Tutorial de Ecuaciones de Maxwell

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
RADAR SENSOR SYSTEMS

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS
FREQUENCY CONVERSION
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM:
A SHORT TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
AND
RELATED TOPICS
Release Date: 2013
PREPARED BY:
KENNETH V. PUGLIA PRINCIPAL

146 WESTVIEW DRIVE
WESTFORD, MA 01886-3037 USA
STATEMENT OF DISCLOSURE
THE INFORMATION WITHIN THIS DOCUMENT IS DISCLOSED WITHOUT EXCEPTION TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC.
E X H CONSULTING SERVICES BELIEVES THE CONTENT TO BE ACCURATE; HOWEVER, E X H CONSULTING
SERVICES ASSUMES NO RESPONSIBILITY WITH RESPECT TO ACCURACY OR USE OF THIS INFORMATION BY
RECIPIENT. RECIPIENT IS ENCOURAGED TO REPORT ERRORS OR OTHER EDITORIAL CRITIQUE OF CONTENT.
E X H CONSULTING SERVICES
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013
Page 1 of 13
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH
PAGE
PART 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 CONTENT AND OVERVIEW
3.0 SOME VECTOR CALCULUS
PART 2
4.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS
10
5.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR DYNAMIC FIELDS
14
6.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION
16
PART 3
7.0 SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS
21
8.0 TIME VARYING POTENTIALS AND RADIATION
27
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
Page
RADIATION FIELDS FROM A HERTZIAN DIPOLE
34
RADIATION FIELDS FROM A M AGNETIC DIPOLE
37
RADIATION FIELDS FROM A H ALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE
39
Page 2 of 13
"WE HAVE STRONG REASON TO CONCLUDE THAT LIGHT ITSELF INCLUDING

RADIANT HEAT AND OTHER RADIATION, IF ANY IS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
DISTURBANCE IN THE FORM OF WAVES PROPAGATED THROUGH THE
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD ACCORDING TO ELECTRO-MAGNETIC LAWS."
James Clerk Maxwell, 1864, before the Royal Society of London in 'A Dynamic Theory of the Electro-Magnetic Field'
" THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY OWES ITS ORIGINS TO MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS OF
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD "
" SINCE MAXWELL'S TIME, PHYSICAL REALITY HAS BEEN THOUGHT OF AS REPRESENTED BY
CONTINUOUS FIELDS, AND NOT CAPABLE OF ANY MECHANICAL INTERPRETATION. THIS
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTION OF REALITY IS THE MOST PROFOUND AND THE MOST FRUITFUL
THAT PHYSICS HAS EXPERIENCED SINCE THE TIME OF NEWTON "
ALBERT EINSTEIN
"MAXWELL'S IMPORTANCE IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT IS COMPARABLE TO

EINSTEIN'S (WHOM HE INSPIRED) AND TO NEWTON'S (WHOSE INFLUENCE HE CURTAILED)"
MAX PLANCK
" FROM A LONG VIEW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND - SEEN FROM, SAY TEN THOUSAND
YEARS FROM NOW THERE CAN BE LITTLE DOUBT THAT THE MOST SIGNIFICANT EVENT OF
THE 19TH CENTURY WILL BE JUDGED AS MAXWELL'S DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF
ELECTRODYNAMICS "
RICHARD P. FEYNMAN
Page 3 of 13
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Given the accolades of such prestigious scientists, it is
prudent to periodically revisit the works of genius;
particularly when that work has made such a profound
scientific and humanitarian contribution. Over the years, I
have been intensely fascinated by the totality of
Maxwells Equations. Part of the attraction is the extent of
features and aspects of their physical interpretation. It is
still somewhat surprising to me that four ostensibly
innocuous equations could so completely encompass and
describe with the exception of relativistic effects all
electromagnetic phenomenon. Herein was the motivation
for this investigation: a more intuitive understanding of
Maxwells Equations and their physical significance.
One of the significant findings of the investigation is the
extraordinary application uniqueness of vector calculus to
the field of electromagnetics. In addition, I was reminded
that our modern approach to circuit theory is, in reality, a
special case or subset of electromagnetics, e.g., the
voltage and current laws of Kirchhoff and Ohm, as well
as the principles of the conservation of charge, which
were established prior to Maxwells extensive and
unifying theory and documentation in A Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. Although not
immediately recognized for its scientific significance,
Maxwells revelations and mathematical elegance was
subsequently recognized, and in retrospect, is appreciated
one might say revered to a greater extent today with
the benefit of historical perspective.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), a Scottish physicist
and mathematician, produced a mathematically and
scientifically definitive work which unified the subjects of
electricity and magnetism and established the foundation
for the study of electromagnetics. Maxwell used his
extraordinary insight and mathematic proficiency to
leverage the significant experimental work conducted by
several noted scientists, among them:
Charles A. de Coulomb (1736-1806): Measured

