May2011

EnvironmentalScienceCh#6
ECOSYSTEMSandCOMMUNITIES
Purpose:
61Successions
TerrestrialPrimary
ClimaxCommunities
AquaticPrimary
ObservingAquaticSuccessions
SecondarySuccessions
ModernConceptofSuccessionandClimax.
62.BiomesdeterminedbyClimate
63.MajorTypesofClimaxCommunities
Desert
Grassland
Savanna
TropicalDryForest
TropicalRainForest
MediterraneanShrublands(Chaparral)
TemperateDeciduousForest
ConiferousForests(Boreal)
Tundra.
TemperateRainForest

64.MajorAquaticEcosystems
Characteristics
MarineEcosystems
Pelagic
BenthicAbyssal
CoralReef
Mangrove
Estuaries
HumanImpactonMarineEcosystems
FreshWaterEcosystems
Characteristics
LakesEutrophic/BOD/Oligotrophic
Streams
Swamps
Marshes

ECOSYSTEMSANDCOMMUNITIEs
1

PURPOSE.
1. Torecognizedifferencesbetweenprimaryandsecondary
successions.
2. Describetheprocessofsuccessionsinbothlandandwater
ecosystems.
3. Associatetypicalplantsandanimalswiththevariousbiomes
4. Recognizethephysicalenvironmentalfactorsthatdetermine
thekindofclimaxcommunitiesthatwilldevelop.
5. Differentiatetheforestbiomesthatdevelopbasedon
temperatureandprecipitation.
6. Describethekindsofecosystemsandtheirdetermining
factors.
6.1Successions
Ecosystemsaredynamic(constantlychanging)units.(Successions)
Communitiesgothruaseriesofchangesinstructure,
recognizableandpredictable.Thepaceanddirectionofchange
dependonclimate,seeds,disturbancefrequencyandorganisms
introducedfromoutsidethearea.
Thepredictablecommunitychangesinstructureovertimeis
calledasuccession.TheendresultisaCLIMAXcommunity,
determinedbyclimateandsoil.
Twosuccessionsarerecognized:
1. Primarystartswithnewlyexposedsurface(barerock).Eg.
glaciatedareas,newlycoveredvolcanicplaces,surface
exposedbydropinsealevel.
2. Secondarystartswithdestructionofanexistingecosystem,
leavingbehindsomesoil,seedsandroots.

TerrestrialPrimarySuccession
Itdependsonthetypeofsubstrate(rock,sandorclay),spores,
seedsorreproductivestructures,andclimate.Biodiversityis
influencedbythetypeofplants.
Pioneerstageresultsfromcolonizationbyapioneer
communitysuchas:Lichenamutualisticrelationshipbetween
Algae(orbacteria)andFungus.
Intermediatestage
Soildevelopmentfollows,whichsupportsworms,bacteria,etc.
PrimarySuccessionisthereplacementofthePioneerCommunity.
Laterstagescontributetotheorganicmatterdominatedby
Replacement,e.g.annualsbyperennialgrasses,herbs,woody
shrubs,animals,andtrees.Eachreplacementisasuccessional
stage(SERALSTAGE).
AtotalsuccessionfromPioneertoclimaxcommunityisaSERE.
2

