INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

Inputs to, and outputs from, a PLC are necessary to monitor and control
a process. Both inputs and outputs can be categorized into two basic
types: logical or continuous. Consider the example of a light bulb. If it
can only be turned on or off, it is logical control. If the light can be
dimmed to different levels, it is continuous. Continuous values seem
more intuitive, but logical values are preferred because they allow more
certainty, and simplify control. As a result most controls applications
(and PLCs) use logical inputs and outputs for most applications. Hence,
we will discuss logical I/O and leave continuous I/O for later.
Outputs to actuators allow a PLC to cause something to happen in a
process. A short list of popular actuators is given below in order of
relative popularity.
Solenoid Valves - logical outputs that can switch a hydraulic or
pneumatic flow.
Lights - logical outputs that can often be powered directly from PLC
output boards.
Motor Starters - motors often draw a large amount of current when
started, so they require motor starters, which are basically large relays.
Servo Motors - a continuous output from the PLC can command a
variable speed or position.
Outputs from PLCs are often relays, but they can also be solid state
electronics such as transistors for DC outputs or Triacs for AC outputs.
Continuous outputs require special output cards with digital to analog
converters.
Inputs come from sensors that translate physical phenomena into
electrical signals. Typical examples of sensors are listed below in
relative order of popularity.
Proximity Switches - use inductance, capacitance or light to detect an
object logically.
Switches - mechanical mechanisms will open or close electrical contacts

for a logical signal.

Potentiometer - measures angular positions continuously, using
resistance.
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) - measures linear
displacement continuously using magnetic coupling.
Inputs for a PLC come in a few basic varieties, the simplest are AC and
DC inputs. Sourcing and sinking inputs are also popular. This output
method dictates that a device does not supply any power. Instead, the
device only switches current on or off, like a simple switch.
Sinking - When active the output allows current to flow to a common
ground. This is best selected when different voltages are supplied.
Sourcing - When active, current flows from a supply, through the output
device and to ground. This method is best used when all devices use a
single supply voltage.
This is also referred to as NPN (sinking) and PNP (sourcing). PNP is
more popular. This will be covered in detail in the chapter on sensors.
2.1.1 Inputs
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In smaller PLCs the inputs are normally built in and are specified when
purchasing the PLC. For larger PLCs the inputs are purchased as
modules, or cards, with 8 or 16 inputs of the same type on each card. For
discussion purposes we will discuss all inputs as if they have been
purchased as cards. The list below shows typical ranges for input
voltages, and is roughly in order of popularity.
12-24 Vdc
100-120 Vac
10-60 Vdc
12-24 Vac/dc

5 Vdc (TTL)
200-240 Vac
48 Vdc
24 Vac
PLC input cards rarely supply power, this means that an external power
supply is needed to supply power for the inputs and sensors. The
example in Figure 2.2 An AC Input Card and Ladder Logic shows how
to connect an AC input card.

Figure 2.2 An AC Input Card and Ladder Logic

In the example there are two inputs, one is a normally open push button,
and the second is a temperature switch, or thermal relay. (NOTE: These
symbols are standard and will be discussed later in this chapter.) Both of
the switches are powered by the positive/hot output of the 24Vac power
supply - this is like the positive terminal on a DC supply. Power is
supplied to the left side of both of the switches. When the switches are
open there is no voltage passed to the input card. If either of the switches
are closed power will be supplied to the input card. In this case inputs 1
and 3 are used - notice that the inputs start at 0. The input card compares
these voltages to the common. If the input voltage is within a given
tolerance range the inputs will switch on. Ladder logic is shown in the
figure for the inputs. Here it uses Allen Bradley notation for
ControlLogix. At the top is the tag (variable name) for the rack. The
input card (I) is in slot 3, so the address for the card is bob:3.I.Data.x,
where x is the input bit number. These addresses can also be given alias
tags to make the ladder logic less confusing.

Many beginners become confused about where connections are needed

in the circuit above. The key word to remember is circuit, which means
that there is a full loop that the voltage must be able to follow. In Figure
2.2 An AC Input Card and Ladder Logic we can start following the
circuit (loop) at the power supply. The path goes through the switches,
through the input card, and back to the power supply where it flows back
through to the start. In a full PLC implementation there will be many
circuits that must each be complete.
A second important concept is the common. Here the neutral on the
power supply is the common, or reference voltage. In effect we have
chosen this to be our 0V reference, and all other voltages are measured
relative to it. If we had a second power supply, we would also need to
connect the neutral so that both neutrals would be connected to the same
common. Often common and ground will be confused. The common is a
reference, or datum voltage that is used for 0V, but the ground is used to
prevent shocks and damage to equipment. The ground is connected
under a building to a metal pipe or grid in the ground. This is connected
to the electrical system of a building, to the power outlets, where the
metal cases of electrical equipment are connected. When power flows
through the ground it is bad. Unfortunately many engineers, and
manufacturers mix up ground and common. It is very common to find a
power supply with the ground and common mislabeled.