electric and magnetic forces.
Andr M. Ampere (1775-1836): Produced a
magnetic field using current solenoid.
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855): Discovered the
Divergence theorem Gauss theorem and the
basic laws of electrostatics.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827): Invented the
Voltaic cell.
Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851): Discovered that
electricity could produce magnetism.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867): Discovered that a
time changing magnetic field produced an electric
field, thus demonstrating that the fields were not
independent.
Completing the sequence of significant events in the

history of electromagnetic science:
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879): Founded

modern electromagnetic theory and predicted
electromagnetic wave propagation.
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894): Confirmed
Maxwells postulate of electromagnetic wave
propagation via experimental generation and
detection and is considered the founder of radio.
I hope you enjoy and benefit from this brief encounter

with Maxwells work and that you subsequently
acknowledge and appreciate the profound contribution of
Maxwell to the body of scientific knowledge.
2.0 CONTENT AND OVERVIEW
The exploration begins with a review of the elements of
vector calculus, which need not cause mass desertion at
this point of the exercise. The topic is presented in a more
geometric and physically interpretive manner. The
concepts of a volume bounded by a closed surface and an
open surface bounded by a closed contour are utilized to
physically interpret the vector operations of divergence
and curl. Gauss law and Stokes theorem are approached
from a mathematical and physical interpretation and used
to relate the differential and integral forms of Maxwells
equations. The myth of Maxwells fudge factor is
dispelled by the resolution of the contradiction of
Amperes Law and the principle of conservation of
charge. Various forms of Maxwells equations are
explored for differing regions and conditions related to
the time dependent vector fields. Maxwells observation
with respect to the significance of the E-field and H-field
symmetry and coupling are mathematically expanded to
demonstrate how Maxwell was able to postulate
electromagnetic wave propagation at a specific velocity
ONE OF THE MOST PROFOUND SCIENTIFIC DISCLOSURES
TH
OF THE 19 CENTURY . The investigation concludes with
the development of scalar and vector potentials and the

significance of these potential functions in the solution of
some common problems encountered in the study of
electromagnetic phenomenon.
The presentation will consider only simple media. Simple
media are homogeneous and isotropic. Homogeneous
media are specified such that r and r do not vary with
position. Isotropic media are characterized such that r
and r do not vary with magnitude or direction of E or H.
Therefore: r and r are constants. Vectors are
conventionally represented with arrows at the top of the
letter representing the vector quantity, e.g. A .
Page 4 of 13

The International System of Units, abbreviated SI, is
used. A summary of the various scalar and vector field
quantities and constants and their dimensional units are
presented in Table I. Recognition of the dimensional
character of the various quantities is quite useful in the
study of electromagnetics.
The study of electromagnetics begins with the concept of

static charged particles and continues with constant
motion charged particles, i.e., steady currents, and
discloses more significant consequential results with the
study of time variable currents. Faraday was the first to
observe the results of time varying currents when he
discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction.
Table I. Field Quantities, Constants and Units

