Jun.

2007

Journal of China University of Mining & Technology

Vol.17

No.2

J China Univ Mining & Technol 2007, 17(2): 02950300

Numerical Simulation of Independent

Advance of Ore Breaking in the Non-pillar
Sublevel Caving Method
ZHOU Chuan-bo1, YAO Ying-kang1, GUO Liao-wu2, YIN Xiao-peng2, FAN Xiao-feng1, SHANG Ying1
1

Engineering College, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China

Ming Company of Wuhan Steel and Iron Unite Company, Wuhan, Hubei 430080, China

Abstract: The mechanism of stress generation and propagation by detonation loading in five separate independent advance of ore breaking patterns is discussed in the paper. An elastic numerical model was developed using ANSYS/LS-DYNA 3D Nonlinear Dynamic Finite Element Software. In this package ANSYS is the preprocessor and
LS-DYNA is the postprocessor. Numerical models in the paper to actual were 1:10 and the element mesh was dissected
in scanning mode utilizing the symmetry characteristics of the numerical model. Five different advance rates were studied. Parameters, such as the time required to maximum stress, the action time of the available stress, the maximum velocity of the nodes, the stress penetration time, the magnitude of the stress peak and the time duration for high stress
were numerically simulated. The 2.2 m advance appeared optimum from an analysis of the simulation results. The results from numerical simulation have been validated by tests with physical models.
Key words: non-pillar sublevel caving method; independent advance of ore breaking; numerical simulation; model test
CLC Number: TD 8

Introduction

The sublevel caving technique has been widely

employed in the underground mining of metals. This
technique has the advantage of being highly mechanized and allowing for rapid ore extraction but the
disadvantage of loss from mixing rock with the ore
and inefficient extraction. Many mining experts have
studied how to reduce ore depletion and to increase
extraction efficiency. One theory holds that matching
parameters in the primary structure, e.g.: bench height,
ore passage spacing, the rate of advance during ore
breaking, can reduce losses. Bench height and ore
passage spacings are confined by many external conditions such as available mining equipment and the
geological conditions of the mine. Once identified,
these parameters typically can not be changed.
The rate of advance during ore breaking, however,
is a variable that may be adjusted independently.
There is an optimum value to use [12]. The optimum
value is usually determined by one of two methods.
The first is to pick a starting value according to experience and then to ascertain the optimum by ad-

justment in the field based on tests. The second is to

chose the optimum value from calculations based on
mining theory.
Different numerical models have been examined
based upon experience in iron mining. The models
were 3D, nonlinear dynamic finite-element models
employing ANSYS/LS_DYNA software. The simulations involve different advance rates for caving, different bench heights, and different ore-passage spacings. The optimum value for advance rate was determined from the numerical results and checked by
tests with physical models. This method has greater
agility, efficiency and economy compared to conventional methods [3] .

The ANSYS/LS-DYNA 3D nonlinear dynamic finite element program has user-defined material modeling functions and so was adopted for the numerical
simulations[45]. The program of ANSYS/LS-DYNA
3D has hourglass viscous damping control null energy pattern and its element compute pattern is single

Received 06 September 2006; accepted 11 December 2006

Corresponding author. Tel: +86-27-87484264; E-mail address: cbzhou@cug.edu.cn

Downloaded from http://www.elearnica.ir

Numerical Simulation

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Journal of China University of Mining & Technology

point Gauss integral, which developed by American J

O Hallquist professor. The program of ANSYS/LSDYNA 3D can solve different kinds of two-dimensional and three-dimensional inelastic structural hypervelocity impact, explosion and dynamic distortion
response problems. The program is suited for the
simulation of rock blasting. One advantage of ANSYS numerical simulation rests with the contactbreaking algorithm available. This could deal with
fissures and slip at the material interface. Many material models and state equations are provided as well.
2.1 Calculation model
Some iron ore bodies are located in strips between
marble and diorite. These have relatively few crevices