Thesuccessionalcommunityisnotthesameasaclimaxcommunity.
ClimaxCommunities
Canreproducethemselvesandareinenergybalance.Theyhavea
largernumberoftypesoforganismsandatrendtowards
increasingcomplexityandenergyefficiency.
ClimaxCommunitytendstohavemanyspecializedecological
niches,whereas,successionaltendtohavemoregeneralized
niches.
Climaxcommunitiesmaintaintheirmixforalongtime,while
successionalistemporary.
Climaxtendstorecyclenutrientsandmaintainaconstant
biomass.
Secondarysuccessionstartswiththedestructionofanexisting
community.
InTerrestrialClimaxCommunities,thebiomesproduced,dependon
twoabioticfactors:
TEMP.(Constantorchanging)
PPT.Howmuchandwhen
SoilandWind(driesoutsoilrapidly)
Periodicfires.
AquaticPrimarySuccession
Mostaquaticsuccessionsaretemporary,eventuallytobe
replacedbyterrestrialecosystems.(Receivesoilparticlesand
organicmattercontinuouslyfromland).
Earlystages:Aquaticvegetation(floatingplantstrap
sediments,eventuallyformingawetmeadow.
Laterstages:Shallowlakesfillgradually.Accumulationof
organicmatteralongwithsediments.Eventuallythewetsoil
dries;grassstartstogrow(abogstage)
ObservingAquaticSuccessions.

Inthedeeperportionofthelake,therearesubmergedplants,
algalmatsandemergentvegetation.Nextgrassesthatcan
toleratewetsoiladjacenttotheshore.

SecondarySuccession

Occurswhenanexistingcommunityisdestroyedbutmuchofthe
soilandsomeorganismsremain.Thesuccessionadvancesmore
rapidly.Itislikelythatthenewclimaxcommunitywillresemble
theearlierone.
3

ModernConceptofSuccessionandClimax.
Thetypeofclimaxcommunitywhichdevelops,dependsonmany
factorsotherthanclimate,seedsandhumanactivities.
6.2BiomesareDeterminedbyClimate.
Biomesareterrestrialclimaxcommunitieswithwidegeographic
distribution
PrecipitationandTemperatureareabioticfactorsthathavemajor
impactonthedevelopingclimaxcommunity.Severalotherfactors,
namely:periodicfires,wind,soiltypeandcurrentlyliving
organisms.
TheEffectofElevationonClimateandVegetation.Aselevation
increases,temperaturedecreases
Climaxcommunitiesare:
1. Abletomaintainamixinspecies
2. Inenergybalance
3. Manykindsoforganismswithdifferentkindsofinteraction

6.3MajorTypesofClimaxCommunities(Biomes)oftheWorld.
1. DESERT:
Ppt.:Briefperiodsofinfrequentrainslessthan10/y.Runoffin
gullies. Very high evaporation rates. Windy, with high
evaporationrates.
Temp.:Variationsarehigh,varygreatlyina24hr.period.
Biodiversity: Many small organisms have the ability to survive
withlittlewater.Therearemanyspeciesbutfewindividuals.
Plantshavesmallleavesandarespiney,transpireverylittle
water. Plants grow and blossom when moisture is available.
Insectslizards,snakes,smallmammals,grazers,carnivoresand
birdsallavoidextremeheat.
Human Impact. There is nomadic herding. Modern technology is
changingthatwayofexistence.

2. TEMPERATEGRASSLAND:
Ppt.:Receivesbetween10to30ppt/year.
Temp.:WindysummersareHOT.Wintersarecoldtomild.
Biodiversity:widelydistributed;Grassesandotherplantsroots
are intertwined, which binds the soil. Few trees are located
alongrivervalleys.
4

There are herds of grazing animals, insects, and birds.

Herbivorousmammalsmiceandsquirrels,foxes,coyotesandsome
reptilesarecommon.
HumanImpact:Steppes/prairiesareconvertedtoagricultureor
grazinglands.
3. SAVANNA: in tropical parts of Africa, S. America and
Australia
Ppt.:Tropicalclimate(heavyrains)withseasonaldroughts.20
to60/year.
Biodiversity: Grassland with occasional clumps of trees. Trees
usebacteriaforNitrogenfixation.
Grazers are kangaroos antelope, elephants, lions and llamas
inhabit.Moundbuildingtermitesarecommon.
HumanImpact:Ecotourism.Thereisnowconflictofinterest.
4.TROPICALDRYFOREST:
Ppt.:20to80/yearisseasonalinCentralAmerica,India.
Biodiversity : Many trees drop their leaves during the dry
season.
Human Impact : Harvesting the forest and converting to
agricultureandHabitats.
5.TROPICALRAINFOREST:
Ppt.:abundant(>80/y).
Temp:normallywarm.
Biodiversity:Manyspeciesoftrees(teak,Balsa)growrapidly.
Have an extensive root system close to the surface. Get their
nutrientsfromdecayingmatter.VinesclimbtotheCanopy.
Significant#oforganismsdependsonsoundtocommunicatedueto
lackoflight.Hasahighdiversityofspecies,greaterthanany
otherbiome.Insects,birds,climbingmammals,lizardsandfrogs
arecommonresidents.
Nutrients are recycled. Rain washes away nutrients, left with
poorqualitysoils.
HumanImpact:Logging,AgricultureandMining.