One final concept that tends to trap beginners is that each input card is
isolated. This means that if you have connected a common to only one
card, then the other cards are not connected. When this happens the other
cards will not work properly. You must connect a common for each of
the output cards.
There are many trade-offs when deciding which type of input cards to
use.
DC voltages are usually lower, and therefore safer (i.e., 12-24V).

 DC inputs are very fast, AC inputs require a longer on-time. For

example, a 60Hz wave may require up to 1/60sec for reasonable
recognition.
DC voltages can be connected to larger variety of electrical systems.
AC signals are more immune to noise than DC, so they are suited to
long distances, and noisy (magnetic) environments.
AC power is easier and less expensive to supply to equipment.
AC signals are very common in many existing automation devices.

Figure 2.3 Aside: PLC Input Circuits

2.1.2 Output Modules
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As with input modules, output modules rarely supply any power, but
instead act as switches. External power supplies are connected to the
output card and the card will switch the power on or off for each output.
Typical output voltages are listed below, and roughly ordered by
popularity.
120 Vac
24 Vdc
12-48 Vac
12-48 Vdc
5Vdc (TTL)
230 Vac
These cards typically have 8 to 16 outputs of the same type and can be
purchased with different current ratings. A common choice when
purchasing output cards is relays, transistors or triacs. Relays are the
most flexible output devices. They are capable of switching both AC and
DC outputs. But, they are slower (about 10ms switching is typical), they
are bulkier, they cost more, and they will wear out after millions of
cycles. Relay outputs are often called dry contacts. Transistors are
limited to DC outputs, and Triacs are limited to AC outputs. Transistor
and triac outputs are called switched outputs.
Dry contacts - a separate relay is dedicated to each output. This allows
mixed voltages (AC or DC and voltage levels up to the maximum), as
well as isolated outputs to protect other outputs and the PLC. Response
times are often greater than 10ms. This method is the least sensitive to
voltage variations and spikes.
Switched outputs - a voltage is supplied to the PLC card, and the card
switches it to different outputs using solid state circuitry (transistors,

triacs, etc.) Triacs are well suited to AC devices requiring less than 1A.
Transistor outputs use NPN or PNP transistors up to 1A typically. Their
response time is well under 1ms.

Figure 2.4 Aside: PLC Output Circuits

Caution is required when building a system with both AC and DC
outputs. If AC is accidentally connected to a DC transistor output it will
only be on for the positive half of the cycle, and appear to be working
with a diminished voltage. If DC is connected to an AC triac output it
will turn on and appear to work, but you will not be able to turn it off

without turning off the entire PLC.

A major issue with outputs is mixed power sources. It is good practice to

isolate all power supplies and keep their commons separate, but this is
not always feasible. Some output modules, such as relays, allow each
output to have its own common. Other output cards require that multiple,
or all, outputs on each card share the same common. Each output card
will be isolated from the rest, so each common will have to be
connected. It is common for beginners to only connect the common to
one card, and forget the other cards - then only one card seems to work!
The output card shown in Figure 2.5 An Example of a 24Vdc Output
Card (Sinking) is an example of a 24Vdc output card that has a shared
common. This type of output card would typically use transistors for the
outputs.

Figure 2.5 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card (Sinking)

In this example the outputs are connected to a low current light bulb
(lamp) and a relay coil. Consider the circuit through the lamp, starting at
the 24Vdc supply. When the output 07 is on, current can flow in 07 to
the COM, thus completing the circuit, and allowing the light to turn on.
If the output is off the current cannot flow, and the light will not turn on.
The output 03 for the relay is connected in a similar way. When the
output 03 is on, current will flow through the relay coil to close the
contacts and supply 120Vac to the motor. Ladder logic for the outputs is
shown in the bottom right of the figure. The notation is for an Allen
Bradley ControlLogix. The output card (O) is in a rack labelled sue in
slot 2. As indicated for the input card, it is good practice to define and
use an alias tag for an output (e.g. Motor) instead of using the full
description (e.g. sue:2.O.Data.3). This card could have many different
voltages applied from different sources, but all the power supplies would
need a single shared common.
The circuits in Figure 2.6 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card With a
Voltage Input (Sourcing) had the sequence of power supply, then device,

then PLC card, then power supply. This requires that the output card
have a common. Some output schemes reverse the device and PLC card,
thereby replacing the common with a voltage input. The example in
Figure 2.5 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card (Sinking) is repeated in
Figure 2.6 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card With a Voltage Input
(Sourcing) for a voltage supply card.