PARAMETER
Magnetic Flux Density
SYMBOL
Tesla (Weber/meter2)
B H
Conduction Current Density
Jc
Ampere/meter2
J c E
Displacement Current Density
Jd
Ampere/meter2
D
Jd
t
Magnetic Vector Potential
Volt-Second/meter
B A
Conductivity
Siemens/meter
Voltage
Volt
Current
Ampere
Power
Watt
Capacitance
Farad
Inductance
Henry
Resistance
Ohm
Permittivity (free space)
Farad/meter
8.85 1012
Permeability (free space)
Henry/meter
4 107
Speed of Light
meter/second
Free Space Impedance
Ohm
Poynting Vector
Watt/meter2
Electric Field Intensity

Electric Flux Density
Magnetic Field Intensity
DIMENSIONS
NOTE
Volt/meter
D E
Coulomb/meter2
Ampere/meter
Siemen 1
Volt Joule
Ohm
Coulomb
Ampere Coulomb
Watt Joule
Second
Amp Volt
Second
Farad Coulomb
Henry Volt Second
Ohm Volt
o o
Volt
Coulomb
Ampere
109
36
3.0 108
o
120
o

P EH
Page 5 of 13
PART 2
4.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS
The exploration of Maxwells Equations begins with the
study of static electricity, i.e. the study of electrically
charged particles at rest. The simplest example is that of a
single charge of value +q at the center of an imaginary
sphere of radius r as shown in Figure 4.1.
q 2
D
s ds s 4r 2 r r sin d d r
where ds r 2 sin d d r

d
s
dv
D
dv
D v
This significant result is Maxwells first equation! The
equation states that the divergence of the electric flux
density over a closed surface that bounds a volume is
equal to the enclosed volume charge density, v.
Noting that the electric field intensity vector has a single
radial direction, one may conclude that the field has no
rotational component and therefore:
E 0
(for the static case)
The result is Maxwells third equation and applies to the

static case.
Figure 4.1: Charged Particle at the Center of Sphere
The electric field intensity vector E , at the surface of an

imaginary sphere of radius r may be written using
Coulombs law:
q
r Volt/meter
4o r 2
Now consider a small magnet enclosed within an

imaginary sphere of radius, r, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Also illustrated are the magnetic flux density lines
emanating from one pole of the magnet and terminating
at the opposite pole. Observing from an additional
perspective, the magnetic flux density lines form closed
loops around the poles of the magnet.
In this case, the electric field is in a radial direction from
the charge in accordance with the unit vector ( r ) and

is directly proportional to the value of charge and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the charge and the observation point on the
surface of the sphere. Although discrete lines are depicted
to indicate the electric field intensity direction, one
should recognize that the electric field intensity is
continuous over the surface of the imaginary sphere. The
electric flux density vector is simply:
q
D o E
r Coulomb/me ter2
2
4r
Using the Divergence theorem:
sD ds v D dv
Figure 4.2: Magnet Enclosed within Imaginary Sphere
Because the net magnetic flux density over the surface of

the sphere is zero, using the divergence theorem one may
write:
d
s
B
dv 0
Page 6 of 13
B 0
The significant result in this case is the second of
Maxwells Equations and is valid in all cases. If one
considers the divergence of the electric flux density
vector, where the source of the electric flux density
vector was found to be the enclosed electric charge, this
is an intuitively satisfying result since magnetic charges
have not been found to exist. Once again, although the
discrete magnetic flux density lines are illustrated, one
should recognize that the magnetic flux density is
continuous over the surface of the imaginary sphere.
AMPERES LAW
Amperes law states that the line integral of the tangential
component of the magnetic intensity vector around a
closed path is equal to the net current enclosed by the
path. Figure 4.3 illustrates the geometry using a circular
path; however, the law also applies to an arbitrary path.
1.
The plane of the circumferential magnetic

