0et
rcb v
eK a repa
re
jx e p w v
tw
fie T a ^ o A rjv
to vs
Kal
eYaAA a
i
a p T io v s
TroSas' o v r c o y a p
Svvairo 3 to
/xaAAov,
9a r e p a
a v T iK e if ie v w v .
els T a vTO
t t jv
K a l firjO evo s i A A e in o v r o s ,
pirj
K evrjv
t t jv
7T pofialvei S
to
d p x tfs
fia p o s
el
Kal
firj
a vT iu T oix o .
eT ep av
d(j>*
r r o p e v o f ie v o v
o^/xaTt
aAA*
{a v )2
xoupav
eK aTepov
o vtw
yap
y i v e r a i rj K a r a -
<T T a a is.
20
" O t i fiev ovv apTiovs eêt to v ? 7roSa? n a v ra ,

Kal S ta tiV aiTiaVy eiprjrai* I X . S ti S et firjdev
rjv rjpefjiovvy ov k av rjv Ka/japis ouS ev9vvcris, e/c
TwvSe SrjAov. ecrrt ya p Kapipis fiev rj i evdeos fj
els 7Tepi(/>epes fj els yw vla v fierapoA rj, evdvvais
S fj e/c d arepov t o v t w v els ev9v. iv arrdoais Se
25 r a is elprjfievais jierafioA ais avayKrj rrpos ev arjfieiov
1 otfre rpt<ri fiev ovdkv oV0' ivi Jaeger: oi)5 (ovSk om. PYZ)
rpari fikv obOkv ovdevl libri.
2 Slv add. Jaeger.
508
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vm.-ix.

walk using either three legs or one leg ; for if it uses
one leg it has absolutely no support on which it is to
rest the weight o f the body, and i f it uses three it will
rest it on a pair o f opposite legs, so that, i f it attempts
to move thus, it necessarily falls. Polypods, however,
for instance the scolopendrae, can achieve progression
with an odd number o f legs, as they can be immediately
seen to do if you mutilate one o f their feet, because
the maiming o f some of the feet in the opposing rows
is compensated by the greater number of feet still
remaining on either side ; the result is that the
maimed leg is as it were dragged along by the others,
and the animal does not walk properly. However,
it is clear that these maimed animals would achieve
the change o f position better i f they had an even
number o f feet, that is, if none were lacking and they
had all the feet in the corresponding rows ; for then
they would be able to distribute their weight evenly
and would not sway to one side, if they had corre
sponding supports on each side and had not one space
in the opposite rows devoid o f a leg. An animal,
then, when it walks progresses by means o f each o f
its limbs alternately; for thus its state is restored so
as to be identical with its original form.
It has now been established that all animals have
an even number o f feet, and the reason for this has
been stated. IX. That, if nothing were at rest, there
could be no bending or straightening is clear from the
following considerations. Bending is the change from
what is straight to what is curved or angular; straighten
ing is the change o f either of these to what is straight.
In all the above changes the bending or straightening
* dumiro scripsi: Bvvarai Z : Suvai v t o ceteri.
4 ttjv ante t&v add. Z.
509
ARISTOTLE
K a / x if ji v
ttjv
rj
e v d v v a iv
ttjv
K a p a f je c b s y e
p ir j o v a r j s
ouVe
tJv.
t t t t j g is
eK arep co
Kal
tcov
to
tercet,
d a T ip o v
7T(f>V KV e x ^ i v
t t jv
Kal
aAAa f i f j v
veucrts
o vt
v ir o ir o h a
a/ceAcov
i T r e ih r j
i v jx e p e i
a v a y K a io v
tcra re
a V T lG T O l\a
iv
tararat
d a T ip o v
K a jju f t iv .
T r o ie io d a i
ir p o yap
Ka>Xa, K a l
v ^ e o T O S tc o f ia p e i, o lo v K a d e r o v
oVav
y r jv ,
709 a v T T O T e iv o v o a
yap
TCO f lT } K l T a
o p 9 o v Set e l v a i t o
7Tpdg
jie v
a v T iK e ijie v c o v
fS a p o s
30 f i a i v o v T o s
ra
y iv e a d a i.
ou t* a v n o p e ia
Se
Suva jjl4 v t ]
T T p o f ia lv r ) ,
to
jx e v o v
y tV erat
jx e y e d o s
rj
Kal
t t jv f i T a fu .
7 ret S tcra r a k c o A a , a v a y K r j K a p a / ja i
to
iv
jx e v o v ,
et rt
s o rt
rj
tco
yovaTi
rj
iv
tyj
K a f iif je i, o lo v
a y d v a T 0 v ei/77 tcov j8 aStovTcov.
o v tco s
e ^ e r et
yap
rt? i v
G r jf ie io v
y f j 1 /JaStot Trapa
t o i x o v , r j y p a c p o f i e v r j ecrrat ou/c e v d e i a aAAa cr/coAta,
Sta
ro
eA arrco
y p a f t o f ie v r jv y
/iev
k & ijit t t o v t o s
/xetco S l a T a j x e v o v
y iv e a d a i
t t jv
/cat i ^ a l p o v T o s .
EvSeêrat fievToi Kiveiadai /cat /xt7 exovT os /ca/itttjv t o v aKeXovs, w anep Ta 7ratSta ep7TOUatV. /Cat
10 7rept tcov iXec/xxvrcov o TraXaios rjv X oyos t o i o v t o s ,
ou/c aXrjdrjs cov.
Kiveirai Se /cat r a rotaura
Kajit/jecos yivojievrjs iv rat? cbpLOTrXaTais rj t o i s
Igxôis* aAA dp0ov ouSev Suvatr av Tropevdrjvai
Gvvex<bs Kal aacfiaXcos, Kivrjdelrj S av otov ev
rat? TraXaiGTpais ot Sta
/cdveco? TTpoiovTes em
tcov yovarcov.
77oAu yap t o avco piep os, cocrre
1 e> 777 libri: locus corruptus et lacuna mutilatus.
It does not actually do so because it is not long enough
to reach the ground : and so, as is explained below, the other
leg must be bent to enable it to do so.
b Auvafxis in mathematics is used of a power, generally
the second power, i.e. the square of a number : similarly in
geometry S tiva fu s and 5vva.fji.ai are used of the figure which
510
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.

must necessarily be relative to a single point. Further,
if there were no bending, there would be no walking
or swimming or flying. For since animals with feet
stand and rest their weight alternately on each of
their two opposite legs, as one leg advances the other
must necessarily be bent. For the corresponding
legs on either side are naturally equal in length, and
the leg which supports the weight must be straight,
at right angles, as it were, to the ground. But when
a leg advances, it is assuming the position o f the side
subtending a right angle, the square upon which
equals the squares b on the side which is at rest and
the line between the two legs ; but since the legs
are equal, the leg which is at rest must bend either
at the knee or, in any kneeless animal that walks, at
the joint. That this is so is shown by the fact that
if a man were to walk on the ground alongside a wall
[with a reed dipped in ink attached to his head],c
the line traced [by the reed] would not be straight
but zigzag, because it goes lower when he bends and
higher when he stands upright and raises himself.
It is possible, however, to move even if the leg has
no bend in it, as happens when children crawl. (The
old account attributed such motion to elephants, but
it is untrue.) Movement o f this kind takes place
through a bending in the shoulders or hips.
But no
creature could walk erect in this way continuously
and safely, but could only move like those who drag
themselves forward through the dust in the wrestlingschool on their knees. For the upper portion o f the
can be formed by constructing squares on the side of, e.g. a
triangle.
c The text here is corrupt and something has fallen out in
all our m ss. : the words here bracketed are supplied from the
explanation given by Mich.
511
ARISTOTLE
Set fiaKpov elvai to kcoXo v el Se t o v t o , Kafiif/iv
avayKaiov elvai.
errel yap ecrTrjKe rrpos opOrjv,
16 b el aKapiTTTOv e o r a t t o Kivovfievov els t o rrpoadev/
15
fj KaraTreoelTai eXaTTovos Trjs opdrjs yivofievrjs, fj

ov TrpofirjaeTai. el yap opBov ovtos darepov (JKeXovs
OaTepov eoTai TTpopejSrfKos, fielôv eoTai, loov o v
SvvrjcreTai yap t o v t o t o t fjpepiovv Kal ttjv vtto20 Teivovaav.
avayKr] apa KafinTeadai t o rrpoiov, Kal
Kapa/jav afia eKTetveiv Oarepov, kkXiviv t Kal Siaj3efir]Kvai Kal errl ttjs Kaderov fieveiv IcrocKeXes
yap yive T a t Tpiycovov Ta KcoXa, /cat f) KecfraXrj y iv eT a t KaTcoTepov, orav KaOeros fj <>' rjs fiefirjKev.
25
T a 8* a V o S a T a fiev KVfxaivovTa rTpoepx^rai
(t o v t o Se S i t t w s avfifiaivei' T a fiev yap eiri
Trjs yrjs, KaOarrep oi ocj>eis, ta s Kafirras rroielt a t , Ta S els t o avco, coarrep ai Kafnrai), fj 8c
KijfiavGis Kafnrrf ea T iv T a S IXvvTraaei xpcbfieva,
so Kadairep tcl KaXovfieva yrjs evTepa Kal j3SeXAai.
TavTa yap tco fiev rjyovfievco Trpoep\eTai, t o 8c
Xoittov odofia rrav ttpos t o v t o ovvayovcri, Kal t o v TOV TOV TpOTTOV e l s TOTTOV K TOTTOV flTafi6XAoVOlV.
<f>avepov 8 * o t i e l fir) a i S v o T r j s f i i a s f i e l ^ o v s r jc r a v ,
1 el &Ka,uTTTOv iarai rb Kiuo^jxevov els rb wpbadev om. PSU

Bekker: el et irpbadev om. Z.
Let AB be the stationary leg and
AC the advanced leg, which are by
hypothesis of equal length.
If the right-
angled triangle ABD is constructed its

hypotenuse AD must be longer than
0
AC.
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.

body is large, and therefore the leg must be long; and
if this is so, there must necessarily be a bending. For
since a standing position is perpendicular, the leg which
is moved forward, if it is to be unbent, will either fall
as the right angle becomes less, or else it will not ad
vance at all ; for if, while one leg is at right angles, the
other is advanced, the advanced leg will be greater and
at the same time equal ; for it will be equal to the leg
which is at rest and also to the side subtending the
right angle. The advancing leg must therefore be
bent, and the animal, as it bends it, must at the same
time strctch the other leg and lean forward and make
a stride and remain in the perpendicular; for the legs
form an isosceles triangle and the head becomes
lower when it is perpendicular to the base o f the
triangle.6
O f animals which are footless, some advance with
an undulating motion this can be o f two kinds, for
some animals, for example snakes, make their bends
on the ground, while others, for instance caterpillars,
make them upwards and undulation is bending.
Others move by crawling, like the earthworms and
leeches ; for these advance with one part leading the
way, and then draw up all the rest o f their body to it,
and in this manner make the change from place to
place. It is plain that, if the two lines which they
b When the stride has been completed the result is an
isosceles triangle formed by the two legs and the ground; the
head, which is necessarily lower than when the legs were
together, is perpendicularly above the base.
513
ARISTOTLE
709 b o v k
a v
i^ co c o v .
eS v v a v ro
K iv e ta d a i
e K r a d e ia r js
K a r e tx e v ,
eK r a d e la a ,
ov O ev
K a l
a v
y a p
r a
r r js
T T p o fje a a v '
r jp e / x r ja a v r o s
K v / x a lv o v r a
K a / x T r rjs ,
r v v
r o v r o v
e l
rcb v
ia r jv
v r r e p fia X X e i
ir r a y ei
r o
X o itto v .
9Ev rrdoais Sc r a ls Acêicrats /xerafioXalsro kivov 5 /xevov o r e /xev eKreivo/xevov els evOv rtp oepxera i,
o r e Se avyKa/xTrro/xevov, roZs fiev rjyov/xevois
/xepeaiv evOv yivo/xevov, roZs S eTro/xevois a v y
KafJL7rrov.
Troielrai Sc Kal r a aXXo/xeva rravra
Ka/xi/jiv ev rcb vrroKei/xevcp /xepei r o v acb/xaros,
Kal r o v r o v rov rporrov e\ovra aAAcrcu. Kal r a
rrero/xeva Se Kal r a veovra , r a /xev r a s rrrepvyas
10 evdvvovra Kal Ka/xirrovra tte r a r a i3 r a Sc ro ts
TTrepvyiois, Kal rovrcov r a /xev r e r r a p a i r a Se
Svaiv, oa a rrpo/xrjKearepa rrjv /xopfyrjv, cbarrep r o
rcbv eyxeXecov y e v o s * rrjv Se Xoitttjv Kivrjaiv avrl
rcbv Suo rrrepvyicov rcb Xoittco r o v acb/xaros Ka/xirro/xeva vet, Kadarrep eiprjrai TTporepov. oi Sc rrXareis
is rcbv IxOvcov rfj /xev rcb rrXarei x P& vtai r o v acb/xaros
a vrl rrrepvylcov, rfj Sc irrepvyiois Svalv. r a Sc
ira/XTrav rrXarea, Kadairep o /3aros, a v ro ts r o ts
rrrepvyiois Kal r a ls e a x a ra is r o v acb/xaros irepicf>epelais evdvvovra Kal Ka/xirrovra rroielrai rrjv
vevaiv.
20 X . Arroprjaeie S av n s tocos ttc o s Kivovvrai
r er ra p a i arj/xelois oi opvides, fj ttero/xevoi fj rropevo/xevoiy cbs elprj/xevov o n rravra r a evai/xa Kiveirai
r e r r a p a iv . o v k eiprjrai Se, aAA o n ov rrXeioaiv.
ov fxrjv aAA o v r av irereaOai Svvaivro a<f>aipea T he bend is represented as two lines form ing an an g le;
514
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.-x.

