Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

BSTC 6001: THERAVADA BUDDHISM

THE RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL
BACKGROUND THAT LED TO THE
EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM
M B Orsborn (Shi Huifeng)

2006/10/16

INTRODUCTION:
In order to come to a more complete understanding of any new
philosophical or religious paradigm, it is essential to first understand the
context in which it arose. This is because, although a new movement, it must
of necessity use conventionally accepted language and forms of expression for
its elucidation. The context is primarily the philosophical and religious
zeitgeist at that time, but also includes other cultural, social and even political
aspects.
This brief essay will show how the teachings of Gautama the Buddha
were primarily expressed as a response to the two predominant philosophical
views of eternalism (sassatavada) and nihilism (ucchedavada). These views
were respectively regarded as the metaphysical underpinnings for the
practices of religious asceticism, and materialistic sensual indulgence.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Indian philosophy and religion have always been inextricably intertwined.
Religion is the practices and behavior leading to the summum bonum
(paramattha). Philosophy is the views underlying and justifying such practice.
As such, their aims are both soteriological in nature.
For many centuries preceding the Buddha, both of these aspects were

Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

dominated by the Vedic religion, based on the religious texts known as the
Vedas. These texts originally displayed a pantheistic view of the universe,
with various deities governing different aspects of the natural and
supra-natural world. The later Vedic texts were principally interested in the
use of formulae and ritual (mantra and kamma) to propitiate these deities and
derive benefit therein. The priestly social caste (brahmin) held power through
the socio-religious structure (varnrama-dharma) of the day, and it was thus in
their own vested interest to maintain such a structure and adherence to the
Vedic tradition.
Some four centuries before the Buddha, a new form of religious texts
known as the Upaniads (lit: close to the teacher) began to influence Indian
spiritual life. As the name implies, this was primarily a collection of
teachings from individual religious aspirants.
Non-homogeneous and
non-orthodox Vedic in views and practices, they were in two formats: those of
views derived from the practice of meditation (yoga); and those of views
derived from logic and reasoning (vittaka). They demonstrated an acceptance
towards new religious practices and view. They also drew the vision of the
ultimate goal away from that of the eternal souls unity with God-head
(Brahm), to unity with an impersonal absolute (brhman).
Another key factor in the religious climate was the ramana movement,
which arose due to socio-economic changes, and the freedom to question the
Vedas as showed by the Upaniadic tradition. Many who did not belong to the
traditional priestly class, most notably perhaps the governing classes (kattriya),
saw this as a means of engaging in philosophic and religious discussion and
practice. In a social climate that was very free and permissible towards
non-orthodox views, the ramana movement was a great catalyzing force in the
development of Indian philosophy and religion. Some noteworthy examples
include the Jaina religion, and the jvikas. Again, they tended to view an
impersonal absolute as the ultimate aim of the religious life, though tended to
use terms less traditionally Vedic in expression.
Of course, as in any human society, there were also various materialist
views (lokyata or crvka). Records and texts of these views are scarce,
although several proponents of this outlook did write such texts. These
views themselves are discussed in further detail below.

ETERNALISM AND ASCETICISM:

In general, those advocating a religious life, ie. those who followed the

Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

Vedas, the Upaniads and the various ramanas, propounded the view of
eternalism (sassatavada) as their philosophy. In particular, it referred to the
existence of an eternal and unchanging soul (atman), which had to be purified
of impurities, and / or reunited with a personal or impersonal God-head.
This soul was regarded as being separate from, and of a radically different
nature to the physical body. This physical body acted to obscure the religious
aspirants knowledge and vision of the soul. Based on such a metaphysical
soul theory, the prescribed religious practice was one of asceticism or
self-mortification (attakilamathnuyoga). This asceticism would then remove
or weaken the influence of the physical body, by burning away impurities,
knowledge and vision of the soul would be gained, and the aspirant would
achieve a unified state of eternal existence, knowledge and bliss.
The Buddha himself practiced such asceticism in the manner that was
current at the time. He fasted, or rather starved himself, tortured himself
through heat of flame and scourge of cold, engaged in nakedness, lived in
absolute solitude, and various other forms. Although he attained very
refined states of mental absorption and attainment there from, he nearly died
from the physical drain that this imposed. As such, he felt that he had not
achieved his ultimate goal of freedom from the cycle of life and death.

NIHILISM AND SENSUAL INDULGENCE:

The materialist philosophers at the time of the Buddha, and also several
members of the jvika group of ramanas, denied the validity of the practice of
the religious life. This was due to their denial of an eternal and unchanging
soul, and / or the denial of continuity after death in any form. In general,
they denied the validity of any forms of perception or knowledge beyond the
physical senses. In this sense, the materialists can be seen as denying the
existence of a soul, yet from another point of view, one could claim that to the
materialists, the physical body itself was the soul.
Whichever of these two philosophical views one takes regarding the
materialists concept of the soul, the logical conclusion from such views is that
they contended that the providing for the happiness and enjoyment of the
physical body was the summum bonum of human existence.
Although we are not told explicitly in the suttas about the Buddhas views
whilst living the life of a young prince, the descriptions of his lifestyle at the
time do strongly indicate that it was a lifestyle of sensual pleasure and joy.
We are told very clearly though, how the young prince came to view such

Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

pleasures as fleeting, and ultimately not worthwhile pursuing.