Vol.17

No.2

and a solid wall rock. Non-pillar, sublevel caving has

been adopted in these iron mines. Material properties
adopted for the simulations are listed in Table 1. Fig.
1 shows the mine dimensions: 12 meter bench height,
admission passages are spaced 10 meters apart and
have 3.6 by 3 meter entrances.
Table 1

Parameters of material properties

Parameters
Uniaxial
Poissons
compressive
ratio
strength (MPa)
58.5
0.26

Youngs
modulus
(GPa)
13.0

Material

Density
(g/cm3)

Marble

2.66

Diorite

2.63

75.72

0.22

11.7

Magnetite

4.0

75.67

0.26

12.6

Fig. 1 Antitype schematic map

Based upon these material properties and experience from actual production five computational models were constructed. They were:
1) a single row blasting model, free advance was
1.5 meter;
2) a double row, millisecond blasting model with
1.8 meter advance and a line of resistance of 0.9;
3) a double row millisecond blasting model, advance 2.2 meter, line of resistance of front row 1.0
meter, back row 1.2 meter;
4) a double row millisecond model, advance 2.5
meter, line of resistance of front row 1.2 meter, back
row 1.3 meter;
5) a double row millisecond model, advance 3.0
meter, 1.4 meter front row and 1.6 meter back row
line of resistance.
These five computational models have symmetry
about the YZ plane. To save computation time a 1/2
calculation module was adopted using the symmetry
command in ANSYS. The upper surface, the right
surface and the external surface of the 1/2 calculation
module were taken as no reflection boundaries. The
inner and under surfaces were considered to be free
surfaces while the left side was the plane of symmetry[6]. Considering that only medium depth bore
hole spacings (row parameters) were studied the
conic section of the medium depth bores was simplified as a cylindrical section to facilitate computation.

Fig. 2 shows the three-dimensional calculation

model and the mesh partition of 1.5 m and 2.2 ms.
2.2 Material model
An initial stress on the elements was required for
the time step calculation, which is correlated to the
rock mass and explosive material. An accurate description of rock destruction by dynamic loads is not
yet available. Hence, the characteristics of the load
generated by detonation impact on rock is indefinite.
To insure quality results a linear elastic material
model was employed where model stiffness was
taken account of [6]. To simulate detonation, an emulsified oil was considered as a simulated explosive.
The relation between pressure and specific volume
follow the Jones-Wilkins-Lee equation of state. This
may be expressed as:

RV1

R2V E0
P = A 1
e + B 1
e +
V
1
RV
R2V

(1)

Where: A, B, R1, R2 and are material constants, P is

stress, V is relative volume and E0 is the initia internal
energy.
The parameters of the emulsified oil are listed in
Table 2 [7].

Numerical Simulation of Independent Advance of Ore Breaking in the

ZHOU Chuan-bo et al

Fig. 2
Table 2
(kg/m3)

D (m/s)

1310

5600

Three-dimensional calculation model and mesh partition

velocity [8].

Explosive parameters

A (GPa) B (GPa)
214.4

0.182

297

R1

R2

4.2

0.9

E0

0.15 4.192

2.3 Boundary conditions

A slipping boundary was assumed as the interfacial
boundary between the explosive and the wall of the
blast hole, and the interfacial boundary was supposed
as collision slippage that relatively merely existed
and without dissociate between explosive and rock
mass. A slippage boundary was applied when high
explosive detonated gas impacts on a solid interface.
A distributed parameter method was adopted by
LS-DYNA3D to solve the contacting collision problem between explosive and rock mass.
To minimize the model-object size, a non-reflecting boundary was adopted in this numerical study.
The algorithm is that all elements on the non-reflecting boundary are listed first. Then viscid normal
stresses and shear stresses are added to all these elements. On the non-reflecting boundary element surface, the normal stress is proportional to the normal
vibration velocity of the element, and the shear stress
is proportional to the tangential cutter head vibration

2.4 Finite element discretization

The procedure of early versions of LS-DYNA3D,
20 node Gaussian integral elements, was adopted.
Although higher order elements can compute the low
frequency dynamic response more accurately the
computation speed was too slow so this was impractical for solving dynamical analysis problems such as
hypervelocity impact and stress wave transmission.
Eight node hexa-hedral finite elements were adopted
in the simulation. These not only compute quickly but
also have a high precision.
2.5 Numerical simulation results
The effective stress distribution, the element effective stress time history curve and the different nodal
velocities corresponding to different distances from
the free face were obtained by numerical simulation.
The effective stress distribution for 1.5 m and 2.2 m
independent advance of ore breaking are depicted in
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Tables 3 and 4 show some results from the simulations using the various advance strategies.

