History in Math TOPIC 8

ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL
INDIA
Kayla Ann T. Saron
Mariel Secong
Click to edit Master title style
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
• History of Mathematics in Ancient and Medieval
India
• The Hindu-Arabic place-value system and

arithmetic
• Geometry
• Equations and indeterminate analysis
• Combinatorics
• Trigonometry, Aryabhata's trig table
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HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS IN
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA
• Indian mathematicians developed some of the most important concepts in mathematics, including place-value
numeration and zero. By developing new techniques in arithmetic, algebra, and trigonometry, medieval Indian
mathematicians helped make modern science and technology possible. Their innovations were brought to the West
when treatises by Muslim scholars were translated into Latin.
• The years from A.D. 320 to about 500 were critical in the development of Indian civilization. In the
north, under the Gupta dynasty, Sanskrit culture thrived, great universities were founded, and the arts
and sciences flourished. In the south, where Hindu and Buddhist dynasties reigned, merchants seeking
new trade opportunities started colonies and spread Indian culture throughout surrounding regions,
especially Southeast Asia.
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Click to edit
• During Master
the Gupta title
period, the styleat Ujjain in central India was the heart of mathematical
observatory
scholarship, and many mathematical techniques were developed to meet the needs of astronomers. The
astronomical text the Surya Siddhanta, written by an unknown author some time around a.d. 400,
contains the first known tabulation of the sine function. Indian mathematicians also developed the
concept of zero, the base-10 decimal numeration system, and the number symbols, or numerals, we use
today.
• The entirety of Indian mathematics were compiled by the mathematician Aryabhata (476-550) in a
collection of verses called Aryabhatiya in 449. The book describes both mathematics and astronomy,
covering spherical trigonometry, arithmetic, algebra and plane trigonometry. Aryabhata calculated π to
four decimal places, computed the length of the year almost exactly, and recognized that the Earth was a
rotating sphere.
• The famous astronomer Brahmagupta (598-670) wrote important works on mathematics and astronomy,
including Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (The opening of the universe) and Khandakhadyaka. He studied
solar and lunar eclipses, as well as the motions and positions of the planets. Unlike Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta believed that the Earth was stationary, but he, too, calculated the length of the year with
remarkable precision.
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Click
Technicalto
termsedit Master
as found title
in the Sulbasultras style
and in later works are coined which interpret basic concepts of Indian nomenclature. A
clear general·statement of Pythagoras' Theorem, calculation of the value of .../2 by geometrical method and the classification of
geometrical figures on the basis of angles and sides have been pointed out to be notable contribution to geometry by the Indians in
the age of Sulbasultras ( 600 B. C. ). Brahmagupta's theorem relating to the determination of diagonals of cyclic quadrilateral and
his methods for the construction of a quadrilateral may also be regarded as remarkable achievements of Indian geometry.
The growth of algebra in India has been discussed with particular reference to symbols of operation, equation, rule of false
position, quadratic equation, indeterminate equations of first and second degree, progressive series, permutation and combination
and Pascal's triangle with binomial theorem.
A comprehensive interpretation of meru-prastiira scheme ( lOth century A. D. ) due to l'Ialayudha (commentator of Pmgala's
Chanda� Sutra -200 B. C. ) as forming the basis of binomial expansion for any positive integral exponent in algebra has been
given. The development of trigonometrical knowledge in ancient and medieval India has been discussed with particular reference
to trigonometrical formulae, sine table, value of rr and trigonometrical series. It has been shown that the Indians made a notable
addition to the knowledge of trigonometry after Ptolemy relating to trigonometrical formulae which was systematized into a
special branch of knowledge named jyotpatti (trigonometry). The work on trigonometrical series-rr, sine, cosine and tan was first
carried out by the Indians more than a century before Newton ( 1664 A. D. ) and Leibniz (1676 A.D.).
The Indian concepts of infinitesimal calculus both differential and integral appeared in the work of Bhaskara II ( 1150 A. D. ).
These are similar to those of Archimedes ( c. 225 B. C.), and shows in some respects an improvement upon Archimedes' as to the
infinitesimal character of the units chosen. Further development of this concept of infinitesimal ( integral ) calculus occurred in
YuktibhiiJii in connection with the summation of infinite series ( rr-series ) more than a century before Newton and Leibniz
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IMPACT
• The numeration system developed in India facilitated further advances in mathematics. Earlier ways of
writing numbers, such as Roman numerals, used symbols to represent individual quantities, and these
were added to determine the value. For example, X was the symbol for 10, and XXX was the symbol for
30, and 50 was L. Numbers expressed this way can be lengthy: 1,988 is MCMLXXXVIII. More to the
point, there is no convenient way to do computations with them. People who used Roman numerals and
other similar systems did their calculations with counting aids such as the abacus.
• In contrast, Hindu arithmetic used number symbols that went only from 1 to 9, and instead of using
more symbols for higher numbers, they introduced a place-value system for multipliers of 10. Each