form were not greater than the one, movement would
be impossible for animals which advance by undula
tions. For, when the bend is extended, they would
not have made any advance, i f it subtended an equal
line ; whereas, in fact, it is longer when it is extended,
and then, when this part has come to a standstill,
the animal draws up the rest.
In all the above-mentioned changes that which
moves advances by first extending itself straight out
and then curving itselfstraightening itself out with
its leading parts and curving itself in the parts which
follow. A ll animals, too, which jump make a bend
in the lower part o f their body and jump in this
manner. Animals also which fly and those which
swim, fly by straightening and bending their wings
and swim with their fins, some fish having four
fins and others, namely those which are of a more
elongated form (eels for example), having two fins.
The latter accomplish the rest o f their movement
by bending themselves in the rest o f their body, as a
substitute for the second pair o f fins, as has already
been said. Flatrfish use their two fins, and the flat
part o f their body instead o f the second pair. Fish
that are entirely flat, like the ray, manage to swim by
using their actual fins and the outer periphery o f their
body, which they alternately straighten and bend.
X.
A question might perhaps be asked as to how
birds, whether flying or walking, can move at four
points, in view o f the statement that all red-blooded
animals move at four points. But this is not exactly
what we stated ; what we said was at not more than
four points. However, they could not fly if their
these two lines together must be longer than the line which
subtends their angle.
R
515
ARISTOTLE
OeVTWV tw v k w X w v ovre nopeveoQai TWV 7TTepvywv
dcfxupeOeiawv, e V e t o t5 S * avOpwiros j 3 a S t e t fir)
klvw v t o v s wfiovs
aAAa
rravTa y e , Kadarrep
eipryrai, Kafii/tei K a l e / c r a c r e t 7roieiTai Trjv / x e r a fioArfv a n a v T a y a p els t o vrroKeifievov fiexp^ t w o s
olovel avvvneLKov1 TTpoepx^Tai, w o t a va yK a io v,
el fir) K a l / c a r * a A A o fiopiov y t v e r a i rj Kafufjis, a A A *
so o9ev ye r) apxr) t o is fiev oXorrTepois t o v TTTepov,
t o is o opvioi Trjs TTTepvyoSt t o is S aXXois t o v
avaXoyov fxoplov, KaOarrep t o is IxQ vaw . t o is S ,
warrep oi ocfreis, ev T a ls K a fn ra is t o v aw fjiaros
710 a eaTiv r) apxrj Trjs Kafiijjew s . t o 8 * ovporrvyiov e o r t
TOIS 7TTTfVOlS TTpOS TO KaTCvOvveW TT)V TTTTjOlV,
Kadarrep r a rrrfhaXia t o is 7rXoiois .
a va yK a io v Se
K al r a u r a ev Tfj npocrSvaei /ca/x7rretv. hionep Ta
5 re oXoTTTepa K a l tw v (JXÔTTTepwv o is t o ovporrvyiov
a<j>vws eêt 'npos tt)v elprjfievrfv x p ija tv , otov t o is r e
T aw s K a l t o is aXeKTpvoai K a l oXws t o is fir) t it t /t ik o is , ovk evOvTTopovvw tw v fiev ya p oXo7TTepwv
olttXws ovdev e '^ e t ovporrvyiov, w a re KaOarrep a m jSaXov ttXoiov <j)pTai, K al ottov av TVXJ) eKaOTTOV
1 0 avTw v
TtpooTTiTTTei, ofioiw s r a r e /coAeoTrrepa,
otov Kav0apoi K a l fir)XoXov8ai, K a l r a aveXvTpa,
olov fieX iT T ai K a l a<f>rjKs. K al t o is fir) 7tt7)tikois
axpciov t o ovpo7Tvyiov I o t iv , otov t o is t Tropcpvp lw a i K a l epw Siois K al 7raat t o is ttX w to is * aAA*
a v r I to v ovpoTTvyiov rreTavrai to v s 7roSas a7ro25
1 oiovel crvvvireiKOv Z : olov eis totreiKOV ceteri.

L it. creatures with undivided wings. (The Greek
here has different words for the wings of insects and those
o f birds.)
b L it. creatures with cloven wings (t\*. made up o f feathers)
as opposed to insects which have undivided wings.
516
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, x.
legs were taken from them, or walk i f their wings
were taken from them, just as a man cannot walk
without moving his shoulders to some extent. A ll
things, as has been said, make their change o f position
by bending and stretching ; for they all progress
upon that which, being beneath them, also as it were
gives way to them up to a certain point; so that,
even if the bending does not take place in any other
part, it must at any rate do so at the point wrhere the
wing begins in flying insects a and in birds, and where
the analogous part begins in other animals, such as
fishes. In other animals, snakes for example, the
beginning o f their bending is in the joints of the body.
In winged creatures the tail is used, like the rudder
in a ship, to direct the flig h t; and this too must bend
at the point where it joins the body. Flying insects
also, therefore, and those birds 6 whose tails are illadapted for the purpose just mentioned, peacocks,
for example, and domestic fowls and, generally, those
birds which are not adapted for flight, cannot keep
a straight course. O f the flying insects not a single
one possesses a tail, so that they are carried along
like rudderless ships and collide with anything that
they happen to meet. The same is true o f sheath
winged insects, such as beetles and cockchafers,
and the sheathless insects, such as bees and wasps.
The tail is useless in such birds as are not adapted
to flight, the porphyrio/* for example, and the heron
and water-fowls in general; these fly stretching out
e Coleoptera.
d The identity of this bird is disputed. W. W. Merry (on

Aristoph. Avesy 707) suggests some kind of coot; DA. W.
Thompson (on II.A . 509 a 11, 595 a 13) suggests the purple
coot or the flamingo.
517
ARISTOTLE
\
15
T eivovra, / c a t
\p io v r a i a v t
o vp on vyiov to ls
(JKeXeCTL TTpOS TO KCLTV0VVLV TTJV TTTTJGLV. j8 / > a Seta S rj m r j a i s t c o v oX on T ep cov <jtl /cat a a O evfjs
Sta t o firj /card Ao y o v e\'tv t t j v t c o v n T ep cov cfrvaiv
TTpOS TO TOV GCOfiaTOS fidpOS,
r a Se fiiK p a /cat acrdevrj.

/caSt/cov TrAotov e m x t i p o l r j
20n X o v v ,
o vtco
a a O e v e ia
Se
K con a is
T a vT a
tt}
TTTrjoei
a vT cbv
tcov
eK(f>v<Jcos a vfifia X X e T a i t l
(xxfreXei.
el
n o ie i a d a i
x p ijT a i.
TTTepcov
npos to
S o pvid cov t (x ) fie v T a q j t o

Sta t o fjieyedos a x p r ja r o v ,
fid X X eiv o v O e v
TO JlV TToXv,
aAAa
coa n ep a v o v v
K al
rj
X exO ev,
Se
v n e v a v T ic o s
to v
K al
rj
t t js
tcov
ore
o v p o n v y io v
o tc
oA-
fie v
Sta t o a n o S e'xovariv e l
25 $pvi6es
TOLS 6X0TTTep0LS TTJV TCOV TTTpCOV <f>VaiV,

[xaXiGTa S o t T a ^ t a r a avTcov neTojievoi. to lo v to l
S
ot
yajiifscovvxesm to v t o ls yap rj T a y yT rjs tt js
mrjaecos xpfo1!10* 77PS to v fiiov. aKoXovda 8
avrcov eoLKev elvai Kal T a Xoma fiopia to v acofiaTos npos ttjv olKeiav Kivrjaiv, Ke<f>aXrj fiev
30 anavTcov fiiKpa Kal ax>xrjv ov naxvs, crrrjOos S
laxvpov Kal ov, 6i> fiev npos to evTovov elvai,
KaOanep av el nXolov npcopa XefificbSovs, laxvpov
Se tt) nepi</)vaei Trjs aapKos, iv9 ancodeiv SvvrjTai
710 b to v npocrnlnTOVTa a epa, / c a t to v to paSicos / c a t firj
fieTa novov. T a S omadev Kov(f>a / c a t avvrjKOvra
naXiv els aTevov, Iv9 enaKoXovdfj t o ls efinpoaOev,
fxrj avpovTa to v aepa S t a t o T r A a T o s * .
5
X I.
K a t
to v to v ,
S ln o v v
to v
Te
n ep l
Se
fie v
tov tco v
fie X X o v
coov
a v a y K a io v
ea n v
S ic o p ia O c o
fia p V T e p a ,
S r jX o v
tov
T ponov
opdov
fia S ie ia d a i
e lv a i,
K al
a c o f i a T O s f i e p ' f j K o v < f> o T e p a
to v to ls
518
to
eêtv
fio v c o s
Ta
T a
y ap
S te m
fie v
avco
v c fr e a T c o T a
av
o v tc o s
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, x.-xi.

their feet in place o f a tail and use their legs instead
of a tail to direct their flight. The flight o f flying
insects is slow and weak, because the growth o f their
wings is not in proportion to the weight o f their body ;
for their weight is considerable, while their wings
are small and weak ; so they use their power o f flight
like a merchant-ship attempting to travel by means
of oars. The weakness also o f the wings themselves
and o f their manner o f growth contributes to some
extent to the result which we have described. Among
birds, the peacocks tail is at one season o f no service
because o f its size, at another useless because the
bird moults. But birds are the exact opposite o f
winged insects in the nature o f their wings, especially
the swiftest flyers among them, namely, those with
curved talons ; for their swiftness o f flight is useful
in enabling them to gain their livelihood. The other
parts o f their body, too, seem to be similarly adapted
for their particular movement, the head being always
small and the neck not thick and the breast strong and
sharp sharp so as to be compact like the prow o f a
light-built ship, and strong owing to the way the flesh
grows so as to thrust aside the air which meets it,
and that easily and without effort; but the hinder
parts are light and contract again to a narrow point,
in order that they may follow the fonvard parts with
out sw eeping the air by their breadth.
X I.
So much for the discussion of these topics.
The reason why an animal which is to walk erect
must both be a biped and also have the upper part
o f its body lighter and the parts situated beneath
these heavier is obvious ; for only i f it were so
519
ARISTOTLE
710 b
f/
\O V
>
OLOV
J/
17]
< p p lV
CLVTO
p<XOlQ)$.
0L07Tp
10avdpw nos
[jl o v o v opOov rw v wwv wv Ta GKeXrj

#cara Ao y o v e x eL 77p os r a avw t o v GW fiaros fieyiG ra
TWV VTTOTTohwV Kal l<JXVPTa r a SÂoV Se TTOtCt
tovto
Kal t o avfxpaivov t o l s n aiS iois' ou y a p
Svvavral j8aStctv op6a Sta to 7ravra vavwStj etvat
Kal fiia> Kal la x vpoTpa exetv fj /cara Aoyov1 r a
15 avco fidpr] t o v Gw/iaros r w v Karwdev. npoiovGrjs
Sc Trjs f]XiKias avr]aiv Aa/tj8avet r a Karw jiaXXov,
fiXpf> rrep av Aa/kocrt ro npoofjK ov fieyeO os, Kal
n oiov v ra i t o t t o l s a w jia o i Trjv /JaStcrtv opOrjv.
f
ot
/)
(S /
OpVLUS
o n ia O e v
KOVCpOL
a v r o is
^ /
OVTS
O la
TO
e tv a t, K a O a n e p I p y d ^ o v r a i
fta p o s
to
>
t<7t
OL7TOOS
20 T O V S I n n O V S T O V S X a ^ K O V S T O V S TOL n p o o d i a f j p K O T a S
t w v
Acov.
o k
ovra s
a m ov
8 vvaa9ai
fir jp w
Kal
TTpOS T O V T O
25 ou/c av
tJv
fia X ia r a
to
e ^ c tv t o
w ore
TO
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Z141?
rovrw v
711 a a vrois X
<f>epi
Kal
e lv a i
n rep w v
w anep
on
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ws
war
to
C tfT t
ya p to ls
t o v
8*
t t jX l k o v t o v
O l)
rjv,
a vd pw -
av 77V a7TO
K a l t o aAAo
pirjpos
vrev9 ev
(jw p ia
opdov
rov
nav.
ovk
ra
to
GKeXrj i n r -
S
cvSe^CTat rov
a vO p w n ov.
exova i
c w fx a
</>avep6v
f]
yap
vvv
rw v
ovrw s
ecrrt v, op9ois S ovcriv axpvjcrros

om. PY.
1 fj kclt& \6yov
520
[i r jp o v s
t,WOLS, V0VS
lg x lo v
ya a rep a ,
30pr)pia/xva
o p v iO a
rov
eS/W
o p v is 8 I n o v s *
ovto s
a vrw v.
e/c
Svo
Atav ovv tJv av t o a w ji a n a v n p o n e r e s

VVV Sc jia K p O V OV ]XXP^ V7TO [l(T7)V 7rapa-
cTK eXos *
Tctvct
So/cetv
0770
7TOLS K a l TOLS TTpanOGL

