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NExT Module 3
NExT Module 3
Module 3
Coal and Coal Bearing
Environments
the delta plain coals that cap each deltaic progradational cycle. As with
most coals, these will be distinctive on wireline logs because of the low
density and slow sonic transit times (usually shown as a sharp kick to
the left on the scale). However, depending on the amount of clastic
input (ash as it is referred to in the coal literature) they can range from
low gamma for clean coals to moderate or high gamma for dirty coals.
Raised mires/swamps
Raised mires have convex-up surfaces, which are elevated above the
surrounding terrain and are independent of the underlying topography
(Figs. 1.6, 1.7). Raised peats develop under favourable climatic
conditions, which include low evaporation, abundant precipitation and
low seasonality (Lottes & Ziegler, 1994). The peats become selfsustaining under these conditions, since they are topographically above
the influence of nutrient-rich ground and surface waters. Raised peats
are active ecosystems and can respond to climatic variations by shifts
in the relative abundance of plant species making up the living, outer
layer of the peat (Chague-Goff & Fyfe, 2000). In addition, the positive
relief of the raised mire largely prevents the entry of clastic deposits
such as fluvial channels or overbank facies, which would interfere with
peat growth. Due to vertical variations of composition and changes in
vegetation patterns between the margin and the edges of a raised mire,
properties such as pH and brightness show characteristic profiles. The
pH has been documented to decrease upward from 4.8 at the base to
3.6 at the surface within a 7.5 metre core retrieved from a raised bog in
Nova Scotia (Chague-Goff & Fyfe, 2000).
The zonation of plant communities and chemical environments within a
raised bog results in correlatable profiles within contemporaneous bogs
and their resulting coal seams. Vertical changes in trace element
composition, isotopic variations, ash content and maceral abundances
have been used successfully to correlate coal seams (Kilian et al,
2000; Hamilton & Tadros, 1994; McCabe, 1984; Glasspool, 2000).
Similarly, the effects of fires on peat-forming wetlands during episodes
of drought can be recorded in the stratigraphic record as bright bands
showing an increase in the maceral inertinite.
Because of the generally clean nature of raised mires, they will typically
have low gamma, as well as low density and slow sonic transit times.
Detrital peats/beach ridges
In tropical regions (e.g. the Mahakam delta of Kalimantan) abundant
detrital organic debris is transported down the rivers, and then, through
gentle longshore drift processes, the organics are deposited on the
low-energy beaches and can accumulate significant peat ridges
(Gastaldo, Allen and Huc, 1993). On the present day Mahakam delta
these can be seen accumulating adjacent and downdrift to the tidally
influenced distributary channels, and form spongy ridges along and
immediately behind the shoreline, settling during the high tides. On the
Compaction of Peat
Peat undergoes a range of physico-chemical changes during burial,
resulting ultimately in the formation of lignite, and later, black coal. The
various macerals in a particular coal will form and change at different
rates, a fact that is utilised in the measurement of the vitrinite
reflectance as a hydrocarbon source rock maturity indicator.
Peat undergoes a significant volume loss during compaction, which can
lead to distorted geometries in adjacent sand or shale bodies. A wide
range of ratios are proposed in the literature for the coalification of peat
into black coal, ranging from 1.4:1 to 30:1,or 50% to 98% volume loss
(Ryer & Langer, 1980). Most of these are estimates from observation of
the compaction of modern day peats or from the reconstruction of
depositional geometries of sandstone bodies encased within coals.
Experimental coalification of peat samples was conducted by Shearer
& Moore (1996), Orem et al. (1996), and Cohen & Bailey (1997).
Shearer & Moore and Orem et al. were using samples from tropical
raised mires in the Rajang delta, Sarawak, Malaysia. Cohen & Bailey
analysed samples from the Everglades mangrove swamp (Florida) and
raised bogs in the Okefenokee Swamp (Georgia, USA). The results of
these studies are comparable and show compaction ratios of the peats
studied between 5.7:1 and 8:1 (72% and 88%, respectively). Wood
samples also used in the experiments showed much lower compaction
ratios of 1.5:1 to 2.5:1 (33% to 60%).
Shearer & Moore (1996) provided details of the nature of the
compaction. They identified that most of the volume loss (45% of
original porosity) was due to loss of inter-particle porosity within the
peat, 17% due to compaction of peat particles, and the remaining 10%
due to organic mass loss in outgassing and fluid expulsion.
The observation that most of the volume loss during peat compaction is
a result of physically pressing the humic particles closer together
conforms with observations of dinosaur footprints in the roofs of
underground coal mines in Utah. Individual footprints show a shallow
depth of penetration and a preservation of foot morphology that is not
possible unless the peat the animals walked upon was very firm.
6
Fig. 1.1 A. Generalised section through ribbon split in the Top Hard Coal,
Carboniferous, England. Coal has been decompacted to show approximate thickness
of original peat. Lines within coal represent bedding planes (from Elliott, 1965).
B. Generalised sections through ribbon split (left) and washout (right) of the
Folsomville/Dykersburg complex in Indiana and Illinois (from Eggert, 1982).
Fig. 1.5 Schematic illustration of examples, at several scales, of processes capable of shutting
off sediment supply and providing opportunity for peat accumulation. A Disruption of sediment
supply at a basin wide scale. Tectonic movement has tilted the thrust belt causing stream
capture and shedding of sediment to the northeast into an interthrust belt basin.
B Sediment bypass at subregional scale where the axial channel complex occupied the eastern
portion of the basin and peat accumulated uninterrupted in the west.
C. Localized peat accumulation in a cut-off meander loop of a moderately sinuous mixed load
fluvial system.
Fig. 1.7 Theoretical model of fluvial architecture in an area of raised swamps. The
elevated swamp restricts overbank flooding and prevents avulsion, leading to the
development of stacked channel sandstones.
Fig. 1.8 Possible compaction scenarios for two sandstone beds P and Q within a peat
succession.
Athick peat bed A accumulates & is subjected to its first incipient sedimentation at P & Q
Peat bed A reaches its limit of compaction locally in response to sedimentation at P & Q
Incipient sedimentation starts at R,S & T in zones compactive response. This has resulted in the channels
Sedimentation at R, S &T proceed to the limit of compaction locally leveling peat bed A and bending peat bed
B and the sediments deposited within the beds P & Q
Coal measure or other sedimentation proceeds steadily, increasing load and general compaction
Ultimate compaction of peat and interseam sediments leads to coalification, and development of seam
splits around compacted structures
Fig. 1.9 A. Coal seams are conceptually equivalent to the hiatal surfaces of Frazier (1974).
Localised or subregional coals can potentially cap the small-scale facies sequences and
depositional events, while regionally extensive coals can bound the depositional episodes.
B. Depositional episode of Frazier (1974) in marginal basin setting.
(Figures not to scale).
Fig. 1.10 Relation of rate of change of base level to coal thickness and geometry
for a given peat production rate.
Table 1.1 Sequence Stratigraphic Distribution of Paralic Coaly Rocks
Fig. 1.12 For a given peat production rate, the occurrence of paralic coals may
vary significantly due to the local rate of change of accommodation. Lower
accommodation rates favor initiation of mires earlier in the lowstand systems tract
and later termination in the highstand systems tract. Higher accommodation rates
would delay initiation of mires and, at very high rates, may prevent widespread peat
accumulation, even in the transgressive systems tract.