Indian mathematics
Main article: Indian mathematics
See also: History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
Statue of Aryabhata. As there is no known information regarding his appearance, any image of Aryabhata originates from an artist's conception.
The earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent is the Indus Valley Civilization that flourished between 2600 and 1900 BC in
the Indus river basin. Their cities were laid out with geometric regularity, but no known mathematical documents survive from this
civilization.[49]
The oldest extant mathematical records from India are the Shatapatha Brahmana (c. 9th century BC), which approximates the value
of π,[50] and the Sulba Sutras (c. 800–500 BC),geometry texts that used irrational numbers, prime numbers, the rule of
three and cube roots; computed the square root of 2 to one part in one hundred thousand; gave the method for constructing a circle
with approximately the same area as a given square,[51] solvedlinear and quadratic equations; developed Pythagorean
triples algebraically, and gave a statement and numerical proof of the Pythagorean theorem.[citation needed]
Pāṇini (c. 5th century BC) formulated the rules for Sanskrit grammar.[52] His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation,
and used metarules, transformations, andrecursion. Pingala (roughly 3rd-1st centuries BC) in his treatise of prosody uses a device
corresponding to a binary numeral system. His discussion of the combinatorics of meterscorresponds to an elementary version of
the binomial theorem. Pingala's work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called mātrāmeru).[53]
The Surya Siddhanta (c. 400) introduced the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and inverse sine, and laid down rules to
determine the true motions of the luminaries, which conforms to their actual positions in the sky.[54] The cosmological time cycles
explained in the text, which was copied from an earlier work, correspond to an average sidereal year of 365.2563627 days, which is
only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.25636305 days. This work was translated into to Arabic and Latin during the
Middle Ages.
In the 5th century AD, Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya, a slim volume, written in verse, intended to supplement the rules of
calculation used in astronomy and mathematical mensuration, though with no feeling for logic or deductive methodology. [55] Though
about half of the entries are wrong, it is in the Aryabhatiya that the decimal place-value system first appears. Several centuries later,
the Muslim mathematician Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Aryabhatiya as a "mix of common pebbles and costly crystals".[56]
In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem, Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for
the first time, in Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, he lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and decimal digit, and
explained theHindu-Arabic numeral system.[57] It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic
mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals. Islamic scholars carried
knowledge of this number system to Europe by the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the
world. In the 10th century,Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work contains a study of the Fibonacci sequence and Pascal's
triangle, and describes the formation of a matrix.[citation needed]
In the 12th century, Bhāskara II[58] first conceived differential calculus, along with the concepts of
the derivative, differential coefficient, and differentiation. He also stated Rolle's theorem (a special case of the mean value theorem),
studied Pell's equation, and investigated the derivative of the sine function. In the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama found
the Madhava–Leibniz series, and, using 21 terms, computed the value of π as 3.14159265359. Madhava and other Kerala
School mathematicians developed the concepts ofmathematical analysis and floating point numbers, and concepts fundamental to
the overall development of calculus, including the mean value theorem, term by term integration, the relationship of an area under a
curve and its antiderivative or integral, the integral test for convergence, iterative methods for solutions to non-linear equations, and
a number of infinite series, power series, Taylor series, and trigonometric series.[citation needed] In the 16th
century, Jyesthadeva consolidated many of the Kerala School's developments and theorems in the Yuktibhasa, the world's first
differential calculus text, which also introduced concepts of integral calculus. Mathematical progress in India stagnated from the late
16th century to the 20th century, due to political turmoil.