{}p a x 0 s
S in o S a s
t o v
tcr^tov o f x o i o v
T<? G K e A e i n p o T r j s K a f i n r j s K a l
aAA* ta x tov.
fxrjpos
Sc
t
ttjA l k o v t o v
T>
* X lv > T v
lo r d v a
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xi.

constituted would it be able to carry itself easily.
Therefore man, the only erect animal, has legs larger
and stronger in proportion to the upper part o f his
body than any o f the other animals which have legs.
What happens with children illustrates this : they
cannot walk erect because they are always dwarfish
and have the upper parts o f their body too big and
too strong in proportion to the lower parts. As they
grow older, the lower parts increase more quickly,
until they attain their proper size ; and it is only then
that they can walk with their bodies erect. Birds
are lightly built but can stand on two feet because
their weight is at the back, just like bronze horses
which are made by sculptors with their fore-legs
raised in the air. The chief reason why birds can
stand although they are bipeds is that their hip-joint
resembles a thigh and is o f such a size that they seem
to have two thighs, one on the leg above the joint and
the other between this and the fundament; but it is
not really a thigh but a hip. I f it were not so large,
a bird could not be a biped ; for then, just as in man
and the quadrupeds, the thigh and the rest o f the
leg would be directly attached to a short hip, and so
the whole body would tend to fall forward too much.
But, as it is, the hip, being long, extends up to the
middle o f the belly, and so the legs form supports at
that point and carry the whole body. It is clear too
from this that it is impossible for a bird to stand erect
in the way that a man stands ; for the way that birds
wings grow is useful to them in the position in which
they now hold themselves, but i f they stood erect,
521
ARISTOTLE
711 a
dv
rjv ,
Jj<777p
ypd<f>ovai
e p o jr a s
eyovra s
o t l o i3 8 *
dv0poj7rov
tovs
rrrep vya s.
A fia y a p
elp rjfie vo is b fjX o v
t o is
OVd * 1 o A A o
TL TOLOVTOV eGTl TTJV flOpffjTjV dVVaTOV
e lv a i r r r e p o jr o v , o v / l o v o v
cera i
fj r e r r a p a i v
a v r o is
rj
fie v o is
X II.
TrXeioai G rjfieio is K iv r jdXA*
r r r e p v y o jv e is
tcov
<ftvaiv
^ gtos
klvov
fie v
ovv
el
frq
Kafiifsis
7jV
dv
fir fie v o s
dvdpojTToi
G K eX ojv
f/v
ev
to ls
ev r a l s d jfioT rX d ra is K al l a x i o i s , o v d e v
t o jv
e v a lfio jv
Kal
vrroTTobojv
fia iv e iv , e ip rjra i T rp orep ov, K a l o n

fjV
ax
oti
Karra
rj be rf>vais o v b e v Troiei Trapd <pvGiv.

O n
G K eX em v fj
o lo v
otl
evaifLOv o v ,
r jp e fio v v r o s ,
oiTTobes
ovres
n o io v v r a i
v n e v a v tlo js
Kal
on
re
Kal
K ajii/jiv,
a vro is
en
K al
e v a v r l o js
o p v id e s
01
be
r o ls
77p o -
Kafufjis o v k
dv
re
01
Trjv
t o jv
re T p d rro b a
r a
d vd p ojT rois .
01
fie v y a p dvO pojrroi t o v s fie v fip a x ^ d v a s K a jiT rro v G iv
15 77i
K o iX a , r a
ra
TTpa77oba r d
ra
8*
o n la O ia
o p v iO es .
be
fie v
etti
a in o v
OKeXrj errl t o
TTpoaOia GKeXrj
to
f i d r r jv , ojGTTep e ip rjra i
to
fjeX riG T O V
TTaGiv
o g o is
fiera fjo X rj
Ik
d fio io js
be
K vp rov,
be
K al
oi
rj <f>vais o v b e v o r jf iio v p y e i
7r p o r e p o v ,
t o jv
VTrdpxei
r o lv
k o iX o v
on
K vp rd v , Ta
err I t o
aAAa
e v b e x o fie v o jv .
K a ra
G K eX o lv ,
<^vgiv
e a r o jr o s
Trdvra tt p o s
o jg t *
rj
K ara
fie v
err el
to tto v
eK a a rov
to
fid p o s e v t o v t o j e a r l, K iv o v fie v o is o * e ls t o rrpoa dev

8
el r o v
7700a
r o v r jy o v f ie v o v r f j Qea ei k o v ^ jo v e lv a i,
G w e y o v s be r r js n o p e la s y iv o f ie v r js a iO i s ev t o v t c o
to
rov
pdpos
d rro X a jifja v e iv ,
KeKdfitfjdai t o
fie v o v r o s
to v
re
bf/X ov
o js
g k 4 X o s a v O is r e
K ara
a rjfie io v Kal r r js Kir/jfiYjs.
rov
a va y K a io v
e v O v y lv e a O a i,
rrpoojaO e v r a
7708a
t o v t o be a v f if ia iv e iv d fia
x i. - x ii.
as winged eupid^ are represented in pictures, the

wings would ser\e no purpose.
A t the same time it is clear from what has been
-aid that man, or any other creature o f like form,
cannot be winged, not only because, being redblooded. he would then move at more points than
four, but also because the possession o f wings would
be useless to him when moving in a natural manner.
Now nature creates nothing unnatural.
X II.
It has already been stated that, if there were
no bending in the legs or shoulders and hips none
o f the animals which are red-blooded and have feet
could progress ; and that bending would be impos
sible if soinetliing were not at rest ; and tli.it men
and birds, being both bipeds, bend their legs in
opposite directioas ; and. furthermore, that quadru
peds bend their pairs o f legs in opposite directions
to one another and in an opposite manner to men.
For men bend their arms concavely and their legs
com exly. but quadrupeds bend their front legs convexlv and their back legs conoa\elv : birds too do
the latter.
The reason is that nature never does
anvthing without a purpose, a< has been said before,
but creates all things with a view to the be^t that
circumstances allow. And so since in all creatures
which possess by nature the power o f locomotion by
means o f their two legs, when each leg i^ stationary
the weight must be upon it, but when they move
forward, the leading l-*r must ha\e no weight upon
it, and as progression continues it is necessary to
transfer the w eight on to this le g ; it is clearly essential
that the leg after beintr bent should become straight
again, the point at which the leg is thrust forward
and the shin remaining at rest. And it is possible
523
ARISTOTLE
a /cat
ir p o ie v a i
T r jv
K a fir r r jv
T o v m a d ev
s o t o s
r o v
t o
u>ov
t o v
a < x )fia T o s
fie v
K a fir r r js
T r js
rj
711 bT r js
t o v
fie v
els
Se
t o v
5 o v a r js ,
t o
*0
o v d '
fie v o s
fie v
ev
T jj
o ltto
e ls
T r js
o K eX o v s
oSv
avO pcoT ros
t t jv
K a ra
e lp r jf ie v r jv
io euAoycu?* a x p r j O T o i y a p
TTpOS T
t o
re
t o
r r o p e ia
S ir r o v s
< f> v a iv
e y iy v e T
o k c X o v s
t o
Se
K iv r ja e a i
K a fin r js
re
Kal
r ja a v
T jj
e ls
t.
T r jv
O K eX eai
atrtav K a f i r r r e i e l s
Se f i p a x i o v a s e r r l t o
dv
t o v
e fir r p o a d e v
T r js
fiia
cbv
K al
r r p o a y e iv ,
a v fij3 r ja e T a
to Is
at,
e fir r p o a d e v
T o v m a d e v
e ls
e o T
a v T a ts ,1
t o v
e ls
o m a d e v
iv r ja e w v
e fir r p o a d e v
X e x d e la a
e\ 0 V T 0s
ttp o e v e x d e v -
e ls
e ls
K a fir r r js
t o
T r p o a O e v T a O K e X r j, t o v s
V a V T lO V
e ls
v rrev a v T ia is
rj
Se
a v y K a fiip e i
e a x a r o v
f ie T a f t o X r jv
Sta
t o v
v r r e v a v T ic o v
T r js
fie v
S v v a to v ,
y a p
ert S
Sta Svo K
o v a r js
K iv e iv .
e fir r p o a d e v
to tto v
fie v
e K T a a is
o m a d e v
t o
K v r jfir jv
n o S a
o v tc o
d e a is
t o
y a p
fir jp o v
ttjv
rj
o k c X o v s
a v ev ex d ev T O s
tto S o s
a v a y K a io v
fie v
T o S fir r p o a d e v
a S v v a r o v .
K e iv a )s
a v
e ls
r jy o v fie v o v
K a ra
tto io v to
e/x-
k o IX o v
K a fim o fie v o i t o v
TTJV T O )V ^Ct/NOV X P V G lV
K<Z* 77P S
Trjv Trjs Tpo(j)rjs Xrji/jiv. Ta Se T eTpanoSa /cat

tpoTOKa Ta fiev efirrpoadev oKeXnj, eVetSrj rjyelT a i
Te Trjs TTopeias a vrw v /cat ecrrt ratJt ev ra) fiepei
t o ) efiirpoadev t o v
acxifiaros, avayKrj K ajnrTeiv
15 tti t t j v Trepi<f>epeiav Sta t t j v a vrrjv a lr la v yvrrep
K a l o i avdpcorror /cara ya p t o v t o ofioioys exovaiv.
Siorrep K a l T a reTpdrroSa KafiTTTovaiv els t o
rrpoadev t o v elprjfievov t porrov.
/cat y a p o v t o j s
fiev Trjs Kafiipews avTw v yivofievrjs errl tto X v
S v vrjao vrai t o v s rrohas fieTecopiêiv evavTicos Se
1 {f-irevavrluv re
libri.
524
avtclis Jaeger:
inrevavrlwi re (8e
UZ) aura?
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xn.

for this to happen and for the animal at the same
time to progress if the leading leg can bend forward,
but impossible if it bends backwards. For in the
first case the extension o f the leg will take place with
the forward movement o f the body, in the second
case with its backward movement. Further, if the
bending were backwards, the planting o f the foot
would be carried out by twro movements contrary to
one another, one backwards and the other forwards.
For in bending the leg it is necessary to draw the
extremity o f the thigh backwards, and the shin
wrould move the foot forwards from the point of
bending; but i f the bending be forward, the
progression described above will take place not by
two contrary movements but by a single forward
movement.
Man then, being a biped and carrying out the
change from place to place in a natural manner by
means o f his legs, bends his legs forwards for the
reason already stated, but bends his arms concavely.
This is only in accordance with reason ; for i f they
were bent in the opposite direction, they would be
useless for the purpose o f the hands and for taking
food. But viviparous quadrupeds o f necessity bend
their front legs in an outward curve, because these
legs lead the wray when they walk, and are also
situated in the front part o f their bodies ; and the
reason is the same as in man, for in this they resemble
man. Thus the quadrupeds too bend their legs
forward in the manner already described ; for indeed,
since they bend their legs in this way, they will be
able to raise their feet high in the air, whereas, if
they bent them in the opposite direction, they would
525
ARISTOTLE
20
K(XfXTTTOVTS fXLKpOV <1770 T7)S yfjS S.V aVTOVS fJL

S ta
r e w p i^ o v
a <f>
K a jX T T T jV J
to
fjs
t o v
fj
K V T jfir j
fir jp o v
oX o v
77 ( f > V K V ,
V7T0
y i y v e o O a t TrpoXovros a v r o v .
e l fxev rjv e ls t o
o
K ara
( ttI
r r jv
ttjv
yC LC FTpl
t w v S oTTiodev C K eX w v
e fn r p o o d e v fj K afiipis, t w v tt o 8 w v
fx e re w p io fx o s
25 ad to is
K a l
T jj
o fx o iw s
fi p a x v
a p o iv
yap
tw v
av
av
o k
a v ro is
efye
X w v,
to v
t o is
/cat
e y iy v e r o
re
77p
to v to ls
fxrjpov
K al
r r js Ka/jL7rrjs a fxtporepw v v tto t o v r r js y a a r p o s t o t t o v

v t t o t t l t t t o v t w v ) , e l S ct? t o
vvv
KafiTTTOVcriv,
ovdev
oTTiodev, KaOaTTCp K a l
ifXTToSiov
a v r o is
y iy v e r a i
TTpos t t jv TTopelav e v r f j r o i a v T jj K iv fjo e i t w v t t o 8 w v

eri
to ls
ye
drjX aôfxevois
a vrw v
Kal
TTpos
so r o ia v T T jv X e i r o v p y ia v a v a y K a i o v fj f i e X n o v y
KKafx</)9ai r a
T roiovfxevw v
O K eX rj * o v
evros
yap
v(f>y a v r a
p a 8 io v
e \ e iv
r r jv
ra
r r jv
ovrw
Kapafiiv
reK va
Kal
(jK e ir a ^ e iv .
712 a
X III.
"O vrw v
K a ra
t o vs
fj
to
errl
K o tX o v
e<f>
K a d a rrep
<}>' o l s
ra
( a va yK rj
T r p o o d ia
yap
Kal
771 T O
r o v v a v r io v
fx e v
T T p o o O ia
errl
K o iX o v , K a d a T T p
tovtols
T a fx ev K v p r a
to
<
O T T ia d ia ,
to
K vp rov,
K vp rov,
ra
OLS T O
T ,
TTpos
1 ffvvdvafffioifs Z : (rivdiafiovs ceteri.
526
K a fx m e iv
ra
B , f j a v r e o T p a f X f i e v w s K a l jx f j e r r l
aAAa r a
S O T T ia O ia
fj
Kal
ot? A , f j e r r l r o v v a v r i o v tt I
K aO anep
6 Ta a v r a ,
Se T T T a p W V T p O T T W V T r j s KOLfJUpeWS
a v v S v a a /x o v s 1
a X X r jX a ,
o-
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xn.-xm.