intensity vector is normal to the current density
vector. This is an expectation derived directly
from the curl operation.
2.
The curl of the magnetic intensity vector is the

current density vector which is the source of the
magnetic intensity vector. In a manner of
speaking, the curl of the magnetic intensity
vector finds its source.
3.
Because the magnetic field intensity is

circumferential, i.e. rotational, one may
conclude that it has a non-zero curl.
BIOT-SAVART LAW
The Biot-Savart law provides a mathematical statement

of the Oersted observation that compass needles are
deflected in the presence of current carrying wires. The
Biot-Savart law may be written and interpreted with the
aid of Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.3: Illustration of Amperes Law

Figure 4.4: Geometry of Biot-Savart Law
Mathematically, one may write Amperes Law:

H
dl Ienc
c
Applying Stokes theorem:
d
l
H
ds I enc
The enclosed current may be written as a density:

I enc J dS
s
Now equating the integrands of the surface integrals:

H J
This significant result is the fourth of Maxwells
Equations for the static case. The equation also provides
three observations of intuitive significance with respect to
the vector curl operation.
The Biot-Savart law asserts that the incremental magnetic
intensity dH , produced at a point, P, from an
incremental current element Idl , is directly proportional

to the current and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the current element to the observation
point. In addition, the direction of the magnetic intensity
is that of the cross product of the incremental length and
the unit vector along the line to the observation point. As
one would expect, the direction of the incremental field is
normal to the plane formed by the incremental current
element and the unit vector from the current element to
the observation point.
I dl a
dH
4 2
This is the magnetic equivalent of Coulombs law and
may be utilized to gain additional insight with respect to
Page 7 of 13

the vector curl operation in the following manner.
Postulate a circular loop of radius , with current I and
located at the origin of the coordinate system in the Z=0
plane; the problem is to calculate the magnetic intensity
vector at the center of the loop. With respect to Figure
4.5, the solution requires closed contour integration of the
Idl product around the circumference of the loop.
Figure 4.5: Magnetic Field Intensity at the Origin of a Current

Loop in the Plane, Z=0.
The following equations may be written:
dl a d a a and a a a z
I 2 d I 2
H az
az
d
4 0 2
4 0
I
H
a z at the origin of the loop
2
In summary, Maxwells Equations for the static case are

summarized in Table II.
Table II: Maxwells Equations for Static Electromagnetic Fields

Equation
Number
Differential
Form
Integral Form
1.
D v
sD ds v vdv Qenc.
2.
B 0

B
ds 0
E 0

H Jc

E
dl 0
3.
4.
Comment
Gausss law for magnetic flux density
No rotation of the static electric field

intensity
Gausss Law; divergence finds the

source of the electric field vector, Qenc
cH dl s Jc ds Ienc.
Amperes law; curl finds the source of

the magnetic intensity vector, Ienc
5.
A
dv
A
v
s ds
Divergence theorem relates a volume

integral to a surface integral
6.
d
s
A
s
c dl
Stokes theorem relates a surface

integral to a line integral
A short commentary describes a significant attribute

pertinent to each equation.
3. A static electric field has no rotation.
1. The divergence of the electric flux density vector

over a surface is equal to the volume charge
density as the surface tends to zero; the integral of
the electric flux density vector over a closed
surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the
surface.
4. The flux of the curl of the magnetic intensity

vector over an open surface is equal to the current
density vector through the surface that is bounded
by the closed contour; the line integral of the
magnetic intensity vector around closed path that
bounds an open surface is equal to the current
through the surface.
2. The divergence of the magnetic flux density vector

is zero; field lines form closed loops; magnetic
charges do not exist.
5. The divergence of a vector field from a closed

volume is equal to the integral of the vector field
over the closed surface that bounds the volume;
Page 8 of 13