place had an individual name: dasan meant the tens place, sata meant the hundreds place, and so on. To
express the number 235, the Hindus would write "2 sata, 3 dasan, 5". Seven hundred and eight would be
"7 sata, 8".
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1.Vedic Period ( 1500 B. C.-200 B. C. )Sntra period-an age of specialisation,
Vedic sources m Mathematics, Baudhayana, Apastamba, and other Sulba workers
and Vedariga Jyauti�a.
2. Post-Vedic Period ( c. 200 B. C.-400 A. D. )Jaina works, Kusumpura School,
Hindu works.
3. Early Medieval Period (c. 400-1200 A. D. )
4. Late Medieval Period ( c. 1200 A D.-1800 A D. )-
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THE
Click toHINDU-ARABIC
edit Master title style
PLACE-VALUE SYSTEM
 Numbers,
AND ARITHMETIC  Classification of Numbers,
 Indices,
 Fractions,
 Hindu-Arabic numerals are a decimal, or base-ten, place-value
number system with the ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as  Numerals,
fundamental building blocks. Each digit in a number has a place  Symbol for zero
value depending on its position.  and Place value, Eight Fundamental
 They originated in India in the 6th or 7th century and were introduced Operations, Rule of Three, Surd
to Europe through the writings of Middle Eastern mathematicians, Numbers and References.
especially al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi, about the 12th century.
 Indian mathematician Bhāskara made major contributions to algebra,
arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry
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ARITHMETIC
 The necessity for the development of a systematic method of counting in an organised social
life led to the birth of arithmetic in all countries at the dawn of civilization. The Babylonians
developed a sexagesimal system of expressing numbers in cuneiform writing on clay tablets.
The Egyptians developed a system of numeration, using hieroglyphic notation besides hieratic
and demotic ones. Fractions were a subject of great difficulty to the Egyptians as well as. to the
Babylonians, Greeks and Romans. Indians. were responsible for the introduction of the decimal
place-value system and more or less modern form of numerals with the symbol for zero, for the
development of simplified and straight forward methods of fundamental operations, and for the
calculation by rule of three. The Indian numerals with zero, the principle of position ( decimal
place-value ) and some of the fundamental operations found their way to Arabia by the efforts
of Abbasid Khalifs (8th to lOth century A.D. ) at Bagdad.
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NUMBERS
 The Sanskrit names for the counting numbers used in Vedic India from one to nine are : eka,
dvi, tri, catut, panca, sal, sapta, afta, nava. Besides 10, multiples of 10 upto 100, separate names
for numbers were recognised and named as follows : dasa ( 10 ) , dvi x ati (2 X 10 ) , tri x ati
( 3 x 10 ) ... etc. For larger numbers, ten and multiples of ten had formed the basis of
numeration.
 While the Greeks had no terminology for denomination above myriad ( 10" ) and the Romans
above the mill ( 108 ), the ancient Indians dealt freely with up to twelve denominations.
 • For expressing compound numbers lying between 10 and multiples of 10 up to 100, addition
of simple numbers (from 1 to 9) was made to the required multiples.
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NUMBERS
 For example
(=I+ 10= 11 ), ( = 7 + 2 x 1 0= 27 ) , ( =8+3 X 10=38) etc. Compound numbers above 100 were
expressed as follows : (=60x10^3 +7x10^2+9x10 +9=60799 ). In certain special cases, the principle of
subtraction was also in evidence. Thus number 19, 29 etc. were expressed as ( =20- 1=19 ), ( 30- 1=29)
respectively. In the Satra period, ekanna was changed to ekona. The principles explained above were also
followed in the I Sulha-satras and later works. In one instance, 972 is expressed as =l000-28 The
Babylonians ( c. 1600 B. C. ) introduced earlier sexagesimal scale of notation.
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Click to edit Master title
CLASSIFICATION style
OF NUMBERS
 Classification of numbers into odd and even first appeared in the Vedic literature. The classification
also appeared in the Jaina works but the authors did not consider unity a number like the ancient
Greeks. In the Jaina work, the numbers were classified also as numerable, innumerable and infinite.
The highest numerable number of the Jaina corresponds to Alef-zeros of the modern mathematics and
they also made an attempt to define number beyond Alef-zero. As regards innumerable number, names
of several sub-classifications were mentioned but the idea was not very clear. Idea of infinity was
expressed in connection with different dimensions namely infinity in one, two, three and infinite
dimensions.
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INDICES
 For representation of large numbers, different specifications seem to have been necessitated to indicate them
correctly. For instance, the raising of a number to its own power was technically known as varga salfivargita. First
a=- a a= b, . A^a say; second varga salfivargila of a=b^b=(a^a) =c, say. Third varga salfivargita of a=c etc. In this
process third varga salfivargita of 2 comes out to be ( 256 )256, a number higher than the number of electrons in
the universe. To express a large number, Jaina authors ( c. 300 B. C. ) employed powers of integers now known as
laws of indices, examples like: am x an=am+ n, (am )n=amn are found in their texts.
 1 Logarithms The expression log8 =3 means the number 8 can be divided by 2 three times. This was defined by
Napier ( 1550-1617 ) who has been given priority with regard to the publication of a table of logarithms and an
account of their meaning and use. In the earliest centuries of the Christian conceived the idea of logarithms to the
base 2, 3, 4, though no general use of the idea seems to have been made by them. As the number of times it can be
divided by 2, 3, 4, etc. For instance of x=log 2 x, of x=log 8 x etc.
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INDICES
 log m/n=log m - log n