lift them only a little way from the ground, because
the whole o f the thigh and the joint from which the
shin grows would come up against the belly as the
animal advanced. On the other hand, if the bend
ing o f the back legs were forward, the raising of the
feet would be similar to that o f the front feet (for
they could only be raised a short distance by lifting
the legs, since the thigh and the joint o f both legs
would come up under the region o f the belly), but
the bending being, as it is, backwards, there is no
thing to hinder their progression as they move the
feet in this manner. Again, for those animals which
are suckling their young, it is necessary, or at any
rate better, that their legs should bend in this way
with a view to this function ; for if they bent their
legs inwards, it would not be easy for them to keep
their young underneath them and to protect them.
X I II.
Now there are four ways o f bending the legs
taking them in pairs. Both the fore and the hind
legs must bend either concavely, as in figure A ; or
in the opposite manner, that is convexly, as in B :
>
>
<
<
o
C
>><<<>><
(Mich, supplies the figures which are lacking in the ms s . In each group
the front legs are the left pair, the hind legs the right.)
or inversely, that is to say, not in the same direction,

but the forelegs bend convexly and the back legs
concavely, as in C ; or (the converse o f C) with the
convexities towards one another and the concavities
527
ARISTOTLE
ra
Se
COS
/XV ^t <f> o t s TO A
ovtc
K o iX a
to w
10 TO I \
t o s
St77oScov
o u t
</>'
eêt
K a d d rrep
B , OU0V /Ca/X77TTat
t<v
T T p a 77o S a jv ,
7roSaix'
o v d e v t t X t jv iX e c fy a s , o
X io v a s
Kal
\Aet
Ta
c r K e X r j'
Ta Se
K afX l(/LS
oK eX rj
vaXXa
ttI
TO
771 t o K v p r o v
c b fio s
tcov a/ceAouv o f x r jp o s ttl
Ta
8 rj
17 y a p a p x y
vtt e
Se f i r j p o s
TO
Ta
TTpos
v a v r lo o s y o
tt I
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avco
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Se
Sc /cat 7ri
KapTTOS
Se y o v u C77t
to
kolXo v
Kal
iv a v T ic o s
otl
eVi to K v p r o v ,
cohos
Sto
Tas*
771 TO
T K v p r o v , K a l
^ 7TL
< f> a v e p o v
/cotAov
to
k o iX o v
/cd>Aa
cooa vrcos
t o K v p T o v , o Se 770U? T o u v a v rt o v e V t t o
K aTco
to
(b X t K p a V O V
k o iX o v
to
h ti
eêt
iv a v r lc o s
T O L S avOpCOTTOLS, o t o v
, o S e K a p n o s T r j s X LP $
77t
Se
KVpTOV.
to
kolXo v
20 o
cos
a vd p corros t o v s P p < *
/xev y a p
to vs
T ra X l v
Ta
A),
to
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T a T T p < X 7 T o 8 a , e i s Se TO A , TCOV /XV T e T p a -
K d fA T T T e i ,
15
/cat
T r js
/xev
770US*
>7
X LP S
TO
KVpTOV.
X IV . A t /xev
K a f i x jjt i s t c o v cr/ceAcuv t o u t o v
exot'crt /cat Sta T a j a i T i a s T a s
e ip r jfie v a s ,
K iv e iT a i
Se Ta o77tor0ta 77pos Ta e/x25 r r p o o O e v K a r a Sia/xeTpov* /xct<x y ap t o Setov t o jv
Te
to v
oSv
TpoTTov
e/X77p o o O e v
TO
a p iU T tp O V
TCOV
KLVOVCTIV ,
OTTLCrOeV
e t r a t o a p t o r e p o v tcov e f n r p o o O e v , /xcra Se t o u t o t o
S ctov
tcov
efJLTTpocrdev
TTpoTTTrjs
so Tot?
av
f io X r jv
/cat
iy iv e ro
O77tc70ev.
to lo v to v '
o vcri
o T T io d e v .
a/xa
Tt
rj
fid S io is
oi5
vvv
tco v
c r r jf i e i o v
lttttc o v
770t0UVTat T 7 ]V K IV T )(J IV , o t o v
528
OTt
Stccm aTO
o to v
r ro p e la
ct
fie v
av
Sc7* T a ^ u y a p
ocroi
01
to v
ra
77
cêA/co/xevots*
aAAa
aAortS* t o
xctAe77ov Se a v v e x ^ j T r o i e i o Q a i t t j v
a A A o /te va.
Kal
a iT io v
T T pcoT ov,
/ x e ra-
a rra yop ev-
TpO TTO V
TTOfJLTTVOVTS>
TOUTOV
X ^ P ^
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xm.-xiv.

outwards, as in D. No biped or quadruped bends its
limbs as in figure A o r B , but quadrupeds bend them
as in C. The bendings illustrated by figure D occur
in none o f the quadrupeds except the elephant, and
in the movement o f the arms and legs by man, for
he bends his arms concavely and his legs convexly.
In man the bendings o f the limbs always take
place alternately in opposite directions ; for example,
the elbow bends concavely but the wrist convexly,
and the shoulder again convexly. Similarly in the
legs, the thigh bends concavely, the knee convexly,
and the foot, on the other hand, concavely. And
obviously the lower limbs bend in opposite directions
to the upper ; for the origin o f movement bends in
opposite directions, the shoulder convexly and the
thigh concavely ; therefore also the foot bends con
cavely and the wrist convexly.
X IV .
The bendings, then, o f the legs take place
in this manner and for the reasons stated. But the
back legs move diagonally in relation to the front
legs ; for after the right fore leg animals move the
left hind leg, then the left fore leg, and after it the
right hind leg. The reason is that, if they moved the
fore legs at the same time and first, their progression
would be interrupted or they would even stumble
forward, with their hind legs as it were trailing behind.
Further, such movement would not be walking but
jumping ; and it is difficult to keep up a continuous
movement from place to place by jumping. An illus
tration o f this is that, in actual fact, horses that move
in this manner, for example in religious processions,
soon become tired. For this reason, then, animals do
i.e. prancing instead of walking.
529
ARISTOTLE
f l V
712
b O V1
O VV
T O IS
(f)OTpOLS
KCLL OTTiaOeV
eco
7Tpa>TOlS,
o fia r c o v
Kal
TO VTO JV
TOJV
em nTO V
fir jS e T e p o v ,
av
Sta f i e T p o v ,
o to v
7 r d o x e iv .
ov
d fia .
10
Sta
avTov
to v to
oi
T T O ie lo d a i
fj
TTJV
S e K e iv c o v
S ia fie T p o v
it t t t o i
Kal
ooa
/cara
S ia fie T p o v ,
a p iO T e p o is
a f i (f j O T p o i s
r r p o f i e f i r jK O T a
Se
e p e ifie v
e ip r jr a i o v S e r e p a t o v t o j v
S e ^ to ts rj t o i s
to is
to v
a va y K rj
K iv e io O a i
Kal
to r a ra t
T o ia v r a ,
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cVSe^crat
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fir)
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lyiyV O V T O
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a va yK r)
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ei
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Kal
d v.
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K i v r ja i v rj
eflTTpO oO eV
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n X e lo v s
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7roSas: T e T T a p o j v T r o i e i T a i T r j v K i v r j a i v d e l y a p e v
to is
r c rra p a t t o i s </>e^rjs r a o t t l o 6 t a T T p o s r a
e fn rp o o O e v
K iv e iT a i
/cara S i a f i e T p o v .
S r jX o v
S
7rt rots1 f i p a S e o j s K i v o v f i e v o i s
Kal ot
K a p K iv o i
yap
to v
yap
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yap
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</>*
to
to
20 K i v o v v r a i y a p
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Kal
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dv
to
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to vs
to
7 r o ie ir a i
to
e rr e l
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S ia fie T p o v
n o p e la v .
K iv r ja iv *
t t jv
t o jv
to is
cocov,
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r r e T T o L rjK e v
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tto X v t t o S o jv
r r jv
rrp oa O ev
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tco v
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7 rX a y io v .
e is
o vto i
coov
K iv e iT a i
Sv v a jie v o v s
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T p orrov
del
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a v r o is ,
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to is
o jo r e
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a/co-
k o jX o is *
rp orrov
to v t9 em
ef i n p o o d e v .
XV.
O t S o p v id e s r a
7ToSa K a f L T T T o v o i v .
O K eX rj
rp on ov
yap
K aO anep
T iv a
1 o i P : om. SYUZ.
530
ra
rc rp a-
n a p a n X r jo io J S
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xiv.-xv.

not move separately with their front and back Iegsa;
and, if they moved with both their right legs first,
they would not be above their supporting limbs and
would fall. If, then, they must necessarily move in
one or other o f these two ways or else diagonally,
and neither o f the first two ways is possible, they
must necessarily move diagonally ; for if they move
thus they cannot, as has been explained, suffer
either o f the above ill results. For this reason horses
and similar animals stand at rest with their legs
advanced diagonally and not with both right or both
left legs advanced at the same time. And those
animals which have more than four legs move in
the same manner ; for in any four adjoining legs the
back legs move diagonally with the fore legs, as can
be plainly seen iii those which move slowly.
Crabs too move in the same fashion, for they are
among the polypods. They, too, always move on
the diagonal principle in whatever direction they are
proceeding. For this animal moves in a peculiar
manner, being the only animal to move obliquely
and not forward. But since forward is determined
in relation to the vision, nature has made the crabs
eyes able to conform with its limbs ; for its eyes
move obliquely, and so, for this reason, crabs too can,
in a sense, be said to move forward.
XV.
Birds bend their legs in the same manner as
quadrupeds ; for in a way their nature is closely
i.e . do not move first the front legs together and then
their b a ck legs together. T h e ms. authority is strongly in
favour o f the omission o f the n egative; but 712 b 4 one or
other o f these two w a ys implies the alternative o f movement
with the front legs together and then the back legs together,
or else with the right legs together and then the left legs
together.
531
ARISTOTLE
712 b
rj <f>vais a v r c o v e ^ e r
Y^-P o p v ia iv a I n r e p v y e s
to ^
Sto
a v r l t c o v rrpoaOlcov aKeXcov e la t v .
25 fie v a i
to v
a vrov
ttp o a Q ta oK eX rj,
to v to is
arro
e la l
h
ret
tco v
o iK e ia
K ivYjais.
ovre
iv
coarrep
T jj
tj
K a l K K a /i -
e/cetvois
rropela
K ara
Trrrjais y a p
fieprj t o v
Sv va iT *
K al
ra
Kivrjaecos
<f>vaiv
a p xrj
i a T i v rj t o v t c o v
SioTrep acfraipeOeiacov t o v t c o v
ttpo te v a i
S ittoS os o v t o s
7Tpoadev
Trjs
T rrepvycov
Trjs fie ra fio X rjs e a r t v
3D ecravat
*Ert
rp o r r o v
ov9*
d v o v d e ls o p v i s .
o v k o p d o v , K al r a
a c o fia ro s K ovcp orep a
e'fi-
e 'x o v r o s , rj
a v a y K a i o v i ) f i e X n o v TTpos r o e a r d v a i S v v a a d a i t o v
jir jp o v o v r c o s VTroK elfievov
o ti
> /
TOVTOV
7i 3 a to
>
e is t o
C^CtV T V rpOTTOVl
ytvecrflat r o v
k o iX o v
eêtv
cos v v v e x l> Xeyco
oTTiaoev TrecpvKora .
3\ \ \
aAAa
firjv
et eoet
dvdyKTJ TTJV KafXlplV i n i

aK eX ovs
TTpaTToaiv i n i t c o v o n ia O ic o v ,
Sta
K addnep
r r jv a v r r jv
to is
atrtav
r jv n e p e iito jxev i n i t c o v r e r p a n o S c o v K a l COOTOKCOV.
"OXcos Se ot re opviBes Kal r a oX onrepa t c o v tt rofievcov Kal Ta iv tco v y p o j vevariK a, oaa aura)v
5 St* opyavcov t t j v i n i t o v v yp ov n o ieir a i n opelav, ov
XaXenov tSetv o t i {ieXriov k nX aytov Trjv t c o v etprjfievcov fiepcbv npoa<j>vaiv eêtv, Kadanep Kal
(j>aiverai vvv vn a p xeiv a v r o is i n i re t c o v opvidcov
Kal TWV 6 XoTTTpC0 V . TaVTO Se TOVTO Kal TTl TCOV
Ixd vcov t o i s fiev ya p opviaiv at 7rrep v yes, rots* S
10 ivvSpois r a n re p v y ia , r a Se nrCXa t o i s oAo7rrepot?
e/c t o v TrXayiov npoane<f>vKev. ot>Va> yap av r a X ia r a
Kal la x v p o r a ra SiaareXXovra r a fiev t o v
aepa r a Se t o vypov n o io iro rrjv Kivrjaiv eis ya p
t o ejiTTpoadev Kal r a om aBev fiopia1 t o v acofiaros
inaKoXovOoirj dv vneiK ovri (f>epofieva r a fiev iv
15 tco vypco Ta S ev tco dept.
r a Se rpcoyXohvriKa
532
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.