It is mainly with the hope of making these ideas the basis
of a mathematical method that I have undertaken this
treatise.
relates a volume integral to a surface integral;

relationship between the differential and integral
forms of Maxwells divergence equations.
6. The integral of the curl of a vector field over an
open surface is equal to the line integral of the
vector field along the closed path that bounds the
open surface; relates a surface integral to a line
integral; relationship between the differential and
integral forms of Maxwells curl equations.
What has been demonstrated to this point in the
investigation is that static charges produce electrostatic
fields and that constant velocity charges or steady currents
produce magneto-static fields. In the next section, what
will be demonstrated is that time varying currents produce
electromagnetic fields and waves.
FARADAYS LAW OF INDUCTION

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that a time varying
magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf) in a
closed path that is coupled or otherwise linked to the time
varying magnetic field. Stated mathematically:
emf
A time varying magnetic field may result from the

following factors:
1. Time changing field linking a stationary closed
path
2. Relative motion between a steady field and a
closed path
3. A combination of the above
5.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR DYNAMIC FIELDS

Dynamic electromagnetic fields are those fields that vary
with time. As will be demonstrated, the electric and
magnetic field intensity vectors must exist simultaneously
under dynamic conditions. Maxwell was the first to
discover this phenomenon and mathematically pursued
the electric and magnetic field coupling to the
electromagnetic wave propagation conclusion. Maxwell
was an accomplished mathematician and used his talent to
integrate the experimental results of Ampere and Faraday
into a concise mathematical formulation. Some passages
from Maxwell [9.] chastise Ampere and Faraday for their
lack of mathematical diligence beyond the experiments.
The emf may also be defined in terms of the integration

along a closed path:

emf E dl volts
Replacing the time varying flux density with the magnetic

flux density vector, one may write:

d
emf E dl B ds
dt s
MAXWELL WRITES ON FARADAY:

The method which Faraday employed in his researches
consisted in a constant appeal to experiment as a means of
testing the truth of his ideas and a constant cultivation of
ideas under the direct influence of experiment. In his
published researches we find these ideas expressed in a
language which is all the better fitted for a nascent science
because it is somewhat alien from the style of physicists
who have been accustomed to establish mathematical forms
of thought.
MAXWELL WRITES ON AMPERE:

The method of Ampere, however, though cast into an
inductive form, does not allow us to trace the formation of
the ideas which guided it. We can scarcely believe that
Ampere really discovered the law of action by means of the
experiments which he describes. We are led to suspect,
what, indeed, he tells us himself, that he discovered the law
by some process which he has not shewn us, and that when
he had afterwards built up a perfect demonstration he
removed all traces of scaffolding by which he had raised
it.
d
volts
dt
Recall Stokes theorem:
d
l
E
ds
Equating the integrands of the surface integrals:
B
E
t
This is Maxwells first curl equation in differential form
for the time varying condition. It should be noted that the
source of electric field intensity vector is the time
changing magnetic flux density1 vector and that the curl
of the electric field intensity vector is the same direction
as the changing magnetic flux density vector.
MAXWELL WRITES ON HIS WORK:

1
Recall that the curl of a vector field finds its source.
Page 9 of 13

PRINCIPLE OF THE CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
The principle of charge conservation states that the time
rate of decrease of charge within a volume must be equal
to the net rate of current flow through the closed surface
that bounds the volume; mathematically:

dQ
J c ds I
s
dt
The displacement current term is the result of a time

varying electric field a typical example of which is the
current within a capacitor when an alternating voltage is
impressed across the plates.
Maxwells second curl equation may now be written:
D
H J
t
Applying the divergence theorem to the above equation

yields:
d
s
J
dv
c
Writing the equation for the charge leaving a volume:
D
Jd
t
dQ
d
v dv
dt
dt v
The current within a capacitor provides a unique example

of the displacement current concept and also serves to
equate the conduction and displacement currents in a
typical circuit. Figure 5.1 illustrates an impressed AC
voltage across the plates of a capacitor.
By simple substitution, one may write:
d
d
J dv v dv
dt v
dt v
J v
t
This is the equation of continuity of current which
basically asserts that there can be no accumulation of
current at a point and is the basis of Kirchhoffs current
law. In the physical sense, the divergence of the current
density is equal to the time rate of decrease in volume
charge density. Recall that for the static case, Maxwells
equation for the curl of the magnetic intensity vector
Amperes law found the source to be the conduction
current density vector:
Figure 5.1-1:

H J
Executing the divergence of the above equation:
H J 0
This is a clear contradiction because it was just
demonstrated that the divergence of the current density
was equal to the time rate of change of volume charge
density.
Maxwell recognized the contradiction under time varying
conditions
and
mathematically
reconciled
the
inconsistency in the following manner:
H J Jd 0
J d J v
D
t
t
Figure 5.1-2: Displacement Current Example
Two surfaces are utilized with a common closed loop

integration path. Because the path of integration is
common, the current must be equal regardless of the
surface.
Table III summarizes the general form of Maxwells
equations for time varying electromagnetic fields. Notice
that the general form of the equations is also applicable to
the static case upon removal of the time dependence. The
integral forms of Maxwells equations illustrate well the
underlying physical significance while the differential, or
point form, are utilized more frequently in problem
solving. I have included a fifth equation the continuity
equation that is not normally represented as one of
Maxwells equations, however, the basic principle,
Page 10 of 13

significance and relevance to the final form cannot be
overemphasized.
Table III: Maxwells Equations for Dynamic Electromagnetic Fields
Equation
Number
Differential
Form
1.
D v

D
ds vdv Qenc.
2.
B 0
3.
B
E
t

B
ds 0
4.
5.
D
H Jc
t
J v
t
Integral
Form
cE dl

d
B ds
dt s

D
cH dl s J c t ds

d
s J c ds v J dv dt v v dv
Comment
Gausss Law; divergence finds the
source of the electric field vector
Gausss law for magnetic flux
density
Faraday law
Amperes law with Maxwells

correction for displacement current
Conservation of charge or continuity
equation
Page 11 of 13
TIME HARMONIC FIELDS

A time harmonic field is one that varies periodically
or in a sinusoidal manner with time. As in the case of
general AC circuit analysis, the phasor representation
of a sinusoidal signal provides a convenient and
efficient method of signal representation. Consider a
vector field that is a function of position and time,
e.g.:
A x, y, z , t
The vector field A x, y , z , t , may be conveniently

written as:
~
Ax, y, z, t Re Ae jt
Using the phasor notation, the differential and

integral forms of Maxwells equations for the time
harmonic case may be written as illustrated in Table
IV.
Table IV Maxwells Equations for Time Harmonic Fields
Differential Form for Time Harmonic Fields
REFERENCES
[1] Cheng,
D. K., Fundamentals of Engineering
Integral Form for Time Harmonic Fields
Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall, Upper
~ 1993.
Saddle River, New
D Jersey,
ds Q
s
[2] Griffiths, D. J., Introduction
to
ElectrodynamicsB
, 3 rd
Hall,
dsed.,
Prentice
0
s
Upper SaddleRiver, New Jersey,1999.
~
~
ET.,
dlFundamentals
j HofApplied
ds
[3] Ulaby, F.
c
s
Electromagnetics,
1999
~
~ ed., Prentice
~ Hall,
H Hall,
dl UpperJ Saddle
E dNew
s
Prentice
River,
c j
c
s
Jersey, 1999.
[4] Kraus, J. D., Electromagnetics, 4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
[5] Sadiku, M. N. O., Elements of
Electromagnetics, 3rd ed., Oxford University
Press, New York, 2001.
[6] Paul, C. R., Whites, K. W., and Nasar, S. A.,
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3rd
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998.
[7] Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. O., and Sands,
M., Lectures on Physics, vol. 2, AddisonWesley, Reading, MA, 1964.
[8] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 1, unabridged 3rd ed., Dover
Publications, New York, 1991.
[9] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 2, unabridged 3rd ed., Dover
[10] Harrington, R. F., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Engineering, Dover
~
D v
~
B 0
~
~
E jH
~ ~
~
H J c jE
END OF PART 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges Dr. Tekamul
Bber for his diligent review and helpful suggestions
in the preparation of this tutorial, and Dr. Robert Egri
for suggesting several classic references on
electromagnetic theory and historical data pertaining
to the development of potential functions.
The tutorial content has been adapted from material
available from several excellent references (see list)
and other sources, the authors of which are gratefully
acknowledged. All errors of text or interpretation are
strictly my responsibility.
AUTHORS NOTE
This investigation began some years ago in an
informal way due to a perceived deficiency acquired
during my undergraduate study. At the conclusion of
a two semester course in electromagnetic fields and
waves, my comprehension of the material was vague