298

Journal of China University of Mining & Technology

(a) t=15.8 s

Fig.3

Effective stress distribution: 1.5 m independent advance of ore breaking

(b) t=29.7 s

Effective stress distribution: 2.2 m independent advance of ore breaking

Table 3 Max. effective stress in elements of different

independent advance of ore breaking
(MPa)
Independent
advance
(m)

No.2

(b) t=36.2 s

(a) t=14.8 s

Fig. 4

Vol.17

Position
Centre of
Centre of
front row
back row
connection connection
1090
1090

1.5

Free
face
section
300

Blast
hole
section
2280

1.8

368

2260

1010

906

2.2

523

2360

841

886

238

2.5

247

2330

1020

1060

323

3.0

237

2320

1040

919

321

Superface
section
245
231

In the non-pillar sublevel caving technique each

row of medium depth holes is detonated in turn, following a circular pattern. In this way the ore is fractured and can be removed. The propagation of explosive stress, the value and duration of the stress wave
and the medium velocity are all key factors which
affect the blasting effect. Stresses located at different
positions in the bore hole are shown in Table 3. Along
the free surface the 2.2 m advance has the maximum
stress. The stress is 2.23108 Pa, 1.6108 Pa, 2.76
108 Pa or 2.86108 Pa greater than the 1.5 m, 1.8 m,
2.5 m or 3.0 m advances, respectively. High stress is
advantageous for detonation because rock failure near

the free surface is caused by the stretching action of

the reflected wave; the bigger the stress value the
better the ore fragmentation. Near the bore hole the
2.2 m advance also has the maximum stress, which
indicates the detonation energy used for fracturing
ore is the biggest, too; in the back row connection the
stress associated with the 2.2 m advance is 1.6
2.5108 Pa smaller than the stress of 1.8 m, 2.5 m, 3.0
m advances; which account for the minimum stress
propagates to the next circulation direction, whereas
the proportion propagate to free surface direction is
greater relatively. The back row stress characteristics
not only play a positive role in protecting the bore
hole of the next blasting event but also indicate how
well the explosive energy is used. Since the non-pillar
sublevel caving method is detonated under a loose
rock cap the capping detonation needs less explosive
energy. The lower stress values of the 1.8 m and 2.2
m advances, listed in Table 3, reveal a more rational
distribution of explosive energy. As displayed in Table 4 simulation results for the 2.2 m advance show
favorable blasting effects such as the least time bore
hole penetrated, the biggest nodal velocity at the centre of Z direction and the coherence of the maximum

Numerical Simulation of Independent Advance of Ore Breaking in the

ZHOU Chuan-bo et al

stress and velocity in location.

As stated above, the 2.2 m independent advance for
ore breaking has definite advantages in the following
aspects: the effective propagation and superposition
of stress wave; the peak stress; the response time of
high stress, and the maximum velocity of the medium.
Table 4

299

Consequently, considering real production a 2.2 m

advance is recommended. The given independent
advance of ore breaking is composed of a circulation
by double-row medium depth bore, the front rows
resistant line is 1.0 m and the back rows line is 1.2
m.