similar. For in birds the wings serve instead o f front
legs, and so they are bent in the same manner as the
front legs o f quadrupeds, since in the movement
involved in progression the natural beginning of
the change is from the wings, for their particular
form o f movement is flight. Hence, if the wings
were taken away, no bird could stand or progress
forward.
Further, since the bird is a biped and not erect, and
the front parts o f its body are lighter, it is either
necessary (or at any rate more desirable), in order to
enable it to stand, that the thigh should be placed, as
it actually is, underneath, by which I mean growing
towards the hinder part. But i f the thigh is neces
sarily in this position, the bending of the leg must be
in a concave direction, as in the back legs of quad
rupeds, and for the same reason as we gave in dealing
with viviparous quadrupeds.
Generally in birds and winged insects and creatures
that swim in the water (all, that is to say, that progress
in the water by means o f their instrumental parts), it
is not difficult to see that it is better that the attach
ment o f such parts should be oblique, as in fact
it seems actually to be in the birds and the flying
insects. The same is also true of the fishes ; for the
wings in birds, the fins in fishes, and the wings in
flying insects all grow obliquely. This enables them
to cleave the air or water with the greatest speed
and force, and so effect their movem ent; for the
hinder parts, too, can thus follow in a forward direc
tion, being carried along in the yielding water or air.
The oviparous quadrupeds which live in holes,
1 Kal
fi6pia
ra tmadcv jxbpia Jaegers Kal rb 6iria6v
rd (ra om. Y Z )
libri.
533
ARISTOTLE
A
/O
TCOV T TpCLTTOOWV
KCLl
/coSetAot /cat a a v p o i
re
>
OLOV
OL T
KpO-
K a l a a K a X a f iw r a i K a l if iv 8 e s
K a l ^ e A c o va t, i r d v r a
e/c t o v
</>VKOTa r a a K e X r j e ^ e t /cat i m
20 K a l KafjLTTTei e l s t o
W OTOKW V,
T r X a y io v
T rp o a n e -
r f j y f j K a r a r e r a f ie v a ,
n X a y L o v , 8 ta t o
o v tw
X P V aL
e l v a i T rp o s t t j v T r js v r r o 8 v a e w s p a a r w v r j v K a l n p o s
\
A
tols
ttl
ttjv
J *
cools
a vrw v,
ovtcov
CTTeX X oVTa1 K a l
piCFjJLOV
TOV
25 y i v o f i e v o v
>1
e c p e o p e ia v
V T T O T ld ifl V a
oXoV
Kai
a v a y K a io v
a W fia T O S
K a fir r r e iv
a vra
V<{)*
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t o vs
fir jp o v s
aVTOL
TOV
T T O ie la d a i.
ox>x
o lo v
efco
n p oa fJLTCO-
TOVTOV
8k
aXXcos
re
fj
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X V I.
Ta
T T oX vT roS d
rrp orep ov
r jv r a
S
ia r
fjfilv
c rK eX rj
a vra
Kal
e ip r jr a i'
ttX r j v
T rp oG T recp vK eva i
ao K a l
d v a ifia
l
Kal
anavTw v
yap
oK eX w v
e ls
v n o fiX a ia a
fx e a a
rw v
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>
t w v
vttottoS w v
tcov
ovdev
av
S to n
S a v r w v
ia x a r w v
t o
e lv a i
avw
e ls
K aunas
om adev,
a v a y K a io v
to lo vtw v
K a l f jy o v f i e v a
T
a v a y K a io v
e/c r e r o v T r X a y i o v
ra s
to
fie v
otl
T eT p d rrovv,
t w v
e lv a i
\
X lv >
< f> a v e p o v .
ia n
ra
K a l in o /ie v a .
*
>/
ei ovv v t t avrois rjv, eoei a vra /cat eis t o e ji713 b irpoadev Kal els t o omadev rrjv Kafnrrjv eêtv, Sta
fiev t o fjyeladai els t o efnrpoadev, Sta Se ro
aKoXovdelv els t o om adev.
irrel S dficporepa
avfifiaiveiv avayKaiov a v ro is , Sta t o v t o /3e/3Xaiaw5 ra t re /cat els t o nXdyiov eêt ra s Kafinas, 7rXrjv
tw v
ia x a r w v ra v ra S* warrep TrecpvKe fiaXXov,
r a fiev cos erro fiev a r a S ws fjyovfieva. ert Se
KeKafnrrai ro v rporrov ro v ro v Kal Sta t o TrXrjdos
rw v aKeXwv rjrro v yap dv o o tc o s iv r fj rropeiq
ifiT7o8id re a vra a vrois eirj Kal TrpoaKOTTTOi. rj
io t c fiXaiaorrjs avrw v i a n Sta t o rpwyXoSvnKa
534
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.-xvi.

such as the crocodile, the common and the spotted
lizard, and land and water tortoises, all have their
legs attached obliquely and stretched out upon the
ground; and they bend them obliquely, since they
are thus useful in enabling them to crawl easily into
their holes and to sit upon and protect their eggs.
Since their legs project, they are obliged to raise
their whole body by drawing in their thighs and
placing them underneath them ; and in this process
they cannot bend them otherwise than outwards.
X V I.
It has already been said that bloodless
animals which have legs are poly pods, and none of
them quadrupeds. Their legs, except the two
extreme pairs, are necessarily attached obliquely
and bend upwards and are themselves bowed some
what backw ards ; and the reason for this is plain.
For in all such animals the middle legs must both
lead and follow. If, therefore, they wrere under
neath them, they would have to bend both for
wards and backwards forw ards because they lead,
and backwards because they follow. But since they
must do both these things, their legs are bowed
and make their bends obliquely, except the extreme
pairs, which are more in accordance with nature,
since the first pair leads and the last pair follows.
The number o f legs is a further reason for their being
bent in this wTay ; for they would thus be less likely
to get in each others wray during movement and
collide with one another. The reason that these
animals are bow-legged is that they all, or most of
1 Trpo<T<TTi\\ovT(i (cum Mich.) Jaeger: irpotrriWovra libri.
535
ARISTOTLE
elvai rravra fj r a 7rAet<rra* ov ya p olov T vif/rjXa
elvai r a w v ra 1 r o v rp on ov r o v r o v .
O i Se KapKivoi rcbv 7toXv7t6Scov T repirrorara ire(f)vK a a iv o v re ya p els t o rrpoadev iroiovvrai rrjVTropeiav
rrXrjv warrep eiprjrai rrporepovt ttoXXovs T tovs
rjyovjxevovs e\ ovai jxovoi rcbv fa>coi'. r o v r o v 8*
is a in o v rj aKXrjporrjs rcbv ttoSw v , /cat o n ^pcDvrat
ov vevaew s X^PLV a ^ rois aAAa Tropeias' rreêvovra
y a p SiareXovaiv. rravrwv jxev ofiv tw v ttoXvttoSwv
els to TrXayiov at K ajnrai, w anep /cat rw v r e r p a ttoScov oa a rpcoyXoSvriK a r o ia v r a S ea rlv olov
a avpai /cat KpoKoSeiXoi /cat Ta 7roAAa rcbv <io20 tokovvtwv .
a in o v S OTt rpcoyXoSvreT r a jxev
r o is To/cots, Ta Se /cat rcb fiico rravri.
X V I I . AAAa rcbv fxev aAAwv j3Xaiaovrai r a KwXa
Sta to jxaXaKa elvai, rw v Se KapafScov ovrw v ctkXttjpoSepjxcov ot 7roSS elariv i m rcb veiv /cat o v r o v
paSlêiv xa p iv' rcbv Se KapKivwv rj Kajxijsis els t o
25 7rAayiov, /cat ov fiefiX aiaw rai warrep t o i s w o t o k o i s
t w v TerpaTroSwv /cat Tot? avaijxois /cat 7roAv7roat,
Sta to GKXrjpoSepfxa elvai r a KwXa /cat oarpaKwSrj
ov ri ov vevcrriKw /cat rpw yX oSvrrj TTpos t f j y fj ya p
o
ftios. /cat o rp o y y v X o s Se rrjv [xopcprjv, /cat o v k
eyw v ovpoTTvyiov warrep o K apafios' TTpos Trjv
80 vevaiv ya p t o i s Kapapois xPVcrLlJi0V> S ov vev an K os.
/cat ojxoiov Se r w om a d ev to nXayiov
e\ei jxovos, Sta to 7toAAous e\eiv r o v s rjye/xovas
1 ra Zwvtcl om. SU.
712 b 20 f.
b Viz. two pairs of front legs.
0
i.e. they walk both on dry land and in the sea.
d The whole of the section is obscure, and the text doubtful.
536
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvi.-xvn.

them, live in holes ; for creatures that live thus
cannot be tall.
Crabs are the most strangely constituted o f all the
polypods ; for they do not progress forward (except
in the sense already mentioned), and they alone
among animals have several leading legs.& The
reason is the hardness o f their feet and the fact that
they use them not for swimming but for walking ;
for they always go along the ground. All the
polypods bend their legs obliquely like the quad
rupeds that live in holes ; lizards, for instance, and
crocodiles and most oviparous quadrupeds are o f
this nature. The reason is that they live in holes,
some only during the breeding season, others through
out their lives.
X V II.
Now the other poly pods d are bow-legged
because they are soft-skinned, but the legs o f the
spiny lobster, which is hard-skinned, are used for
swimming and not for walking/ The bendings o f
crabs legs are oblique but their legs are not bowed,
as are those of viviparous quadrupeds and bloodless
polypods, because their legs are hard-skinned and
testaceous, the crab not being a swimming animal
and living in holes, for it lives on the ground. More
over, the crab is round in shape and does not possess
a tail like the spiny lobster ; for the latter s tail is
useful for swimming, but the crab does not swim.
And it is the only animal in which the side is like a
hinder part, because its leading feet are numerous.
* There is no single word in English for this animal, the
Latin locusta and the French langouste.
f And therefore are not bowed, as Mich, explains.
9 Since the crab moves sidewise, one of its sides becomes
as it were the back, but why it should be so for the reason
given is obscure.
537
ARISTOTLE
/
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P)
T O V tO V
714 a 7r p o a Q e v
o v Se
>
OTL
ro
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oo T p aK tb S es
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OV
jS ejS A atcrcorat.
oxDofla t
to
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to
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/t?)
e ip ^ T a t,
n pO T epov
97
Sep/xaTO s.
tov
>
KGLfJL7TTl
1$
TO
jSe/JAat-
g k
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avayK r]
8r]
S t a r a u r a 7r a a t r e T T p o r j y e l a O a L K a l e t? r o 7r A a y t o v ,
e is
/xev t o
5 TraCTt
T o ts
77A a y t o v
OTt
klvo v fx
ot
ev o is .
e ts t o
av
Se
7r A d y t o v
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K a p a p is,
7rdSes*
r]p fx o v v T s
ifjr jT T o e iS e is
t ft O v a jv ,
t o jv
TpO(f)9aXfXOL jSaScÔUCTtV, OUTO) V O V G L V
OJG7Tp o i
r] ( j j v a i s .
ot Se oreyavove'ouat t o i s t t o g l v , K a l Sta /tev
t o t o v aepa Seêotfat /cat ava7rvetv StVoSes eiox,
Sta Se t o ev uypai t o v /?tov eêtv oreyavdTroSe?*
h ie o T p a 7 T T a i
7ToSes
10
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7 T T p v y io jv
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exouat Se Ta g k I X t ] oi5^ a>07rep
ot aAAot /cara /xecrov, aAA o T r ia d e v /xaAAov* j8pa;^t;o,/ceAd)v y a p a v T t b v o v t o j v o t t l g 9 c v o v T a 7rpos
r r j v v c v o i v % p r ]G ifx a ,
/Jpaûo-KeAeis S etatv ot
15 TOLOVTOL Sta TO (1770 TOU (ir jK O V S TOJV G K e X o jV
a f j j t X o v a a v ttjv < f> v o iv T r p o o Q e i v a i ets tows* TroSas,
/cat avTt to v p a f ]K o v s n a x o s a 7roSom'at t o l s g k 4 X c g l
Kal
t t X 6 .t o s
t o is
tto g lv
X P V g l/xot y ap
TrAaTets*1
ovTes /xaAAov 7} /xa/cpot i T p o s t o a?ro/?tde<70at t o
vypov,
20
v
e ^ e t, ot o
to j
f
E i5 A o ya > s
n '
ix v v s
Se
w
7 ro S a s e ^ e t v
n/
p to s ,
714 b /xev
>
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7T T p v y c a
7roS es
axp>7<7Tot.
r ja a v .
o fio lo js
538
/cat
Ta
a n o d e s to ls
^ p < ? fJ L T O J p o v S
avayK r]
v d c o a iv .
o tav
X V III.
act
T o ts
$ /
e ^ o u o -tv
1 \ 9v glv
0 X V T a i,
S
TTTttva
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a y a jjo j
ot
ov
iv
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ix o v ,
o p v i9 e s
TroSas*
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o ptos* e v
/te'vetv a S v v a
S
x p ^ a t/ x a
ei
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/xev y a p
tov
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aepa.
v e tv ,
Ta
ot
Se
a v a t/ t o t
av
T ponov
T tv a
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvii.-xvm.