 log (m. n)=log m+log n
 log2 (2) m=m
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FRACTION
 Few fractions are mentioned in the Vedic literature. But only the first two are common. The word pada was
derived from four parts of a stanza; a stanza in Sanskrit literature is divided into four parts from the Vedic times,
each of which is called a pada. The idea of a fraction of 1\ was derived from the increasing visibility ofthe moon
from the new moon to fullmoon covering the period of sixteen days and thus the moon is said to possess 16 kalns
or parts.
 ( a/b ± c/d ), (a/b of c/d ), (a/b ± c/d of a/b)
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THE
PLACE-VALUE SYSTEM
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THE
PLACE-VALUE SYSTEM
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THE
PLACE-VALUE SYSTEM
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Click to edit Master title style The Kharo, thi was particularly script of NorthWestern
India ( including Afganisthan and the Northern Punjab).
 It has already been discussed how the word numerals
It disappeared in the 3rd century A.D. In the Kharo~thi
on a decimal scale were used by the Vedic Indians to numerals, there were separate symbols for one, four,
express numbers. Regarding notational use, the ten, twenty and hundred. They were written from right
earliest example of the use of symbols for the to left with lower elements before the higher. For
expression of numbers in India is provided by example, the number 122 was expressed by symbols of
Kharoshi ( 250 B.C. ) and BrAhml ( 250 B. C. ) 2, 20, 100, and ~74 by 4, 10, 20, 20, 20, 200. But in
inscriptions. cases ofthe hundred and its multiples, the symbols for
the smaller elements were placed after the symbol for
 In this system the values of the notational places, hundred to denote multiplication. All these were
eka, dasa, sata etc. increase either from right to left common with the principles underlying other systems
or from left to right. The numbers are always read of Semitic numeral notation which we have discussed
from higher to lower order. This system is identical before. The Brahmi numeral system consiSted of
with the system which as we have seen appeared separate signs for one and four to nine, two and three
later amongst the Arabs during the tenth century of were denoted by repetitions of the symbols for one.
the Christian era. From there it went to Europe. And
this system has now been adopted by all the civilized
peoples of the world.
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GEOMETRY
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GEOMETRY
In ancient India, geometry was used extensively in constructing fire