Signified parameters of simulation results

Independent advance (m)

Relevant parameter

Maximum element stress

1.5

1.8

2.2

2.5

3.0

Generate time (s)

10.5

12.8

13.5

13.0

13.21

Stress value (GPa)

2.36

2.56

2.62

2.61

2.63

Distance from bottom free surface (m)

1.5

1.8

2.2

2.5

3.0

Time of blast hole permeated entirely (s)

Action time of stress near
by the blast hole

Maximum
Nodal velocity

Maximum nodal velocity

at the centre of Z direction

Start stop time

Duration

14.8

17.5

19.4

6.216

6.516.4

6.315.8

9.7

9.6

9.8

9.9

9.5

Generation time (s)

8.9

6.9

9.8

9.9

9.51

6.3

6.9

7.5

7.3

7.3

Distant from bottom free surface (m)

1.5

1.8

2.2

1.2

1.7

Generation time (s)

51

33

27

38

47

Velocity value (m/s)

26.4

49.7

50.2

37

28.4

In order to validate the numerical simulation results, four groups of physical model tests, based upon
similarity theory, were carried out. The physical
model to actual scale ratio was 1:20. The models
were constructed according to the proportions that
Clinker-Baring Sag Cement: Fluvial Sand: Gravel
were 1:2:2. The test models were not detonated until
the models were aged long enough to reach the design strength. Primacord served as the explosive in
the test. The model was detonated by 8# primer in an
axial direction. Indices of the model tests are listed in
Table 5.
Indices of model tests
Modes pace (m)

Characteristic
1.5

1.8

2.2

2.5

Specific consumption
of explosive (kg/m3)

1.57

1.59

1.55

1.67

Chunk rate (%)

51.02

48.32

45.7

46.1

From the model test results, indices of the 2.2 m

independent advance of ore breaking revealed a
chunk rate and specific consumption of explosive
which predominates over the other three models. This
is compatible with the numerical simulations.

16.5
6.416

Velocity value (m/s)

Physical Model Test

Table 5

15.8
6.316

Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn:

1) A long charge form was adopted in numerical
simulations that considered five different independent
advance of ore breaking models. The propagating
form of the stress wave in the rock mass is a cylin-

drical wave that expands outward as if the bore hole

was a spigot shaft. The stress wave propagates to the
free surface or to the centre line of neighboring boreholes priority when it is affected by free surface and
rock structural plane. This conclusion validates the
propagation theory of stress waves generated by long
charge structures.
2) The dynamic pressure of the stress wave existing during detonation was determined by numerical
simulation. The stress wave action time from detonation to propagating and then reflecting is extremely
transitory. The principle of propagating stress-wave
attenuation is in accord with an exponential damping.
3) As indicated in the numerical simulation results
the stress values at the free surface and at the bore
hole get larger as the advance increases, when the
independent advance changes from 1.5 m to 2.2 m.
There is an opposite effect when the independent advance changes from 2.5 m to 3.0 m. Compared to the
stress values at the free surface and the bore hole, the
stress value located at the back row shows the reverse
behavior. The stress value located in the front connection is similar to that at the back row; a small difference is that the stress value drops when the independent advance changes from 2.5 m to 3.0 m. The
stress value at the super-face changes little with the
advance, but for an independent advance of 2.5 m an
increase is obvious.
4) The time of complete blast-hole penetration reduces as the independent advance increases from 1.5
m to 2.2 m. This time increases as the independent
advance changes from 2.2 m to 3.0 m.; the element
nodal velocity of the 1.5 m independent advance is

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Journal of China University of Mining & Technology

smaller than in the other cases. There is only a small

difference in nodal velocity for other advance rates.
5) As shown in the numerical simulation results
there is a great distinction in the mechanism of detonated stress wave generation and propagation. Considered analytically, the 2.2 m independent advance
of ore breaking example has a definite advantage in
the following aspects; the effective propagation and
superposition of stress waves; the stress peak; the
response time of high stress, and; the maximum ve-

Vol.17

No.2

locity of the medium. Consequently, the 2.2 m independent advance of ore breaking is recommended for
real production.
6) Four physical model tests of the 1.5 m, 1.8 m,
2.2 m and 2.5 m independent advances were carried
out to validate the numerical simulation results.
Comparison of these results shows there is agreement
between the physical model tests and the results of
numerical simulation.

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