The reason is that it does not bend its legs forwards
and is not bow-legged. W hy it is not bow-legged
has been already explained before, namely, because
its skin is hard and testaceous. For this reason it
must lead off with ail its legs and obliquely obliquely
because its bendings are oblique, and with all its legs,
because otherwise those which were at rest would
impede those which were moving.
Flat-fish swim as one-eyed men walk ; for their
nature is distorted. Web-footed birds swim with
their feet. They are bipeds, because they take in
breath and respire ; they are w eb-footed, because
they live in the wTater, for their feet being of this
kind are o f service to them in place of fins. They do
not have their legs, as the other birds do, in the
centre of the body, but placed rather towards the
back ; for since they are short-legged, their legs
being set back are useful for swimming. This class
o f bird is short-legged because nature has taken
away from the length of their legs and added to their
feet, and has given thickness instead o f length to
the legs and breadth to the fe e t ; for, being broad,
they are more useful than if they w ere long, in order
to force aw'ay the water when they are swimming.
X V III.
It is for a good reason, too, that winged
animals have feet, while fishes have none. The
former live on dry land and cannot always remain up
in the air, and so necessarily have f e e t ; but fishes
live in the water, and take in water and not air.
Their fins, then, are useful for swimming, whereas
feet would be useless. Also, if they had both feet
and fms, they would be bloodless. Birds in a way
1 ir\arets Z :
PSLJY.
S
539
ARISTOTLE
Ix O v a iv . t o l s fJLv y a p o p v i a i v a v c o a i T T T e p v y e s
LGL, TOLS Se 7TTpVyia S VO iv TW TTpaVlmK a l TOLS
fJLV V TOLS VTTTLOLS o l T T o S e S , T O L S S e V T TOLS
vtttlols K a l iy y v s rw v irpavw v iTTepvyia to ls
TrXeLGTOLS* K a l ol f-lV OVpOTTVyiOV ^XOVGLV, OL S
ovpaiov.
t o l s
X IX .
av
t l s
I le p t
rj
t l s
a p iG T tp o v ,
10 [ l e v a .
S e
w a ire p
yevos,
t o lo v t o v
a ir o K o ifie ie
tc o v
Kal
el
fJLrj
K iv o v v T a i*
ir o d e v
rj
o a T p a K o S e p jx w v
tc o v
K L v r jG L S ,
S et
K iv e ia d a i
v tto tto S w v
to l
8 ia T iv .
K iv e iT a i S e
15 c o s
ir a p a
fx ev jx o v i/ia
ra
o jx o iw s
Kal
t a ^ t p o r e p a
c o p ia O a i t w v
20
T a
TW V
ttjv
fie v
ovv
TTJV
n e p l
n e p l
fc a r a t o t t o v
t o v t w v
Se
rj
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et
t o
t l s
T e T p a ir o S a ,
K iv e iT a i jx e v ,
K iv r jT iK a , a A A *
e a r t
S r jA o i
S e ia ,
8 e ic o v K a l t c o v
7T pl
ir a v
k lv y jtlk o l,
cos S e
e x o v a i S e < f> a v A w s K a l o i K a p K i v o i
S c ia , i n e l e x o v a i y e .
yap
yap
T T poa T recpvK O T a
Kal
k lv o v
( t ) ) 1 w a ir e p
r a u r a
o a r p a /c o S e p /x a
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Kal
T T o p e v T iK a /x o v ijx a .
ra
T id ev a i
g k 4 A t j,
rj cf>coKrj K a l rj v v K T e p i s * K a l y a p
K aK cbs
S e ^ io v
< f> a iv o v r a i
a v a ir r jp o v
Kal
a T r o p r ja e ie v
exovai
TW V
t w v
,C O W V
fie T a fio A rjv , t o v t o v
S ic o p ia / x e v w v
rj
X V ^ V ' H *i w v
fio v A o jx e v w v
S t-
a p ia re p c b v .
/xopiwv,
tw v
7 T O p ia V
cos
ix o jx e v o v
aAAwv
K a l
7 T p 'l
eêi to v
e c r r t
K al
T ld a a V
T p o n o v
d e w p r ja a i
tp v x fjs -
1 rj addidi.
i.e. a second pair of fins.
* See II.A . 527 b 35 ff., where land-snails,sea-snails, oysters
and sea-urchins are given as examples.
c See II.A . 498 a 31. P.A . 697 b 1 ff.
d These words can only refer to the De anhna, which from
its citation in the De generatione animalivm, De partibus
animalium, etc., must be regarded as an earlier work. This
540
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvm.-xix.

resemble fishes. For birds have their wings in the
upper part o f their bodies, fishes have two fins in
their fore-part; birds have feet on their under-part,
most fishes have fins in their under-part and near
their front fins ; also, birds have a tail, fishes a tail-fin.
X IX .
A question may be raised as to what is the
movement of testaceans,6 and where their movement
begins if they have no right and l e f t ; for they
obviously do move. Must all this class be regarded
as maimed and as moving in the same way as an
animal with feet if one were to cut off its legs, or as
analogous to the seal and bat, which are quadrupeds
but malformed ? c Now the testaceans move, but
move in a way contrary to nature. They are not
really mobile ; but if you regard them as sedentary
and attached by growth, you find that they are
capable o f movem ent; if you regard them as pro
gressing, you find that they are sedentary.
Crabs show only a feeble differentiation o f right
and left, but they do show it. It can be seen in the
claw; for the right claw is bigger and stronger, as
though the left and right wished to be differentiated.
So much for our discussion o f the parts o f animals
and particularly those which have to do with progres
sion and all change from place to place. Now that
these points have been settled, our next task is to
consider soul.*
has led some critics (e.g. Brandis) to reject the whole of this
paragraph as a later addition. Such a paragraph, however,
is a characteristic conclusion in Aristotle, and should not be
rejected as a whole. It is quite possible that the words
7repi if>vxf}s are corrupt, and indeed the word
has been
supplied by a later hand in Z, whereas the first hand had
left a blank and had written fayo (sic) in the margin, which
would be a reference to the latter part of the group of treatises
known as the Parva JSatvralia.
82
541
INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

T iie Index is to be regarded as supplementary to the Sum
mary on pages 12-18. Further references will sometimes be

found in the notes on Terminology, pages 24-39.
The numbers 3 to 50 refer to the pages of the Introduction.
The numbers 39a to 97b (standing for 639a to 697b) refer
to the pages and columns of the Berlin edition which arc
printed at the top of each page of the Greek text. The lines
are referred to in units of five lines ; thus
40a 1= 640al-640a4
40b5 = 640b5-640b9.
Such references include footnotes to the translation.
f, ff = following section or sections.
Under any heading, each entry is separated from the pre
ceding by a dash ( / ), unless it has the same page number.
abdomen (abdominal cavi
ties) 50a 10
abomasum 74bl5 / 76alO
abscess 67b5
abscession 39 / 90a5
Acalephae 81a35
Aesop 63a35
allantois 93b25
Amia 76b20
analogy, difference by 44b 10
I 45b5
Anaxagoras 40b5 / 45a35 /
17no I 87a5
animal 53b20 / 66a35
antelope 63atO
ants 50lv25 / 78bl5 / 83a5
Aorta 52b25/66bJ5 -67bl5ff
/71bio I 77a5 / 7Sal
ape 89b30
appendage 70a30
Aquinas, St Thomas 42
Arcadia 73a 15
Aristotle, lantern of
S0a5
art 39bl5 / 40a25
Ascidian S0a5 / 81al0, 25f
ass 67a20 / 88l>20
Indian ass 63al5
Astaci S3b25 ff
attributes, essential (or
inseparable ) 43a25 /
45b 1
auditory passages 57al5
backbone 51b30 / 52a 10 /
5tbl0
543
ARISTOTLE
backward-grazing oxen
59a 15
Bacon, Francis 5Sbl5
barn-door fowls 57b25
bat 9?bl ff
Batos 95b25 / 96a25 /97a5
beak 59b 1 ff /
62a30ff I 92b 15 / 93a 10 f
bear 58b 1
beautiful, the 45a25
bee 4Sa5 / 50b25 / 6Ia20 /
7Sbl0f I t>2bl0 I S3a5,
30
beetle, see dung-beetle
belly 55a 1
bending 54l5 / 83bJ, 30 /
87b25f / 89a 10 / 93b 1
Bergson 3
bile 49b30. See also gall
birds 42b10 / 571>5, 15 /
59b 1ff I 60a25 / 7 ib l5 ff /
76a30 I 91a20 / 92b I ff /
97b20
bison 63a 10
bivalves 79b 15 ff
Black Sea b2a25
bladder 70b25ff / 71bl5, 25 /
76a25
blend 31 / 37 / 3S / 39 /
50b25 I 52b25, 35 / 69a 10 /
73b30 / s6al0
blinkinar 57a35, b l5 f / 91a20
blood 4 I 45b5 /471*1 (current
of), 30 ff I 49a 15, b20 /
50a30 ff I 51a 10 / 56bl /
66b25 f I 67b 15 ff / 7Sa5
blood-vessels 47b5 / 50a25f /
52b30 /5 lb 1 /65bl0 f, 25 /
66b25 67bl5ff
Great Blood-vessel52b25/
66b25 / 67blo ff I 71bl /
78al
blooded animals 22 / 42b 10 /
544
50b25 I 65a25 / 76bl0f /

78a5 I S5b35 ff
bloodless animals 22 / 23 /
42bl0 I 50b25 / 73a30 /
7Sa25ff
blowhole 59bl5 / 97al5 ff
boar 51al
Bonasus 63a 10
bone 52a 1 ff / 53b30 ff /
54a30 ff I 66b 15
Boyle, R. 45a6
brain 52a20ff / 56al0ff /
58b 1 / 73bl0 / 66a5
breast SSalO ff
breathing-machine 59a5
bregma 53a35
bronchial tubes 64a25
bull 51al I 63a35
buttocks S9b5 ff
caecal appendages 75a 10
caecal dilatation 75b5
Calamarv 54a20 / 7Sb30 /
79a 15 / 85al0ff, bI5
camel 63a 1 / 74a30 / 76b25 /
77a35 I 88b20 / 89a30
Canthari 82b25
Carabi, caraboids 79a30f /
83b25ff
Carcini 83b25 ff
Caria 73a 15
Carides S3b25 ff
carnivorous animals 55al0 /
61b5 I 62b1 / 93a1 / 97al
Cartesian co-ordinates 20
cartilage 54b25 / 55a30
catamenia 48a30 / S9al0
cattle-flies 61a20
Causes 3 / 8 / 11/21 /24ff/
39bl0 ff I 40b5 / 41a25 /
46a 10
cavities 66b20 ff
centipede S2a5, bl

Cephalopods 23 / 54a 10 /
78a25 ff, b25 ff / 84b5 ff
Cercidas 73a 15
Cestreus 75a 10 / 96a5
Cetacea 69a5 / 97al5ff
Chalcis in Euboea 77al
chamaeleon 92a20
chance 40a30 /41b20 /45a20
ciliary motion 84b20
classification 18 /20 /42b5 ff /
4obl0 ff
claw s 65b 1 I 83b30 f / 84a 15,
30
cloven hoof 74a25 / and
passim
cockchafer 83b 15
colliquescence 38 / 77al0
colon 75bo, 15
common functions to body
and soul 9 / 43a35
components in isolation 45a35
composition 4 / 46a 10 ff
composition of A ristotles
works 10
concoction 31 / 34 / 50a5 /
5Ia20, b25 / 52a5 / 6bb5/
70a20, 25 / 72al / 75al0 f /
77b J o f
connate pneuma 59b 15 / 69a 1
controlling: part 73bI0 /
S lb l5 ff I 82b l, 25 I S6alo
Cook, A . 13. 73al5
cooling 56a20 / 63a 15 /
68b35 ff I 92a20 / 96b20
copulation 89a5, 25
Cordylus 95b25
coit vre-feu 54a5
crab 79a30 / 91bl5
Crex 95a20
crocodile 60b25 f / 90b20 /
91al5, b5 ff
crop 74b20 ff / 78b30 f
crowr 62b5
s3
Crustacea 23 / 54a 1 /57b30 /

78a25 ff / 83b25 ff
cuttlefish 54a20. See also
Sepia
Cuvier 44 / S4bl5
Cyprinoi 60b35
Darwrin 4/7
deer 50bl5 /63al0,bl0 /64al
I 67a30 I 77a30 / 88b25
deformed animals 57a20 /
60b25 I 84b1 / 95bl
Democritus 40b30 f / 42a25 /
65a30
derivation of words 62b20 /
72b30
diaphragm 70a5 / 72b 10 ff
dichotomy 18 / 42b5 ff
differentiae 42b20 ff
disadvantageous parts 48al5 /
59a 15 I 63a5 / 64a5 /94a 15
Dissections 50a30 / 66a5 /
6fcib30
divers 59a5
divine things 44b25 ff / 56a5
division of labour 83a20 /
91b20
dog 74a 1 I 75a25 / 88a5, bl
Indian dog 43b5
dog-teeth 61bib
dolphin 55a 15 /69a5 / 77a35 /
96b25 I 97a15
duality of the bodv 56b30 /
63a20 I 67b30 / 69bl0 ff
tiling 75b30
dung-beetle 82b25
dwarf-like 86b 1 ff / 89b25/
95a5
dynamis 29 / 30-32 / 40a20 /
46al0, bl5 ff /47b5 /55bl0
ears 57al0 ff
earth 5Ia25
545
ARISTOTLE
earthy matter 63b25 ff etc.
editions of Aristotles De
partibus 44-45
Edwards, Milne 83a20
eel 96a 1, b20
eggs 65a35 / 84a20 / 92a 15
Elements 1130 /42a20 /
46al0, b5 / 47al0 / 48b 10
elephant 5Sb30ff / 61a25 /
63a 1 I 82b30 / 8Sb5, 15 /
92b 15
embryo 51b20155al / 65bl /
66a20 I 71b5 / 76al5
Empedocles 40a20, b5 /
42a15 I 4Sa30
Einvs 71a30
epiglottis 64b20 ff
epipetron Sla20
equivalents, law of organic
55a95
excess and defect ( the
more and less ) 19 /44a20,
bl5 I 49a30 / 55a30 /
61b30ff I 84a30 / 92b5
excrement 63a 15. See
residue
excretory organs 89a5 ff
eve and eyelid 57a25 ff/
91a20
eyebrows 58b 10 ff
eyelashes 58al0ff
Fabricius 43
fat 51a20 ff / 72a1
fear 50b25 / 67a 15 f / 79a25 /
82b25 / 92a20
feathers 92b 10
fibres 50b 10, 30
fin 85bl5 I 95b25 ff
Final Cause 21 / 39bl5ff /
46b25
fire 49a20 / 50a5 ff / 52b5
fishes 42b 10 /58al / 60bI0 ff,
546
35 f 162a5 f /66b 10 /75a 1ff/