Figure 2.6 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card With a Voltage Input

(Sourcing)
In this example the positive terminal of the 24Vdc supply is connected to
the output card directly. When an output is on power will be supplied to
that output. For example, if output 07 is on then the supply voltage will
be output to the lamp. Current will flow through the lamp and back to
the common on the power supply. The operation is very similar for the
relay switching the motor. Notice that the ladder logic (shown in the
bottom right of the figure) is identical to that in Figure 2.5 An Example
of a 24Vdc Output Card (Sinking). With this type of output card only
one power supply can be used.
We can also use relay outputs to switch the outputs. The example shown
in Figure 2.5 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card (Sinking) and Figure
2.6 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card With a Voltage Input

(Sourcing) is repeated yet again in Figure 2.7 An Example of a Relay

Output Card for relay output.

Figure 2.7 An Example of a Relay Output Card

In this example the 24Vdc supply is connected directly to both relays
(note that this requires 2 connections now, whereas the previous example
only required one.) When an output is activated the output switches on
and power is delivered to the output devices. This layout is more similar
to Figure 2.6 An Example of a 24Vdc Output Card With a Voltage Input
(Sourcing) with the outputs supplying voltage, but the relays could also
be used to connect outputs to grounds, as in Figure 2.5 An Example of a
24Vdc Output Card (Sinking). When using relay outputs it is possible to
have each output isolated from the next. A relay output card could have
AC and DC outputs beside each other.

Switch Types

Chapter 4 - Switches

An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit. Switches are
essentially binary devices: they are either completely on (closed) or completely off (open).
There are many different types of switches, and we will explore some of these types in this
chapter.
Though it may seem strange to cover this elementary electrical topic at such a late stage in this
book series, I do so because the chapters that follow explore an older realm of digital technology
based on mechanical switch contacts rather than solid-state gate circuits, and a thorough
understanding of switch types is necessary for the undertaking. Learning the function of switchbased circuits at the same time that you learn about solid-state logic gates makes both topics
easier to grasp, and sets the stage for an enhanced learning experience in Boolean algebra, the
mathematics behind digital logic circuits.

The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact with
each other by the motion of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex,
containing electronic circuits able to turn on or off depending on some physical stimulus (such as
light or magnetic field) sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be (at least) a pair
of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected together by the switchs internal
contact mechanism (closed), or not connected together (open).
Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch, and they are
manufactured in several varieties:

Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions. The common
light switch used in household wiring is an example of a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will
come to rest in any of their lever positions, while others have an internal spring mechanism
returning the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is called momentary
operation.

Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and released.
Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring mechanism returning the button to its out, or
unpressed, position, for momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately
on or off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in their in, or
pressed, position until the button is pulled back out. This last type of pushbutton switches
usually have a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action.

Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select one of two or
more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector switches can either rest in any of their positions
or contain spring-return mechanisms for momentary operation.

A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or
more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is
pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol
represents the direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick hand
switches are commonly used for crane and robot control.

Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than
by the hand of a human operator. These motion-operated switches are commonly called limit
switches, because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning off the
actuating power to a component if it moves too far. As with hand switches, limit switches come
in several varieties:

These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a lever
pushed by the machine part. Often, the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing
the lever from being worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.

Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by a magnetic or highfrequency electromagnetic field. Simple proximity switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a
sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets close (typically 1 inch or less). More
complex proximity switches work like a metal detector, energizing a coil of wire with a highfrequency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. If a metallic part
(not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip the
monitoring circuit. The symbol shown here for the proximity switch is of the electronic variety,
as indicated by the diamond-shaped box surrounding the switch. A non-electronic proximity
switch would use the same symbol as the lever-actuated limit switch.

Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light source and
photocell. Machine position is detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light beam.
Optical switches are also useful in safety applications, where beams of light can be used to detect
personnel entry into a dangerous area.
In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical quantities with switches.
Such switches can be used to sound alarms, indicating that a process variable has exceeded
normal parameters, or they can be used to shut down processes or equipment if those variables
have reached dangerous or destructive levels. There are many different types of process
switches:

These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal weight mechanism
mounted on the shaft, or by some kind of non-contact detection of shaft motion such as optical or
magnetic.

Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied to a
piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure to mechanical force.

