MAHVRA (MATHEMATICIAN)

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MAHVRA (MATHEMATICIAN)
Mahvra (or Mahaviracharya, "Mahavira the Teacher") was a 9thcentury Jain mathematician from Mysore,India.[1][2][3] He was the author
of Gaitasrasangraha (or Ganita Sara Samgraha, c. 850), which revised
theBrhmasphuasiddhnta.[1] He was patronised by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha.[4] He
separated astrology from mathematics. It is the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics.
[5]
He expounded on the same subjects on which Aryabhata and Brahmagupta contended, but he
expressed them more clearly. There are several points worth noting about the work of Mahavira. His
work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra and the emphasis in much of his text is on
developing the techniques necessary to solve algebraic problems. [6] He is highly respected among
Indian mathematicians, because of his establishment of terminology for concepts such as
equilateral, and isosceles triangle; rhombus; circle and semicircle.[7] Mahvra's eminence spread in
all South India and his books proved inspirational to other mathematicians in Southern India.[8] It was
translated into Telugu language by Pavuluri Mallana as Saar Sangraha Ganitam.[9]
He discovered algebraic identities like a3=a(a+b)(a-b) +b2(a-b) + b2.[3] He also found out the formula
for rCn as [n(n-1)(n-2)...(n-r+1)]/r(r-1)(r-2)...2*1.[10] He devised formula which approximated area and
perimeters of ellipses and found methods to calculate the square of a number and cube roots of a
number.[11] He asserted that thesquare root of a negative number did not exist.[12]

RULES FOR DECOMPOSING FRACTIONS

Mahvra's Gaita-sra-sagraha gave systematic rules for expressing a fraction as the sum of unit
fractions.[13]This follows the use of unit fractions in Indian mathematics in the Vedic period, and
the ulba Stras' giving an approximation of 2 equivalent to 1 + \tfrac13 + \tfrac1{3\cdot4} \tfrac1{3\cdot4\cdot34}.[13]
In the Gaita-sra-sagraha (GSS), the second section of the chapter on arithmetic is named kalsavara-vyavahra (lit. "the operation of the reduction of fractions"). In this, the bhgajti section
(verses 5598) gives rules for the following:[13]

To express 1 as the sum of n unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 75, examples in 76):[13]

rpakarn rpdys triguit har kramaa /

dvidvitryabhyastv dimacaramau phale rpe //

When the result is one, the denominators of the quantities

having one as numerators are [the numbers] beginning with
one and multiplied by three, in order. The first and the last are
multiplied by two and two-thirds [respectively].
1 = \frac1{1 \cdot 2} + \frac1{3} + \frac1{3^2} + \dots + \frac1{3^{n-2}} + \frac1{\frac23 \cdot 3^{n-1}}

To express 1 as the sum of an odd number of unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 77):[13]

1 = \frac1{2\cdot 3 \cdot 1/2} + \frac1{3 \cdot 4 \cdot 1/2} + \dots + \frac1{(2n-1) \cdot 2n \cdot 1/2} +
\frac1{2n \cdot 1/2}

To express a unit fraction 1/q as the sum of n other fractions with given numerators a_1, a_2, \dots,
a_n (GSS kalsavara 78, examples in 79):
\frac1q = \frac{a_1}{q(q+a_1)} + \frac{a_2}{(q+a_1)(q+a_1+a_2)} + \dots + \frac{a_{n-1}}{q+a_1+\dots+a_{n2})(q+a_1+\dots+a_{n-1})} + \frac{a_n}{a_n(q+a_1+\dots+a_{n-1})}

To express any fraction p/q as a sum of unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 80, examples in 81):[13]
Choose an integer i such that \tfrac{q+i}{p} is an integer r, then write
\frac{p}{q} = \frac{1}{r} + \frac{i}{r \cdot q}
and repeat the process for the second term, recursively. (Note that if i is always chosen to be
the smallest such integer, this is identical to the greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions.)