76a25, b20 / 95b 1 ff
fishing-frog 95bl0 / 96a25
fishing-rod 93a20
flea 83a30
flesh 47a20 /51b5 / 53bl5 ff /
60a5 f I 68a25 ff
fly 61a20 / 78bl5 / 82bl0 /
83a30
fluid and solid 32 / 46al5
flux 52b30
fontanel, anterior 53a35
foot S2a35 ff / 85a 10 ff /
90a25 ff
foreskin 57b 1
form (and matter) 9/11 f 25 i
40a 15, b20 / 41al5
formation (process of) 27 /
40a 1Off I 46a25
funnel 79al
gadflies 61a20
gall and gall-bladder 5 /
76bl5 ff
gazelle 50bl5 / 63a 10, b25
gills 59b 15 I 96bl ff / 97al5f
glad ins 54a20
goat 73b30 / 74b5 / 76b35f /
88b25
Goethe 84b 15
good, the 39b20 / 59b30 /
70b20
good life 56a5
44goodness (ar^te) 42a30
goosefish 95b 10 / 96a25
grasshopper 82a 15 f
grease 51a25
Great Blood-vessel, see under
blood-vessels
Grosseteste, Richard 41
gut 74a 10 I 75a30f
haematoporphyria 68b5

haemorrhage 68b 15
immortality 37
hair 58al5ff
Indian ass 63al5f
hand 87a5 ff, bl ff / 90a30
ink 79al ff / 81b?5
hare 67a20 / 69b30 / 76al5
Insects 23 / 54a25 / 57b35 /
I Iarun-al-Rashid 40
59bl5 I 78bl0 / 82al ff
Harvey, William 43 / 44
instruments,
instrumental
hawk 7Obi
parts 30 /45b 15,25 /46b25
head 56a 10 ff / 58b 1 /S6a5 ff
/ 47a 1 ff, b20 / 87a5 ff
hearing 56b 10
intelligence 48al / 50b20 /
heart 47a25 / 53b5 / 54b 10 /
72a30 / S6a25 f / 87a5
5tfa25 f 65a 10, blOff / intermediate creatures 23 /
7ua20f I 73bl0 / 77bl /
69al0 I 81al0, blO /
78bl I 86a15 / 96bl5
S9b30 / 97al5 ff
heat 53b5 / 96bl5 / and
internal finality 3
passim
iniestines 50al5 / 74al0 ff /
hepatopancreas, see mecon
::bl ff I 76blO
Ileracleitus 45al5
irrigation 68a 10 f
Heraeleotic crabs 84a 10
ischium 95a 1 ff
Herodotus 59a 15
Hippocrates 30 / 31 / 37 / jaws 91a25 ff
40bI5 I 48a1 / 50b20 / jejunum 75b25 ff
85b5 I 86b25
ioints 54b 15. See also
Historia Animalium 46a5 /
bending
50a30 I 60b1 / 74bl5 /
Kerkidas
73a 15
sOal I S4b5 / 89a15 /
Kestreus 75a 10 / 96a5
96b 15
kidney 70al5, b20 / 71a25 ff
Ilolothuria 8la 15
kite 70bl
Homer 73a 15
Ivnides 81a35
hoof 90a5 ff
Ktesias 63al5
horned animals 73b30
horns 62b20ff
* lantern of Aristotle S0a5
horse 63a 1 / 66b 15 / 88b-20,
tard 51a20 ff, b25 / 72a5
30
layrnx 64a 15 ff
hot, the 50a5 ff
hot and cold 41bl5 / 46al5 / iaughter 73a 1 ff
Lee, H. D. P. 10
48a20 ff
Leonardo da Vinci 65b5
hucklebone 51a30 / 54b20 /
leopard 67a20 / 88a5
90a10 ff
Lesbos 80b 1
hyaena 67a20
life 55b35 / 78bl
limpet 79b25 / 80a20
idly ( Nature does no
thing idlv ) 61b20 /9lb 1 / lion 51b35 / 55al0 / 58a30 /
86a20 I 8Sa5, bl /89a30
94a15 I 95b15
547
ARISTOTLE
lips 59b20
liver 66a25 ff / 69b25 ff /
73bl5 ff / 77al5, 35f, b35
lizard 76a25 / 91ao ff
lizards (aavpat, plaited
tubes) 85b5
lobster S4a30
locust 83a30
logos 26 f I 39b 15 / 40a30 /
42a20 I 46b 1 / 49b25/
78a35 I 95bl5
Lophius piscatorius 95bl0
lumen 71bl
lung 64a20 f /65a 15 /6Sb30 ff
lynx S9a30
Maia 84a 10
mammae 8Sal5ff
Man 44a 1 /45b25 /53a25 ff /
56a5 / 58a15, bl / 59b30 /
60a 10 ff I 61b5 / 62bl5 /
66b5 I 69a20, b5 / 71bl /
?3a5, 25 I 76b30 /86a25 ff /
88b30 / S9b5 ff / 90a2o /
95a5
marrow 51b20ff
marten 67a20
matter and form 9 / 35 / 36
mecon 79b 10 / S0a-20
melanin 34
Melolontha 82b 15
membrane 73b I ff /77b 15,35/
S2bl5 I 83b20 / 91a 20
mesentery 50a25 / 76blO /
77b35ff
Methydrion 73a 15
metre 60a5
mice 67a20 / 76b30
Michael Scot 40 ff / 46-47
migrants 94a5
milk 76alOf / SSbl
moderation 52b 15
Moerbeke, William of 42
548
moon, full S0a30

mouth 50al0ff / 62al5ff
96b20ff
Murex 61a20
mussel 79b25 / 83b 15
mytis 79a5 / 81b20ff
nails 87b20 / 90b5
Natural science 39al0 /40a
Natural Selection 4
Nature 39b 15 /41a25, blOff/
42a 15 I and passim
Naxos ?7al
Necessity
21 / 39b20ff /
42a Iff, 30 ff I 45b30 /
46b25 I 51al5 / 63b20 /
70a30, b20 /72b30 /77al5,
b20 I 78al /79a25 /82b25 /
85bl5 / 92a1 / 94b5
neck 64al0 '86a5ff/92b20ff
Nerites 79b20
nictitating membrane 57a30
non-uniform * parts 2S-30 /
46a20, b5, 30 / 47a25 /
55b25 ff
nostrils 58b25 ff
nutriment ( ultimate )
50a30 I 51al5 / 7Sa5, 15
nutrition 47a25 / 50a35
octopus 52b25 / 54a20 /
78b25 I 79a5ff / 85a5,15 ff
oesophagus 50al5 / 64a 15 ff /
74a10, b20 / 86a20 /
91al
omasum 74hl5 / 76a 10 f
omentum 76bl0 / 77bl5
operculum 79b 15
opposites, division by 43a30
orifice 81a25
Orj-x 63a20
os sepiae 54a20
Ostreae 80b20

ostrich 5SalO / 95al5 /
97bl()ff
ova 80a 10 ff, bl ff
ox 66bl5 / 71b5 / 881)25
etc.
oyster 80b5, 20 / 81b 10
Parmenides 48a25
Parnassus 81a20
parrot-fish 62a5 / 75al
part 28-30 / 51b25 /64ao /
90a5 I
passages 50a 15 / 56b 15 /
71bl, 10 ff I 78al0
pen of Calamary 54a20
penis S9a20f
perfect animals 55b30/
66a25 I 82a30
philosophers, early 40b5 /
41a5 ff / 47al0
philosophical treatises
42a5
phlegm 53a 1 / 77b5
pigeon 70bl
plants 50a20 /55b30 /78 alO /
81al5 ff I 82b30 / 83bl5 /
86b30
Plato 30 I 42b5 / 45a35 /
51b20 I 69al5 / 76b25
pneuma, connate 59b 15 /
69al
potentiality 42al / 47a5 /
49blff I 67b20 / 68a30
pounce (of cuttlefish)
54a20
privative terms, privation
42b20 ff I 49a 15
proboscis 78b 10 / 79a5 /
85a30, blO
Protagoras 42a25
purpose 45a20 / 51al5 /
63b20 I 70b20 / 77al5 /
78al5 I 92a1
Purpura 61a20 / 79bl5f

Pyrrha, strait of 80bl
Pythagoreans 70b20
rain 53al
razor-fishes 83b15
realization 35 ff
re lative size of parts 65b5
rennet 76a5 ff
residue 29 / 32-34 / 47b25 /
50a20 I 70b25 / 71a5 /
74al5 / 75bl0 ff / 76a30 /
77alOf, 25 / Sla30
respiration 5 /42aS0 /62al5 /
64b1 I 65a15
reticulum 74bl5 / 76a5
Rhine 97a5
rhinoceros 63a 15
ribs 55a1
Iti.sns Sarclonicus 73al0
rot 72a30 ff
rumen 74b 15
rumination, ruminants 74b5 /
75al f
St-I I ilaire, J.Barth^lemy- 44/
45
St-Hilaire, G. S4bl5
saw-teeth 6Ibl5 / 62a5
scales 91al5
scallops 79b25 / 80b20 /
S3bl5
Scarus 62a5 / 75a 1
scorpion 83a 10
sea-anemone 81a35
sea-cucumber 81al5
sea-lung 81al5
sea-nettle 81a35
sea-sickness 64b 10
sea-snail 78b20 / 79b5
sea-squirt 81al0
sea-urchin 79b25 f /80al ff, 30,
bl ff I 83bl0
549
ARISTOTLE
seal 57a20 / 71b5 / 76b25 /
97bl f
seed 41b25 I 89a5f
Selacliia 4 / 55a20, 25, 35 /
76b 1 / 95b5 /96bI ff / 97a5
self-defence 55b5 / 62b25 etc.
semen 51bl0, 20 / 89a5f
sensation 47a 1 ff / 48a 1 /
50b25151a 10, bl / 53b >0 /
56a 1, 15 I 66a35 / 72b30 /
81al5 ff
sense, general 86a30
sense-organs 47a5 / 56b25
senses 56a25ff / 86a 10
Sepia 54a20 /78b25 /79a5 ff /
85al0 ff
septum 81a30
serpents 60b5 / 76a25, lv20 /
90bl5 ff I 91b25 ff / 96a5 /
97al0
serum 51al5 / 53al
Shakespeare 33 /34
sheep 71b5 /72a25 ff /73b30 /
76b35 f
sheep-rot 72a30 ff
sinews 66b 10 / 96b5
Siphae 96a5
sleep 53a 10
smell 59b 15
Smyraena 96a5
snake 91al5
Socrates 42a25
solid and fluid 47a20, blO /
48b 1 I 49bl0 ff
solidification 49a30 / 51a 10
Soul 9/34-37/38 /41a 15 ff /
50b25 I 52b5f / 67b20 /
72bl5 / 76b25 / 7Sbl /
86b25 I 92a20
sounds 60a 1 f
speech 59b30 ff / 60a20/
61bl5 I 64b1 I 73a20
spider-crab 84a10
550
spiral shells 79b 10

spit-and-lampstand 83a25
spleen 66a25 / 69b25 ff /
70a30 ff, b30
sponge 81al0f
spontaneous production
40a30
spurs 94a 10
starfish 81b5f
sterility 51b 10
sting 61al5,25 /82a 10, hSOff
stomach 74a5 ff / 80b25 ff /
89b35
stone 67b 1
substratum 49al5f
suckers 85b 10
suet 51a20 ff, b25 / 72a5
sutures 53a35 / 58b 1 / 67a5
sweat 68b 1
swine 68a5 / 88b 1, 10 etc.
symmetria 52b35 I 86a 10
,<?_?/s/oiV/i ta, 70b 20
tail 5Sa30 I 84a 1 / 89b 1 ff /
95b5 f
talons 94a 15
taste 56b35 / 60a20 / 61a5 /
90b25ff
Taylor, Prof. A. E. 20
teeth 55b5 /61a30 ff /78bl5 /
80b25
teleology 3 / 48al5 / 59al5 /
63a10 I 94a20
tentacles 85b 1 f
Testacea 23 /54al /78bl0,20
I
79bl ff I 83b 1ff
testicles 95a25 / 97a 10
text and manuscripts of Zte
partibus 45 ff
theoretical sciences 40a
Thompson, Prof. DArcv 10 /
19 / 20 I 44a20
Tipha 96a5

tissues 4
toad 73b30
Toledo 40/41
tongue 591)35 ff / 78b5 ff /
90b20 ff
torpedo-fish 95b5 / 96a25 f
tortoise 54a5 / 71al5f /
731)30 I 76a30 / 9la 15
touch 47 I 53b20 / 56a35
Transformations, theory of
19 I 20
translations of Aristotles
works 39-43 / 44-45
transmigration 36
troglodytes 69b5 / 84a5
Trvgon 95b5, 25
tube-feet 81a5
turtle 54a5
tusks 55b 10
vaporization 52b35 / 72b 15

variations in parts 47b25 ff
I 73b10 ff
ventilation 53bl
vermiform appendix 75a 15
vertebrae 51b30 / 54b 15 /
86a20
Vertebrates and Inverte
brates 45b 10
viper 76b 1f
viscera 47a30 / 65a25 ff /
73b10 ff
Vivipara 55a5, blO / 621)20 /
73bl5/74a25 / 85b35ff
wasp S3a5
M'hale 69a5 / 97al5ff
whelk 79bl5f / 83bl0
windpipe 64a35ff / 86al5
wing (of birds) 93b I ff
wing (of insects) 82b5ff
wolf 86a20 / 88a5
woodpecker 62b5
wryneck 95a20
umbilical cord 93b25

umbilicus 93b20
uniform parts 28-30 /
401)20 I 46a20, b5, 30 /
47a25, blO
upright posture 53a30 /56a 10 xanthopterine 34
I
58a20 I 62b20 / 69b5 /
86a25ff I 87a5 / 89bl0ff / Zeus hoplosmios 73a 15
zoological works of Aris
90a25 I 95a1ff
totle 8
ureters 7lb 15
551
INDEX TO MOVEMENT AND