and not well integrated with other parts of the
electrical engineering curriculum. In retrospect, I was
unable to envision and correlate the relationship of
the EM course material with other standard course
work, e.g. circuit theory, synthesis, control and
communication systems. It was not until sometime
later that I realized the value of EM theory as the
basis for most electrical principles and phenomenon.
In addition to my mistaken belief of EM theory as an
abstraction, the profound contribution of Maxwell
and others of his period and later to the body of
scientific knowledge could hardly be acknowledged
and appreciated. Experimentation as demonstrated
by Ampere and Faraday advances the art; while
Maxwells intellect and proficiency in applied
mathematics and imagination, has yielded a unified
theory and initiated the scientific revolution of the
20th century.
Page 12 of 13

[11] Schey, H. M., div grad curl and all that, 3rd
ed., W. W. Norton & Co., New York, 1997.
Maxwells original Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism is available on-line:
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmag02maxwrich
Page 13 of 13

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

RADAR SENSOR SYSTEMS

KENNETH V. PUGLIA PRINCIPAL

REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

2.0 CONTENT AND OVERVIEW

3.0 SOME VECTOR CALCULUS

5.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR DYNAMIC FIELDS

6.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION

8.0 TIME VARYING POTENTIALS AND RADIATION

RADIATION FIELDS FROM A HERTZIAN DIPOLE

RADIATION FIELDS FROM A M AGNETIC DIPOLE

RADIATION FIELDS FROM A H ALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

"WE HAVE STRONG REASON TO CONCLUDE THAT LIGHT ITSELF INCLUDING

"MAXWELL'S IMPORTANCE IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT IS COMPARABLE TO

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Charles A. de Coulomb (1736-1806): Measured

Completing the sequence of significant events in the

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879): Founded

I hope you enjoy and benefit from this brief encounter

the development of scalar and vector potentials and the

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

The study of electromagnetics begins with the concept of

Table I. Field Quantities, Constants and Units

Magnetic Flux Density

Conduction Current Density

Displacement Current Density

Magnetic Vector Potential

Permittivity (free space)

Permeability (free space)

Free Space Impedance

Electric Field Intensity

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

(for the static case)

The result is Maxwells third equation and applies to the

The electric field intensity vector E , at the surface of an

Now consider a small magnet enclosed within an

In this case, the electric field is in a radial direction from

the charge in accordance with the unit vector ( r ) and

Figure 4.2: Magnet Enclosed within Imaginary Sphere

Because the net magnetic flux density over the surface of

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

The plane of the circumferential magnetic

The curl of the magnetic intensity vector is the

Because the magnetic field intensity is

The Biot-Savart law provides a mathematical statement

Figure 4.3: Illustration of Amperes Law

Mathematically, one may write Amperes Law:

Applying Stokes theorem:

The enclosed current may be written as a density:

Now equating the integrands of the surface integrals:

The Biot-Savart law asserts that the incremental magnetic

intensity dH , produced at a point, P, from an

incremental current element Idl , is directly proportional

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Idl product around the circumference of the loop.

Figure 4.5: Magnetic Field Intensity at the Origin of a Current