Appendices

Appendix A Guidelines for Design for Manufacture (DFM)

A number of rules have been developed to aid designers when thinking about the manufacture
of component parts by common processes:
Ensure maximum simplicity in overall design.
Be aware of the capabilities of in-house manufacture and outside suppliers.
Select materials to suit the process, as well as lowest cost and availability.
It is not desirable to design structures with abrupt changes in section due to stress
concentrations. Aim at uniform wall thickness, cross-sections and gradual changes.
Parts should be designed so that as many operations as possible can be performed
without requiring repositioning. This promotes accuracy and minimises handling.
Dimensions in one plane should all be from a single datum rather than from a variety of
points to avoid overlap of tolerances; this facilitates the making of gauges and fixtures.
Put a price on every tolerance and surface finish. Usually only 20% of the dimensional
characteristics in a product are critical.
The designer should always aim for minimum weight consistent with strength and
stiffness requirements. While material costs are minimised by this criterion, there will
also usually be a reduction in labour and tooling costs.
Wherever possible, design to use general-purpose tooling rather than special dies, form
cutters, etc. (an exception is high-volume production, where special tooling may be more
cost-effective).
If a component is normally exposed to view, make sure that its appearance is as pleasing
as economy in production permits.
For economic reasons, an attempt should always be made to fulfil several functions with
a single function carrier.
Identify critical characteristics (tolerances, surface finishes).
Identify factors that influence manufacture of critical characteristics.
Estimate and minimise component costs.
Establish maximum tolerances for each characteristic, and avoid tight tolerances.
Determine process capability of dimensional characteristics early.
Design parts to be easily inspectable.
Avoid secondary processes, and minimise number of machined surfaces.
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Minimise number re-orientations during manufacture.
Use standard manufacturing processes where possible.
Use generous radii/fillets on castings, mouldings and machined parts.
Design parts for easy tooling/jigging using standard systems.
Utilise special characteristics of processes (e.g. moulded inserts, colours).
Use good detail design for manufacture and conform to drawing standards.

Appendix B Guidelines for Design for Assembly (DFA)

A number of rules have been developed to aid designers when thinking about the assembly
of component parts using common assembly technologies:
Reduce part-count (and types) by consolidation and integration.
Eliminate unnecessary joining processes or, when they must be used, reduce number of
fasteners to a minimum, or use common, efficient fastening systems.
Modularise the design, e.g. few but standard interfaces, simple coupling mechanisms and
simple architecture/element orientation.
Design for an optimum assembly sequence.
Provide a base for assembly to act as a fixture or work carrier.
Design the assembly process in a layered fashion (from above).
Keep centre of gravity low.
Use gravity to aid assembly operations.
Minimise overall product weight.
Design parts for multifunctional use where possible.
Strive to eliminate adjustments (especially blind adjustments/shimming).
Ensure adequate access and unrestricted vision.
Use standard components where possible.
Maximise part symmetry.
Design parts that cannot be installed incorrectly.
Minimise handling and re-orientation of parts.
Design parts for ease of handling from bulk (avoid nesting, tangling).
Design parts to be stiff and rigid, not brittle or fragile.
Design parts to be self-aligning and self-locating (use tapers, chamfers, radii, etc.).
Use good detail design for assembly and conform to drawing standards.
Remove burrs and flash on component parts.

Appendix B1 Functional Analysis

Functional Analysis provides a quantitative means of identifying potentially redundant
components and those that are candidates for integration with other mating parts within a
DFA approach. To carry out a Functional Analysis, itemise every component by name and list
the components in a logical product assembly sequence.

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Stage 1. Examine the functional requirements of the product.
Stage 2. Decide whether the product can be considered as a whole or as a series of
functional subsections. It is best, if possible, to consider the product as a whole to avoid
the duplication of parts or features, which may be in adjacent subsections.
Stage 3. Components are divided into two categories:
A components these carry out functions vital to the performance of the product
such as drive shafts, insulators, etc.
B components their purpose is not critical to the product function, such as
fasteners, spacers etc.
Categorise mating components in a logical progression using the questioning routine in
the Functional Criteria Chart until every component has been considered. The objective of
this analysis is to determine those components necessary for the function of the product
(Category A) and to highlight those that are candidates for elimination or combination with
functional parts.

Design Efficiency (E)

Using this methodology, it is possible to assess the design in terms of a Design
Efficiency (E):
E=

A
(A + B)

100 %

When designing a new product, a Design Efficiency as high as possible should be obtained,
with 60% being a suggested threshold based on a study of good designs.
To start, pick a major functional component (e.g. rotor shaft) in the product and call it an A
part. Use the chart (Figure B1) to rate all other components in order, according to their
assembly sequence.
A part is any non-fluid component. It includes every washer, rivet, sticker, etc.
When using the Functional Criteria Chart, note that the questions are arranged into three
columns. When answering questions in the current design column, consider the design only
as it is and not how it should or might be. For questions in the consider specification column, consider how it is and ask if it has to be. The last column, other options, should
provoke ideas of how the design could be.
Care should be exercised when rating identical parts such as screws, seals and springs as often
they may not perform the same function throughout the product or the function can be
achieved with less of them.
If there is any doubt regarding a components category, default to B.

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Figure B1: DFA Functional Analysis Chart (adapted from Ref. [1.4]).

Notes on the Functional Analysis Chart (Figure B1)

1. It may be possible to obtain the required movement by flexing the component, for example moulded hinges, diaphragms, bellows, thermal expansion, etc.
2. In some cases, the same materials may have different functional properties, e.g. hot/cold,
positive/negative, north/south. In these cases, consider parts as different materials and
continue the analysis.
3. A requirement for a different material could be for insulation, wear resistance, sealing,
vibration damping, etc.
4. The part and its mating part could be made of the same material, or it may be possible to
locally process the component to give the required property, etc.
5. Examples of these parts would be fuses, brush gear, light bulbs, filters, etc.
6. Can adjustments be made by plastically deforming a part?

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Appendix C Weld Joint Design Configurations

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Appendix D Blank Component Costing Table

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Appendix E Blank Assembly Costing Table