X ote : 9Sa-99b = 69Sa-699b
00a-14b = 700a-7Ub.
The matter contained in lines 1-5, 5-10 etc. is treated as a
section, and each section is referred to by the number of its
first line: e.g. 98a 1 refers to anything contained in page
698a lines 1-4, and 13bl0 to anything contained in page
713b lines 10-14.
action, the result of the prac
tical syllogism 01a22 ff
active )( passive 02b 10 /
05a20
alteration, causes of 01bl5
animals passim
appetite 00b 10
arms, movement of, in run
ning 05al5
athletes, use of weights in
jumping by 05al5
Atlas, the fable of 99a25, bl
back )( front, of animals
05a25, blO
bat 14bl0
bees lOalO
beetles lOalO
bending, as a means of
motion 07b5 / 08b20 ff /
09b 1; concave and convex
ib. 10; of legs in walking
552
by man 1la25 ff, by quad

rupeds ib. blO, by birds
12b20
bipeds 04a10, 15 / 06a25,
bl ff I 10b5 I 12b30
birds 09b20; are bipeds
06a25; standing position
of 10b 15 ff ; compared with
lishes 14a20 f f ; oirds with
talons the swiftest flyers
10a25; web-footed birds,
14a5
bloodless animals, progres
sion of 12b20 f f ; struc
ture of ib. 30 ; can have
more than four feet 0Sal5;
can live though divided in
parts 07a30
boat, illustration from a
98b20
bones 01b5
Boreas 9Sb25

bronze, horses in 10b20
caterpillars, 05b25 / 09a30
children, their difficulty in
walking lOblO
cockchafer 10a10
conger-eels 08a 1
crabs 12bl0 / 14bl5; curious
structure of 13b10 ff
crawling109a5, 25
crocodile 13a15, bl5
cupids, pictures of winged
lla l
De anima, referred to 00b5 /
14b20
De partibus animal ium, re
ferred to 9Sal
desire, as a cause of motion
00bl5 /Olal /03a5; absent
in involuntary movements
03b 10
diagonal movement of the
legs 04b 1 I 12a20, b5
dimensions of animals 04bl5/
05a25
earth, immobility of the
99a30, b5 ff
earthworms 05b25
eels 08a 1 ff / 09bl0
elbow 12al0 ; elbow-joint
98bl I 02a25
elephant 09al0 / 12al0
feet, even number of, in all
animals 04al5 / 08a20 ff
fiery element 03a20
fire, movement of 99b25 /
OOalO
fishes 09b30 / 13b5 ; com
pared with birds 14a20 ff
flat-fish 09bl0 / 14a5
flying 99a5, bl5 / 09b5

foot, defined 06a30
footless animals 04a 10 /
05b20 / 06bl; movement
of 07b5 I 09a25
fore-arm 98b 1 / 02a25
fowls, domestic 10a5
geometrical illustrations
98al0 / 02b25 / 03b25
good, the, as a cause of move
ment 00b25; real )( appar
ent good, lb,
hand 02a30 ff
heart 03al0 / 03b5, 20
heavens, movement of the
99al0
heron lOalO
hips 9Sb5 / 09a 10 / lla 5 ; of
birds 10b20, of man ib.
Historia animal ium, referred
to 04b10
Homer, quoted (Od. viii. 2022) 99h35
hopping 05b30
horses, of bronze 10b20, in
religious processions 12a30
impossible, meaning of
99bl5
imagination 00b 10 / 01bl5 /
02a15 I 03bl0 ff
inferior )( superior parts
04b20 I 05a25 / 06b 1 ff /
07a5
insects 09b30 / 10a5 ff / 13al
intellect 00b 10
joints 98al5 /02a20 /03al0 /
05al5 ; of elbow 98b 1
jumping 05a5, 15 / 0Sa20 /
09b5
553
ARISTOTLE
knee 9SbI
lampreys 08a 1
leeches 09a30
left )( right 05a25, b!5 f f ;
left and right sides of
the body, similar 02bl0;
weights carried on left
shoulder 05b30 ; why men
step off with the left foot
06a5
legs, the 98b5 / 10b10 ; posi
tion of, in movement
09bl5 f f ; of man, bent in
convex direction 04a 15, of
birds, in a concave direc
tion ib. 20 ; four ways of
bending the legs 12a I :
transference of weight from
one leg to another llalO :
of polypods 13b25 ff;
necessary to birds 09b20 ;
used to direct
flight
10a 15
lizards 13b15
lobster 13b20 ff
man, the only erect animal
lOblO; right-handed 06a20:
why a biped 04a 15 ; why
not winged lla l ; his
action in walking 07b 15 ;
bends his legs in a convex
direction 04al5
marionettes, illustration from
Olbl
Metaphysics, referred to
00b5
mice 98bl5
molluscs 06a30
moon 99b 15
motion, movement, of the
554
universe 98b 10, of the

heavens 99al0, blO, of
animate things OOblO, of
inanimate things 00b 10,
of the soul 00b 1, of redblooded footless animals
07b5; various kinds of
movement 98a5 / 05a 1 ff;
cause of movement 00b 15ff;
where situated 02a20, b5 ff;
origin of movement 98a 15,
bl ff I 01b30 I 06bl5;
points at which movement
takes place 04a 10 /07a 15 ff,
b5 ff / 09b20 ; movement
begins on the right side
05b30 I 06bl5; movement
implies something at rest
outside 99b30 / 02a25;
movement of one part
necessitates rest of another
part 98al5, bl ff / 00a5;
movement by bending
0Sb20 ff I 09b 1 I lla5 ;
voluntary )( involuntary
movement 03b5; diagonal
movement of the legs
04bl I 12a20, b5 ; move
ment in jumping, running,
and walking 05a5 ff
mover, the prime 00b5,
moves without being itself
moved 98a5 / 00b35, is
eternal 00b30
mullet 08a 1
nature, creates nothing with
out a purpose 04bl5 /
08a 10, creates nothing un
natural Ha5
nutrition, of plants 06b5, of
plants and animals com
pared 05b5

opposite parts of the body
move simultaneously 02b I )
oviparous quadrupeds 04bI /
13al5
passive )( active 02a 10 /
05a20
peacock 10a5, 20
Physics, reference to (258b49)
98a 10
plants, nutrition of 06b5, lack
movement i b compared
with animals 05b5, superior
and inferior parts of 05a25,
bl IF
points at which movement
takes place 04al0/07al5 ff,
b5 ff I 09b20
poles, the 99a20 ff
polvpods 04a 10 /06a30, b5 /
OSbl / 12bl0 I 13a25, bl5
porphyrio (a bird) 10a 10
procession, religious 12a30
purple-fish 06a 15
purpose 00b 10 / 0la5, in
nature 04bl5 / OSalO
quadrupeds 04a 10 ff/06a30 /
07b 15; bending of the legs
of quadrupeds in walking
llb lO ; oviparous quad
rupeds 04b 1
ray (fish) 09b 15
red-blooded animals lla5,
move at four points 04a 10 /
07al5, b5 /09b20, cannot
live if divided into parts
07a25
resistance of earth, air or sea
necessary to movement
98b 15
rest )( motion 98b5
right )( left 05a25, bl /

06b25 I 07a5 ; movement
originates on the right side
05b30 /06bl5; right side
superior to left 06a20,
blO ; right limbs used in
defence 06a5
roots of plants 05b5
rudder, slight movement of,
changes direction of boat
01b25
scolopendrae 07a30 / 08b5
seal 14b 10
sensation 01a35, cause of
alteration 01bl5; origin
of sensation situated in the
centre of the body 02b20
sense-perception, in animals
05b 10 ; objects of 98a 10
sexual organs 03b5, 20
shin 98b 1
shoulder 98 bl /09al0 11la5 /
12al0
sinews 0lb5
Siphae 08a5
snakes 05b25 /09a25, move
ment of 07b20 ff, why
footless 08a5 ff
soul, movement of the 90bl,
central position of 03a35,
as origin of movement
02b 1 ff I 03a 1
spine 02b20
spirit, innate, in animals
03a10 ff
stromboid testaceans 06a 10,
bl
superior )( inferior parts
04b20105a25 /06b 1ff/07a5
swimming 98a5, bl5 / 09b5
syllogism, the practical
OlalOff
555
ARISTOTLE
tail, used as a rudder 10a I
talons, birds with, the swiftest
flyers 10a25
testaceans 06al0, bl / 14b5
thighs 12a15, of birds I2b30
Tityos 9Sb25
tortoise 13a15
toy-carriage, illustration from
Olbl
trumpet-shell 06a 15
universe, movement of the
9Sbl0
viviparous quadrupeds 04a20
voluntary )( involuntary
movement 03b5
walking 05a5
wasps 10a10
water-fowl 10a10
web-footed birds 14a5
weights, used by athletes
when jumping 05a 15,
carried on left shoulder
05b30
v. ings 05b20 /06a25 /09b5,
30 ; of birds, necessary for
walking 09b20, and for
standing 10b30, serve as
front legs 12b20; of cupids,
useless lla l ; of insects
10al5; grow obliquely
13a5
wrestling-school 09bl0
wrist 02b 1
Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh
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Aristotle - Parts of Animals Movement of Animals Progression of Animals (Greek - English)

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H. A. M A R S H A L L , C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.

From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion

0 For the meaning of Cause see note below, p. 24.

II. Theory based upon observations.

1 treating o f the way in

[treatin g o f the form

treating o f the func

T h e section (b) is necessary to the completeness o f

I give a brief synopsis and a contents-summary

On the Method o f Natural

Two questions propounded :

(2) (Put in three ways):

Criticisms o f dichotomy as a method of

Answer to question (1).

An Exhortation to the study of animals.

Final summary o f the Method, combining

Three modes o f composition :

General statement of the three organs

Internal Parts of Blooded Animals:

Internal parts of Ovipara.

Gall-bladder and Bile,

685 b 30 ch. 10 External Parts of Blooded Animals:

(c) Intermediate Creatures:

A glance at the summary will show clearly the

(A ) to describe the parts o f animals as they

De partibus is concerned chiefly with the causes and less

IV . The External Paris o f Bloodless Animals.

V. The External Parts o f Blooded Animals,

between land and water

between animals and

between quadrupeds and

Note on the Four Classes o f Bloodless Animals.

In using Testacea to translate ra oo-rpaKoSepim

The following notes on some o f the more difficult

The M otive Cause: the parent oak which

ri'<ris, form ation, or proeess o f formation.

(fiiwiv o7tAov yap avry Svi'aftis. Indeed, in this mean

1) twv pvKTrjpuiV Svvapis Sufrvrjs.

This is paralleled by a similar usage o f <j>v<ri$ x

iv.) where the Queen says to H a m le t:

Your bedded haire, like life in excrements,

These terms, which have already appeared in

A t 641 a 23 Aristotle speaks o f parts o f the

K p a v is 9 a iro K p K rts, <t v v t t ] i s .

I have indicated above, in the note on Svvajxis,

Some, says Aristotle, maintain that the

Td f i a W o v koll f j t t o v , the more and less, see

The history o f the translation o f A ristotles w'orks Transia*

1. The Berlin edition of Aristotle, by Immanuel Bekker.

7. Thomas Taylor. English translation of Aristotle in ten

The manuscript authorities cited by Bekker for the

University Library Ii. 3. 16

Balliol College 252

Balliol College 250

So far as I know, this m s . has not been mentioned in any

The following list includes authorities for state

ckno w led gem ents

I t is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help

Parisinus regius 1853 (see p. 434)

a O f over 100 textual points, many being of minor import

The maister Cooke was called Concoction.

a < j> w p ia p i\ n js '

e a rl t o etSos rrjs ot/aas, t) ro to v S ecrrtv rj o ik la otl