THE MIDDLE WAY OF PRACTICE:

After the Buddha had personally experienced both the materialistic
lifestyle of a prince, and the ascetic practice that was common at the time, he
abandoned both these courses of action. We can clearly see the Buddhas
response to such views in the first teaching that he gave, the Discourse on the
Turning of the Wheel of Dhamma (Dhammacakkappavattana sutta):
There are these two extremes that are not to be indulged in by one who
has gone forth. Which two? That which is devoted to sensual pleasure
with reference to sensual objects: base, vulgar, common, ignoble,
unprofitable; and that which is devoted to self-affliction: painful, ignoble,
unprofitable. 1
This clearly shows that he found these two extremes of behavior to be
unprofitable they did not lead to the goal. By neither indulging in sensual
pleasures, nor intentionally afflicting his own body, he nourished himself
physically and mentally, and proceeded on his quest through the practice of
meditative absorption (jhana).
The sutta continues to expound the Middle Way in terms of being the
Eightfold Noble Path, the fourth of the Four Noble Truths. This demonstrates
the Buddhas teaching as a dialectic positioned between the two extremes of
behavior, sensual indulgence and self-mortification.

THE MIDDLE WAY OF VIEW:

From this practice of absorption, the Buddha realized three specific forms
of higher knowledge, which are the basis of the view of the Middle Way. As
the Discourse on Two Sorts of Thinking (Dvedhavitakka Sutta) shows:
[1] I recollected my manifold past lives
[2] I saw beings passing away & re-appearing in accordance with
their kamma
[3] I discerned This is the cessation of fermentations... This is the way
leading to the cessation of fermentations 2
The first two realizations indicate that the Buddha certainly propounded
1
2

Thanissaro Bhikku, www.accesstoinsight.org SN 56:11. (Emphasis added.)

Thanissaro Bhikku, www.accesstoinsight.org MN 19.

Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

the continuity of a living being, through successive lives. We can also see that
following upon the first teaching was his second discourse, on the Discourse
on the Characteristic of Non-self (Anatta-lakkhana sutta), wherein we see the
Buddhas response to the concept of an eternal self or soul:
Form, monks, is not self. If form were the self, this form would not lend
itself to dis-ease. It would be possible [to say] with regard to form, 'Let this
form be thus. Let this form not be thus.' But precisely because form is not
self, form lends itself to dis-ease. And it is not possible [to say] with regard
to form, 'Let this form be thus. Let this form not be thus.'
[Likewise feeling, perception, mental fabrications, consciousness...]
Is form constant or inconstant?
Inconstant, lord.
And is that which is inconstant easeful or stressful?
Stressful, lord.
And is it fitting to regard what is inconstant, stressful, subject to
change as: 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'?
No, lord.
[Likewise feeling, perception, mental fabrications, consciousness...]
"Thus, monks, any body whatsoever that is past, future, or present; internal
or external; blatant or subtle; common or sublime; far or near: every body is
to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as: 'This is not mine.
This is not my self. This is not what I am.'
[Likewise feeling, perception, mental fabrications, consciousness...] 3
Clearly, the two above mentioned suttas demonstrate that the Buddha
taught a form of continuity without identity. Not only was the teaching of
not self an important aspect of the Buddhas Dhamma, the realization of this
truth was in fact a prerequisite for realization and liberation.
This continuity without identity was important for two reasons. The
continuity of existence was the basis for the moral life, in as far as one will
experience the results of their actions. The lack of identity not self was
the basis for the teaching of non-attachment. The goal was not an entity, nor
even a set view. In fact, contrarily, any fixed entity would prohibit and negate
the possibility of spiritual progress.

Thanissaro Bhikku, www.accesstoinsight.org SN 22:59. Emphasis added.

Essay 01 - Rel & Phil Background to Buddhism

CONCLUSIONS:
During the time period leading up to and surrounding the Buddha, two
predominant philosophical views and religious practices prevailed in India.
The first was the view of eternalism, the existence of a personal or impersonal
soul entity as distinct from the physical body. This view was accompanied
by the practice of asceticism, to release the soul from the cage of the physical
body. The second was the view of nihilism, wherein the physical body itself
was the essence of a human being. This view was accompanied by
exhortation to engage in the practice of materialism and sensual indulgence.
The Buddha perceived that both of these two views and practices were
faulty. The first led to self-mortification, and the lack of strength to pursue
worthy spiritual paths. The second lead to indulgence, a lowly path wherein
nothing higher than sense pleasures in the present life was possible.
Abandoning both of these extremes in view and practice, the Buddha
himself practice and taught the Middle Way. Its practice was neither
self-mortification nor self-indulgence, but the maintenance of the physical
body in as far as it was a tool for the practice of the spiritual life, while
engaging into morality and mental absorption. This practice in turn was
both based on and culminated in, the vision and insight that although there
was continuity of individual existence after death, none of the aggregates that
make up such individual existence had inherent or eternal existence. That is,
there is no such an entity as a soul or self.
The Buddhas teaching of the Middle Way, is completely expressed in the
Eightfold Noble Path, which is the Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation
of Suffering, fourth of the Noble Truths.