6.MEDITERRANEANSHRUBLANDS(Chaparral)
Temp.: Wet cool winters and hot dry summers. Located near the
oceans.
Ppt.:Rainfallis15to40/year.
Biodiversity: Vegetationisdominatedbyshrubby,woodyplants.
Fire is common. Insects, reptiles, birds and mammals are the
primaryinhabitants.
5

Human Impact : Agriculture conversion due to irrigation

practices.

7. TEMPERATEDECIDUOUSFOREST
Temp:Mildwinters.
Ppt.:Rainsallyear50/yearEvenlydistributed.LocatedinNE
US,SECanada,S.Africa,partsofEuropeandAsia.
Biodiversity:Therearefewdominanttrees,loseleavesinwinter
(maple,aspen,oak,birch,andwildspringflowers).
Foxes,rabbits,squirrels,deer,badgersandMigratorybirds(few
residents, grouse, woodpeckers , turkeys) and large variety of
insectsinhabit.
HumanImpact:Treesclearedforfarmingandoccasionallogging.
8.CONIFEROUSFOREST(BorealForest)
Temp:shortcoolsummersandlongcoldwinters.Beginswherethe
Tundraends.Theareaisdottedwithlakes.Taiga(swamps)Soil
freezesduringwinter.
Biodiversity: Trees are Evergreens, spruce, fir, etc. no snow
damage.Animals(Deer,Caribou,Mooseandwolves)aremigratory.
Fewreptilesandamphibians.
Ppt.:10to40/year.Humidclimate.Typicallydottedwithlakes.
Human Impact : Less severe than in other biomes. Logging and
herdingreindeer
9.TUNDRA:Includesalpine.
Ppt.: 10/y. Frozen soil Permafrost. Damage is very slow to
heal.Temp.:Cold,windyclimate,lessthan10ppt/year.
Biodiversity: No trees (growth is short), reptiles nor
amphibians. Migratory ducks, few permanent residents. (Arctic
hares,lemmings,caribou,Reindeer,MuskOx).Ptarmiganandsnow
owlareresidentbirds.Therearecloudsofinsects.
HumanImpact:Fewpeopleliveinthisregion.

10.TEMPERATERAINFOREST
Climate : More than 50/year ppt. (up to 120) Cool climate
slowsevaporation,leavesadampatmosphere.
Biodiversity : Evergreens up to 800 years old (Spruce, Fir,
WesternHemlock)withmossesandferns.Treesdieandfalltothe
ground.Theyrot.CalledNursetrees
Dwellers include Woodpeckers, chickadees, elk, deer, bear and
Salmoonfish.
6

Human Impact : Home of the endangered species Spotted Owl.

Logging.
Relationshipbetweenhighlatitudesandelevationisevidentin
thedistributionofthevariousbiomesincludingAlpineTundra.