altars without the use of modern measuring devices. By using ropes, they
were able to form right angles and various shapes and to transform one
shape into another with the same area.
As an essential part of their daily lives, ancient cultures knew a
considerable amount of geometry as practical measurement and as rules
for dividing and combining shapes of different kinds for building
temples, palaces and for civil engineering. For their everyday practical
purposes, people lived on a 'flat' Earth.
It was invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Indian
mathematicians. The system was adopted in Arabic mathematics by the
9th century. It became more widely known through the writings of the
Persian mathematician Al-Khwārizmī (On the Calculation with Hindu
Numerals 24
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GEOMETRY
Theorem of Square on the Diagonal The theorem is enunciated by
Baudhayana (c. 600 B. C. ) "The diagonal of a rectangle produces both
(areas) which its length and breadth produce separately"
That is, in a rectangle ABCD, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
• This is a most general statement and was enunciated first by Baudhayana.
The proposition is stated in almost identical terms also by Apastamba and
Katyayana
• Baudhayana further says that the theorem is easily verified from the
following relations :
3^2+ 4^2= 5^2
12^2 + 5^2 = 13^2
15^2 + 8^2 =17^2
7^2 + 24^2 = 25^2
12^2 +35^2 =37^2
15^2 + 36^2 = 39^2 27
THREE DISTINCT
PERIODS IN INDIAN
GEOMETRY
• The Pre-aryan Period
• The Vedic
• The Post-christian Period
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THREE DISTINCT
PERIODS IN INDIAN
GEOMETRY
• Evidence of the pre-Aryan period includes well-planned towns and geometric designs including circles, squares and triangles. A
link between this and the Vedic period can be found in the motif of a rectangle with the four sides curved inwards resembling a
stretched hide; in the former period it can be seen as a decorative pattern while in the later period it is seen in the shape of the
sacrificial altars or vedi. The vedi as well as the fireplaces or agni had such exact measurements and geometric shapes that they
were codified and became the Sulbasutras. However, it is not known from how far back such knowledge originated as the
sacrificial act is as old as the Vedas or older (Amma 5).
• In the post-Christian era Aryabhata I (b. 475 C.E.) dominated Indian mathematics although what exactly his contributions were is
somewhat unclear. Also important are Bhaskara I (c. 522 C.E.), Bramhagupta (628 C.E.) and Bhaskara II (b. 1114 C.E.). In this
period, geometry took somewhat of a backseat to the pursuit of astronomy and algebra.
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SULBASUTRA
GEOMETRY
• The Sulbasutras contain the geometry necessary for construction of the vedi and the agni for the obligatory and votive rites. These
in turn are a part of the Kalpasutras , which are attached to the Vedas as one of the six V dangas or limbs of the Vedas. It is likely
that the Sulbasutra sections were a part of the Srautasutras of the Yajur Veda, the Veda designed for the performance of sacrifices.
• The three most primitive agni, Garhapatya, Aavaniya and Daksinagni, are older than the Rg Veda and the Mahavedi was likely
known to the Indus Valley civilisation. It is generally recognised that the Pythagorean theorem was known in India at the latest in
the 8th century B.C.E. (Amma 14-15).
• The Sulbasutras deal with the correct construction of the vedi and agni including orientation, size, shape and areas and, as such,
they are not meant as mathematical theorems or proofs. The geometry in the Sulbasutras can be categorised into that which
expressly states theorems, constructions and implicit geometrical truths contained in constructions.
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Equations and
Indeterminate Analysis
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Click to edit Master title EQUATION
style
An equation is a mathematical statement with an ‘equal to’ (=) between two
mathematical expressions that have equal values.
For example: 3x+5=15. There are different types of equations like linear, quadratic,
cubic and etc.
Equations Is it an
equation
1. y = 8x-9 Yes
2. y + x-7 No, because

there is no
‘equal to’
symbol.
3. 7+2 = 10-1 Yes

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Indeterminate Analysis
• Redundant or indeterminate structures are not capable of being
analyzed by mere use of basic equilibrium equations. Along with
the basic equilibrium equations, some extra conditions are required
to be used like compatibility conditions of deformations etc. to get
the unknown reactions for drawing bending moment and shear
force diagrams.
• Examples of indeterminate structures are: fixed beams,
continuous beams, fixed arches, two hinged arches, portals,
multistoried frames, etc.
• Special methods like strain energy method, slope deflection
method, moment distribution method, column analogy method,
virtual work method, matrix methods, etc. are used for the analysis
of redundant structures. 35
Indeterminate
Click Structures
to edit Master title style
A structure is termed as statically indeterminate, if it cannot be
analyzed from principles of statics alone,
A statically indeterminate structure may be classified as:
1. Externally indeterminate, (example: continuous beams and frames

shown in figure-1(a) and (b)).
2. Internally indeterminate, (example: trusses shown in figure-1(c)
and (d)).
3. Both externally and internally indeterminate, (example: trussed
beams, continuous trusses shown in figure-1 (e) and (f)).
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Click to edit Master title style Figure 1
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Externally Indeterminate Structures
Click
• Ato edit Master
structure is usually title styleindeterminate or redundant if the reactions at the
externally
supports cannot be determined by using three equations of equilibrium,
.In the case of beams subjected to vertical loads only, two reactions can
be determined by conditions of equilibrium.
• Therefore, simply supported cantilever and overhanging beams shown in figure 2
are statically determinate structures.
Figure 2
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 Ifto
Click however a beamtitle
edit Master restsstyle
on more than two supports or in addition any
of the end support is fixed, there are more than two reactions to be
determined. These reactions cannot be determined by conditions of
equilibrium alone. The degree of indeterminacy or redundancy is
given by the number of extra or redundant reactions to be determined.
 The beam shown in figure 3 (a) is statically indeterminate to one

