BIOLOGY

SC.F.1.4.1
The student knows that the body processes involve specific biochemical reactions governed by biochemical
principles. (Also assesses SC.F.1.4.3 andSC.F.1.4.5)
Enzymes see SC.A.1.4.4

Photosynthesis

H2O + CO2 + ENERGY (sunlight)--------------------- C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 -------------------------- H2O + CO2 + ENERGY (ATP)

Concentration gradients Cell membrane functions

Organic compounds always contain carbon and hydrogen.

• Inorganic compounds typically lack carbon.

• Carbon can share 4 electrons or make 4 bonds
• Macromolecules are polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules.
• The smaller molecules are called monomers.

Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

• Units sugars made of C, H, and O with a ratio of (C1H2O1)
• Functions structure and as energy sources.
• Kinds
1. Sugars
• Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides
• Polymers of glucose
2. Starch- how plants store energy
3. Glycogen- how animals store energy
4. Cellulose – structural function in plants

Lipids (fats, oils, steroids)

• Nonpolar and insoluble in water.

1. Simple lipids
• Units- fatty acids made of C, H, and O.
• Functions components of cell membranes.
• Kinds
1. fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and fatty acids;
• Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds in the fatty acids.
2. Complex lipids
• Functions cell membranes phospholipids
3. Steroids
• Made of Four carbon rings
• Part of membranes.
Proteins
• Units - amino acids.
• Function- cell structure and function.
• Kinds
 1. Muscle tissue-
2. Enzymes - proteins that speed chemical reactions.
3. Transporter - proteins move chemicals across membranes.
Nucleic Acids
• Units - nucleotides.
• Nucleotides consist of a:
• Pentose sugar Phosphate group Nitrogen-containing base (purine or pyrimidine)
• Kinds
1. DNA RNA

MOVEMENT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE

• Concentration is the amount of solute in a solvent
• Concentration gradient:
– more solute in 1 part of a solvent than
another
Diffusion- movement of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration
Osmosis- movement of water across a semipermeable
membrane

Passive transport- movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy down a
concentration gradient
Diffusion – through membrane
Facilitated diffusion- through carrier proteins
Active transport- transport of substances across the membrane requiring
energy and going against the concentration gradient
SC.F.2.4.3
The student understands the mechanisms of change (e.g., mutation and natural selection) that lead to adaptations
in a species and their ability to survive naturally in changing conditions and to increase species diversity. (Also
assesses SC.D.1.4.4 and SC.F.1.4.2)
Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Haploid – 1 set of chromosomes
–Example: the humans have 23 different Results in 2 Diploid Cells (2N) 4 Haploid Cells (N)
chromosomes (n=23).
Diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes
-Human diploid cells, have 46 chromosomes (2n=46). Cells are Genetically Identical Genetically Different

Homologous – same chromosomes that each came

from the opposite sex parent Occurs in Somatic (Body) CellsSex Cells
chromatids - identical copies

Mitosis: Purpose is to preserve chromosome number.

Meiosis: Purpose is to create haploid gametes (sperm and egg), and to create new genotype combinations
 A process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the
separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.

The Cell Cycle

1. Interphase
a. G1
b. S DNA is Replicated
c. G2
2. Mitosis – division of the nucleus and chromosomes
a. prophase- preparation
b. metaphase- middle
c. anaphase- apart
d. telophase- terminate
3. cytokinesis- division of the cell and cytoplasm

 Meiosis usually involves 2 distinct stages

 Meiosis I
 Meiosis II

DNA AND RNA

• DNA is composed of nucleotides and is shaped like a double helix.
• A nucleotide has three parts: a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous
base.
• Bases always form complementary base pairs:
• adenine binds with thymine, and
• cytosine binds with guanine.

Replication - Complementary base pairing enables DNA to replicate, or

copy itself.
 DNA Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine Deoxyribose Phosphate
RNA Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil Ribose Phosphate

Genes, sections of DNA that code for a specific trait, are linked together on chromosomes.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
protein synthesis- process of manufacturing proteins
• Protein synthesis occurs in two stages: transcription and
translation.
• Transcription is the process by which information is copied from
DNA into a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Translation is the process by which the information from nucleic
acids is coded for amino acids.

• messenger RNA- carries coded instructions for protein synthesis

• ribosomal RNA- makes up the ribosome with other proteins
• transfer RNA- brings amino acids to the ribosome in the correct order to build new proteins
• codon- section of three bases in mRNA that code for an amino acid
• anticodon- section of three bases in tRNA that code for an amino acid

MUTATIONS
• A random change in an organism’s DNA is a mutation.
• A mutation can be beneficial, but it is usually harmful to or has no effect on the organism

DNA  mRNA  ribosomes + tRNA + amino acids = proteins

INHERITANCE
• genetics, the scientific study of heredity
• Since sexual reproducing organisms have two parents, then they have two forms of the same gene – one
from each parent
• alternate forms of genes are called alleles

• If both alleles from each parent are the same, then it is said to be homozygous (dominant or recessive)
• If they are different, then it is said to be heterozygous
• An individual’s genetic make-up is known as the genotype
 • The physical characteristics resulting from an individual’s genetic make-up is known as the phenotype.

Dominant genes-In cases in

which two or more forms
(alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist, some forms of the gene may be dominant and others may be
recessive.
• The dominant gene is the one that is expressed.

Incomplete dominance- effect of 2 alleles are combined

• Heterozygous phenotype is blend between the two homozygous phenotypes
o ex: red + white flowers = pink
Co-dominance- both traits are fully expressed
o ex: AB blood type

NATURAL SELECTION
• Natural selection; is the mechanisms for evolution.
• is the process by which individuals with inherited characteristics well-suited to
the environment leave more offspring on average than do other individuals.
• Genetic Variation is the source of Natural Selection

DNA is the blue-print for building ALL living things on planet Earth
DNA sequences are changed by random mutations,
radiation, viruses, chemicals, sexual reproduction, migration, geological events, etc.
Mutation: change in an organisms DNA, replaces an allele with a new version.
As a result there is variation within populations of a species.
Those individuals of a particular species with a phenotype (as a result of their genotype) that is more fit to
survive in a given environment has a better chance to reproduce.
Those individuals who reproduce more pass-on their genes at a higher frequency than those who do not.
As time passes, populations change through time….they evolve!

• Evolution is the process of change over time as a result of natural selection

• Evolutionary fitness: contribution of an individual (phenotype) to the next generation. Reproductive
success.