To express a unit fraction as the sum of two other unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 85, example in 86):[13]
\frac1{n} = \frac1{p\cdot n} + \frac1{\frac{p\cdot n}{n-1}} where p is to be chosen such that \frac{p\cdot n}{n1} is an integer (for which pmust be a multiple of n-1).
\frac1{a\cdot b} = \frac1{a(a+b)} + \frac1{b(a+b)}

To express a fraction p/q as the sum of two other fractions with given
numerators a and b (GSS kalsavara 87, example in 88):[13]
\frac{p}{q} = \frac{a}{\frac{ai+b}{p}\cdot\frac{q}{i}} + \frac{b}{\frac{ai+b}{p} \cdot \frac{q}{i} \cdot{i}} where i is to
be chosen such that pdivides ai + b

Some further rules were given in the Gaita-kaumudi of Nryaa in the 14th century.[13]
Mahvra, a 9th-century Indian mathematician, was the first to state that square roots of negative
numbers don't exist.[15]

New
Mahvra (or Mahaviracharya, "Mahavira the Teacher") was a 9thcentury Jain mathematician from Mysore, India.[1][2][3] He was the author
of Gaitasrasangraha (or Ganita Sara Samgraha, c. 850), which revised
the Brhmasphuasiddhnta.[1] He was patronised by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha.[4] He
separated astrology from mathematics. It is the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics.
[5]

He expounded on the same subjects on which Aryabhata and Brahmagupta contended, but he

expressed them more clearly. His work is a highly syncopated approach to algebra and the
emphasis in much of his text is on developing the techniques necessary to solve algebraic problems.
[6]

He is highly respected among Indian mathematicians, because of his establishment of terminology

for concepts such as equilateral, and isosceles triangle; rhombus; circle and semicircle. [7] Mahvra's
eminence spread in all South India and his books proved inspirational to other mathematicians

in Southern India.[8] It was translated into Telugu language by Pavuluri Mallana as Saar Sangraha
Ganitam.[9]
He discovered algebraic identities like a3=a(a+b)(a-b) +b2(a-b) + b3.[3] He also found out the formula
for nCr as [n(n-1)(n-2)...(n-r+1)]/r(r-1)(r-2)...2*1.[10] He devised formula which approximated area and
perimeters of ellipses and found methods to calculate the square of a number and cube roots of a
number.[11] He asserted that the square root of a negative numberdid not exist.[12]
Contents
[hide]

1 Rules for decomposing fractions

2 Notes

3 See also

4 References

Rules for decomposing fractions[edit]

Mahvra's Gaita-sra-sagraha gave systematic rules for expressing a fraction as the sum of unit
fractions.[13] This follows the use of unit fractions in Indian mathematics in the Vedic period, and
the ulba Stras' giving an approximation of 2 equivalent to
.[13]

In the Gaita-sra-sagraha (GSS), the second section of the chapter on arithmetic is named kalsavara-vyavahra (lit. "the operation of the reduction of fractions"). In this, the bhgajtisection
(verses 5598) gives rules for the following:[13]

To express 1 as the sum of n unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 75, examples in 76):[13]

rpakarn rpdys triguit har kramaa /

dvidvitryabhyastv dimacaramau phale rpe //
When the result is one, the denominators of the quantities having one as numerators are [the
numbers] beginning with one and multiplied by three, in order. The first and the last are multiplied by
two and two-thirds [respectively].

To express 1 as the sum of an odd number of unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 77):[13]

To express a unit fraction

numerators

as the sum of n other fractions with given

(GSS kalsavara 78, examples in 79):

To express any fraction

examples in 81):[13]
Choose an integer i such that

as a sum of unit fractions (GSS kalsavara 80,

is an integer r, then write

and repeat the process for the second term, recursively. (Note that if i is always chosen to be
the smallest such integer, this is identical to the greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions.)

To express a unit fraction as the sum of two other unit fractions

(GSS kalsavara 85, example in 86):[13]

where
is to be chosen such that
which

must be a multiple of

To express a fraction
given numerators

example in 88):[13]

is an integer (for

).

as the sum of two other fractions with

and

(GSS kalsavara 87,

where

is to be chosen such that

divides

Some further rules were given in the Gaita-kaumudi of Nryaa in

the 14th century.[13]