degree because there are three unknown reactions and statics has only
two reactions. The beam in figure 3(b) is statically redundant to two
degree. The beam in figure 3(c) is redundant to three degree and the
beam in figure 3(d) is redundant to four degrees.
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Figure 4
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Figure 5
The statically indeterminate beams and frames can be analyzed by strain energy
method, three moment equation, slope deflection method or moment distribution
method.
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Internally Indeterminate Structures
A truss is statically determinate internally if the total number of members
m=2j – 3
Where j= number of joints
A truss having more than (2j – 3) members is statically indeterminate or redundant,

the degree of indeterminacy or redundancy being equal to the number of extra
members.
Figure 6 43
ClickThus
to edit Master
the truss shown title style
in figure 6(a) is statically redundant by one degree because
there are 14 members and 8 joints.
Number of redundant members = m= 2j – 3

= 14 – (16 – 3) = 1
Similarly, the truss shown in figure 6(b) is internally redundant by two degrees.
The internally indeterminate trusses can be analyzed by strain energy method.

Number of redundant members = m= 2j – 3
= 14 – (16 – 3) = 1
Similarly, the truss shown in figure 6(b) is internally redundant by two degrees.
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Externally and Internally Indeterminate Structures
A truss is statically determinate, both externally and internally when
(a) All the reactions can be determined from the conditions of equilibrium, namely
,and
(b) The total number of members, m= 2j – 3, where j= number of joints.

• The truss shown in figure 7 is externally indeterminate to one degree because the
numbers of reactions to be determined are three, and the conditions of equilibrium
reduces to two, namely . This truss is also internally indeterminate to one
degree because there is one extra member.
• Number of redundant member = m – (2j – 3) = 22 – (2 x 12 – 3) = 1
• Such trusses can be analyzed by using strain energy method.

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COMBINATORICS
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Combinatorics is defined as the branch of mathematics that deals
with counting, arranging, selecting and classifying things. At its basis,
it can be understood as the study of the possible combinations of things.
As you can probably guess, combinatorics is one of the oldest branches of
math's, which you can trace from ancient India and China, through the
Middle Ages and Enlightenment, up to present day.
There are many concepts within the field of combinatorics.

These concepts include factorials, binomial theorem,
combinations, and permutations.
Factorials
Click to edit Master title style For example:
A factorial is a function in In a room, there are five people
mathematics with the symbol (!) and five chairs in a row. In how
that multiplies a number (n) by many different orders can people
every number that precedes it. sit on these chairs?
Solution:
Formula of Factorials n!
n! = 5!
Number of arrangements =n! n! = 5•4•3•2•1
n! = 120
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Permutations
A permutation is an arrangement of objects in a definite order. The members
or elements of sets are arranged here in a sequence or linear order.
We use the permutations formula to calculate the number of arrangements

when the order of arrangement is important.
There are two types of permutations
• When repetition is allowed

• When repetition is not allowed
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When repetition is allowed Suppose if you are given a
Click to edittoMaster
The formula title
calculate the style problem in which you have to
permutations when repetition is allowed choose 3 digits from a set of 6
is given below: digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) to
make a number. You will use the
following formula in this case to
calculate the number of
• n is the number of elements in a set. permutations:
• m is the number of elements that we
will select from the set.
Number of permutations =
=216
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When repetition is not allowed For example, consider the following
Click
The to edit
formula Master title
to calculate the style scenario:
permutations when repetition is not In a pool, there are 10 balls. You
allowed is given below: are asked to choose 5 balls from a
pool. In how many possible
arrangements, can you pick up the
pool balls?
Solution:
• n is the number of elements in a
set.
• m is the number of elements
that we will select from the set.
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Click to edit MasterCircular
title style Permutations
Circular permutation is the number of arrangements around a fixed circle.
It is also known as cyclic permutation.
There are two types of cyclic or circular permutations:

• When clockwise and anticlockwise orders are different
• When clockwise and anticlockwise orders are the same
The formula for cyclic permutations when clockwise and

anticlockwise orders are different is given below.
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COMBINATION
A combination is a mathematical technique that determines the number of
possible arrangements in a collection of items where the order of the
selection does not matter.
There are two types of combinations:
• Combinations without repetition

• Combinations with repetition
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Combination without repetition
The formula for finding the number of combinations without repetitions is given below:
n = total number of items to choose from

r = number of items we want to select Solution:
For example:
In a shop, there are 4 balls of

your favorite colors. You have
money to buy 2 of them only.
How will you choose 2 of
them? 55
Combinations
Click to edit Master title style with repetition
The formula to calculate the number of possible arrangements when the repetition
is allowed is given below:
Solution:
n = number of objects to choose from
k = number of items we want to choose
For example:
Suppose there are 4 different ice cream

flavors. You can only have two scoops. How
many variations are possible?
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Trigonometry,
Aryabhata's trig table
 Also called aryabhata i or aryabhata the elder, (born 476, possibly ashmaka or
kusumapura, india), astronomer and the earliest indian mathematician whose work and
history are available to modern scholars. he is also known as aryabhata I or aryabhata
the elder to distinguish him from a 10th-century indian mathematician of the same
name. he flourished in kusumapura—near patalipurta (patna), then the capital of the
gupta dynasty—where he composed at least two works, aryabhatiya (c. 499) and the
now lost aryabhatasiddhanta.
 Aryabhatasiddhanta circulated mainly in the northwest of india and, through the

sāsānian dynasty (224–651) of iran, had a profound influence on the development of
islamic astronomy. its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of
varahamihira (flourished c. 550), bhaskara i (flourished c. 629), brahmagupta (598–c.
665), and others. it is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each
day to midnight.
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• In ganita aryabhata names the first 10 decimal places and gives algorithms for obtaining square
and cubic roots, using the decimal number system. then he treats geometric measurements—
employing 62,832/20,000 (= 3.1416) for π, very close to the actual value 3.14159—and
develops properties of similar right-angled triangles and of two intersecting circles. using the
pythagorean theorem, he obtained one of the two methods for constructing his table of sines. he
also realized that second-order sine difference is proportional to sine. mathematical series,
quadratic equations, compound interest (involving a quadratic equation), proportions (ratios),
and the solution of various linear equations are among the arithmetic and algebraic topics
included. aryabhata’s general solution for linear indeterminate equations, which bhaskara i
called kuttakara (“pulverizer”), consisted of breaking the problem down into new problems
with successively smaller coefficients—essentially the euclidean algorithm and related to the
method of continued fractions.
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CONTRIBUTIONS
 Aryabhata discovered an approximation of pi, 62832/20000 = 3.1416. he also

correctly believed that the planets and the moon shine by reflected sunlight and that the
motion of the stars is due to earth's rotation.
 Not only zero, but aryabhatta also made many other contributions in mathematics. he
is also known as the father of indian mathematics due to his contributions. aryabhatta
discovered zero by using it in the decimal system. he made the concept of zero and
used it in large numbers.
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THANK YOU!
62

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ANCIENT AND

• The Hindu-Arabic place-value system and

• Equations and indeterminate analysis

• Trigonometry, Aryabhata's trig table

 log m/n=log m - log n

 ( a/b ± c/d ), (a/b of c/d ), (a/b ± c/d of a/b)

In ancient India, geometry was used extensively in constructing fire

2. y + x-7 No, because

3. 7+2 = 10-1 Yes

A statically indeterminate structure may be classified as:

1. Externally indeterminate, (example: continuous beams and frames

 The beam shown in figure 3 (a) is statically indeterminate to one

A truss having more than (2j – 3) members is statically indeterminate or redundant,

Number of redundant members = m= 2j – 3

The internally indeterminate trusses can be analyzed by strain energy method.

(b) The total number of members, m= 2j – 3, where j= number of joints.

• Number of redundant member = m – (2j – 3) = 22 – (2 x 12 – 3) = 1

• Such trusses can be analyzed by using strain energy method.

There are many concepts within the field of combinatorics.

We use the permutations formula to calculate the number of arrangements

There are two types of permutations

• When repetition is allowed

There are two types of cyclic or circular permutations:

The formula for cyclic permutations when clockwise and

There are two types of combinations:

• Combinations without repetition

n = total number of items to choose from

In a shop, there are 4 balls of

Suppose there are 4 different ice cream

 Aryabhatasiddhanta circulated mainly in the northwest of india and, through the

 Aryabhata discovered an approximation of pi, 62832/20000 = 3.1416. he also

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