6.4MAJORAQUATICECOSYSTEMS
Owetheircharacteristicsto:
1.Temp.
2.Amt.andkindofppt.andindirectlyon
a)Abilityofsunlighttopenetrate
b)Bottomsubstrate
c)Watertemp.
d)Dissolvedsalt
e)Soiltype.
MarineEcosystems
Influencedbyamt.ofdissolvedsaltsandothernutrients.
Therearetwotypesofmarineecosystems:
1.Pelagicecosystemsswimmers,notattachedtothebottom.
Phytoplankton(algae)isthemajorfoodsourceintheeuphotic
zone.(Photosynthesis)

TheZooplanktonsliveatlowerdepths,feedonthephytoplanktons
atshallowdepthsatnightinthedeltaregionsandareasofhigh
currentactivity.Theyaresubsequentlyeatenbylargerfish.
2.Benthicecosystemsbottomdwellers,indirectlycontrolledby
thenatureofthesubstrate(sand,mudorrock)andtemperature.
a) Abyssalecosystemsaccommodatescavengers,whodependon
driftingdeadmaterial
b)Coralreefsrequirewarm,clean,marinewater,existina
mutualisticrelationshipwithAlgae.Itisoneofthemost
productiveofsystems.
c) Mangrove swamps near shore in areas of Tropical mud
flats. Trees have an extensive root system through which they
absorbCO2,andexcretesaltthruleaves.(Notmuchwaveaction
inarea).LocatedintheCaribbean,SouthFlorida,SEAsia.
7

4. Estuaries shallow, brackish water in partially

enclosed areas. A sediment and nutrient trap and fish
hatchery. The salt content changes with the tide. A
pollutanttrap?Eventuallybecomesasaltmarsh.
HumanImpactonMarineEcosystems
Overfishing has destroyed some traditional fishing grounds. A
resulting consequence is farm fishing, which have caused
additional nutrients to the water pollution and spread of
diseasestowildfish.

FreshwaterEcosystems
Differentiatedfrommarinewatersby
Saltcontent(Taste)
Temp.Variations
Oxygencontent
Downhillflowandorganisms.
Twocategories,onerelativelystationary:
1. Lakes Littoral zones have abundant rooted vegetation
submerged plants, emergent plants protrude above the water
(water lilies), algae and associated animals, fish and
insects.
Euphoticzoneinlargelakes,wherelightpenetrates.
LimneticzoneshaveNOrootedsubmergedplants
Productivitydependson
Temp
Sunlightpenetration(waterdepth)
Nutrientcontent
Oligotrophiclakesaredeep,cold,withoutnutrients,havealow
productivity.

Eutrophic lakes are shallow, warm with abd. nutrients. Have a

highBOD(BiochemicalOxygenDemand)
OrganismsneedmolecularOxygen(fromtheairorphotosynthesis).
Wave action or tumbling increases the oxygen content in the
water. In contrast, human impact or plant die off causes a
decreaseinO2andfishkills.
2. Streams and Rivers are not very productive, because most
nutrients come from the banks. Most algae grow on the rock
bottom. The collection of algae, fungus, etc is called the
8

Periphyton.
Transitionbetweenaquaticandterrestrialecosystems.
3. Swamps arepermanentlyfloodedareas,atransitionbetween
terrestrialandfreshwaterecosystems.
4.Marshesaredominatedbygrasses.
CASESTUDIES
(1)InupiatEskimosconsiderthemselvespartofNature.
TheyhavehuntedtheBowheadwhaleforgenerations,useallofit
anddonotlosemanycatches.
Today,theyusemodernequipmenttohunt,haveaccesstoother
foods.Arelimitedto3/year(30met.tons/whale)
ShouldwhalingbestoppedbecausetheBowheadisanendangered
species?
(2) Salmon Fishing in Scotland: salmon is a pelagic,
difficulttoharvestcommercially.
Today,anetisspreadacrossthebayandthefishisprevented
fromgoingouttosea.Fedbythefishermanandlaterharvested.
Floatingfarms.Feedwithsteroids?
(3)FarminginaTropicalForest:slashandburncauserapid
erosion.Abandonedafterafewyears.Soilleachedtoproducea
laterite,buttheuseoftemperatefarmingmethodsisafailure.