Mahavira (or Mahaviracharya meaning Mahavira the Teacher) was of the Jaina
religion and was familiar with Jaina mathematics. He worked in Mysore in southern
Indian where he was a member of a school of mathematics. If he was not born in
Mysore then it is very likely that he was born close to this town in the same region of
India. We have essentially no other biographical details although we can gain just a
little of his personality from the acknowledgement he gives in the introduction to his
only known work, see below. However Jain in [10] mentions six other works which he
credits to Mahavira and he emphasises the need for further research into identifying
the complete list of his works.
The only known book by Mahavira is Ganita Sara Samgraha, dated 850 AD, which
was designed as an updating of Brahmagupta's book. Filliozat writes [6]:This book deals with the teaching of Brahmagupta but contains both simplifications
and additional information. ... Although like all Indian versified texts, it is extremely
condensed, this work, from a pedagogical point of view, has a significant advantage
over earlier texts.
It consisted of nine chapters and included all mathematical knowledge of mid-ninth
century India. It provides us with the bulk of knowledge which we have of Jaina
mathematics and it can be seen as in some sense providing an account of the work of
those who developed this mathematics. There were many Indian mathematicians
before the time of Mahavira but, perhaps surprisingly, their work on mathematics is
always contained in texts which discuss other topics such as astronomy. The Ganita
Sara Samgraha by Mahavira is the earliest Indian text which we possess which is
devoted entirely to mathematics.
In the introduction to the work Mahavira paid tribute to the mathematicians whose
work formed the basis of his book. These mathematicians included Aryabhata
I, Bhaskara I, and Brahmagupta. Mahavira writes:-

With the help of the accomplished holy sages, who are worthy to be worshipped by the
lords of the world ... I glean from the great ocean of the knowledge of numbers a little
of its essence, in the manner in which gems are picked from the sea, gold from the
stony rock and the pearl from the oyster shell; and I give out according to the power
of my intelligence, the Sara Samgraha, a small work on arithmetic, which is however
not small in importance.
The nine chapters of the Ganita Sara Samgraha are:
1. Terminology
2. Arithmetical operations
3. Operations involving fractions
4. Miscellaneous operations
5. Operations involving the rule of three
6. Mixed operations
7. Operations relating to the calculations of areas
8. Operations relating to excavations
9. Operations relating to shadows
Throughout the work a place-value system with nine numerals is used or sometimes
Sanskrit numeral symbols are used. Of interest in Chapter 1 regarding the
development of a place-value number system is Mahavira's description of the number
12345654321 which he obtains after a calculation. He describes the number as:... beginning with one which then grows until it reaches six, then decreases in reverse
order.
Notice that this wording makes sense to us using a place-value system but would not
make sense in other systems. It is a clear indication that Mahavira is at home with the
place-value number system.
Among topics Mahavira discussed in his treatise was operations with fractions
including methods to decompose integers and fractions into unit fractions. For
example
2/17 = 1/12 + 1/51 + 1/68.

He examined methods of squaring numbers which, although a special case of

multiplying two numbers, can be computed using special methods. He also discussed
integer solutions of first degree indeterminate equation by a method called kuttaka.
The kuttaka (or the "pulveriser") method is based on the use of the Euclidean
algorithm but the method of solution also resembles the continued fraction process
of Euler given in 1764. The work kuttaka, which occurs in many of the treatises of
Indian mathematicians of the classical period, has taken on the more general meaning
of "algebra".
An example of a problem given in the Ganita Sara Samgraha which leads to
indeterminate linear equations is the following:
Three merchants find a purse lying in the road. One merchant says "If I keep the
purse, I shall have twice as much money as the two of you together". "Give me the
purse and I shall have three times as much" said the second merchant. The third
merchant said "I shall be much better off than either of you if I keep the purse, I shall
have five times as much as the two of you together". How much money is in the
purse? How much money does each merchant have?
If the first merchant has x, the second y, the third z and p is the amount in the purse
then
p + x = 2(y + z), p + y = 3(x + z), p + z = 5(x + y).
There is no unique solution but the smallest solution in positive integers is p = 15, x =
1, y = 3, z = 5. Any solution in positive integers is a multiple of this solution as
Mahavira claims.
Mahavira gave special rules for the use of permutations and combinations which was
a topic of special interest in Jaina mathematics. He also described a process for
calculating the volume of a sphere and one for calculating the cube root of a number.
He looked at some geometrical results including right-angled triangles with rational
sides, see for example [4].
Mahavira also attempts to solve certain mathematical problems which had not been
studied by other Indian mathematicians. For example, he gave an approximate
formula for the area and the perimeter of an ellipse. In [ 8] Hayashi writes:-

The formulas for a conch-like figure have so far been found only in the works of
Mahavira and Narayana.
It is reasonable to ask what a "conch-like figure" is. It is two unequal semicircles
(with diameters AB and BC) stuck together along their diameters. Although it might be
reasonable to suppose that the perimeter might be obtained by considering the
semicircles, Hayashi claims that the formulae obtained:... were most probably obtained not from the two semicircles AB and BC.