An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the bimetallic strip: a thin strip of two

metals, joined back-to-back, each metal having a different rate of thermal expansion. When the
strip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal expansion between the two metals causes it to
bend. The bending of the strip can then be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism. Other
temperature switches use a brass bulb filled with either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube
connecting the bulb to a pressure-sensing switch. As the bulb is heated, the gas or liquid expands,
generating a pressure increase which then actuates the switch mechanism.

A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid level in an tank
rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically conductive, the liquid itself can be used as a
conductor to bridge between two metal probes inserted into the tank at the required depth. The
conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of relay triggered by a small
amount of current through the conductive liquid. In most cases it is impractical and dangerous to
switch the full load current of the circuit through a liquid.

Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid materials such as wood chips,
grain, coal, or animal feed in a storage silo, bin, or hopper. A common design for this application
is a small paddle wheel, inserted into the bin at the desired height, which is slowly turned by a
small electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height, the material prevents the
paddle wheel from turning. The torque response of the small motor than trips the switch
mechanism. Another design uses a tuning fork shaped metal prong, inserted into the bin from
the outside at the desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant frequency by an electronic
circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil assembly. When the bin fills to that height, the solid
material dampens the vibration of the fork, the change in vibration amplitude and/or frequency
detected by the electronic circuit.

Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in excess of a certain
threshold, usually with a small paddle or vane which is pushed by the flow. Other flow switches
are constructed as differential pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop across a restriction
built into the pipe.

Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection, is the nuclear switch.
Composed of a radioactive source material and a radiation detector, the two are mounted across
the diameter of a storage vessel for either solid or liquid material. Any height of material beyond
the level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength of radiation reaching the
detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector can be used to trigger a relay mechanism to
provide a switch contact for measurement, alarm point, or even control of the vessel level.

Both source and detector are outside of the vessel, with no intrusion at all except the radiation
flux itself. The radioactive sources used are fairly weak and pose no immediate health threat to
operations or maintenance personnel.
As usual, there is usually more than one way to implement a switch to monitor a physical process
or serve as an operator control. There is usually no single perfect switch for any application,
although some obviously exhibit certain advantages over others. Switches must be intelligently
matched to the task for efficient and reliable operation.

REVIEW:

A switch is an electrical device, usually electromechanical, used to control continuity

between two points.

Hand switches are actuated by human touch.

Limit switches are actuated by machine motion.

Process switches are actuated by changes in some physical process (temperature, level,
flow, etc.).

Sensor
A sensor is a device which is capable of converting any physical quantity to
be measured into a signal which can be read, displayed, stored or used to

control some other quantity. This signal produced by the sensor is equivalent
to the quantity to be measured. Sensors are used to measure a particular
characteristic of any object or device. For example a thermocouple, a
thermocouple will sense heat energy (temperature) at one of its junction and
produce equivalent output voltage which can be measured by a voltmeter.
More the temperature rise, higher the voltage read by the voltmeter. All
sensors need to be calibrated with respect with some reference value or
standard device for accurate measurement. Below is the figure of a

thermocouple.

Note that a transducer and

a sensor are not the same. In the above given example of thermocouple. The
thermocouple acts as a transducer but the additional circuits or components
needed like the voltmeter, a display etc together from a temperature sensor.
Hence the transducer will just convert the energy from one form to another
and all the remaining work is done by the additional circuits connected. This
whole device forms a sensor. Sensors and transducers are closely related to
each other.

Characteristics of Sensors
A good sensor should have the following characteristics 1. High Sensitivity:
Sensitivity indicates how much the output of the device changes with unit
change in input (quantity to be measured). For example the voltage of a
temperature sensor changes by 1mV for every 1C change in temperature
than the sensitivity of the sensor is said to be 1mV/C. 2. Linearity: The output
should change linearly with the input. 3. High Resolution: Resolution is the
smallest change in the input that the device can detect. 4. Less Noise &
Disturbance. 5. Less power consumption.

Types of Sensors
Sensors are classified based on the nature of quantity they measure. Following
are the types of sensors with few examples. 1. Acoustic & sound sensors
e.g.: Microphone, Hydrophone.

2. Automotive sensors e.g.: Speedometer, Radar gun, Speedometer, fuel ratio meter.

3. Chemical Sensors e.g.: Ph sensor, Sensors to detect presences of different gases or

liquids.
4. Electric & Magnetic Sensors e.g.: Galvanometer, Hall sensor (measures flux density),
Metal detector.
5. Environmental Sensors e.g.: Rain gauge, snow gauge, moisture sensor.
6. Optical Sensors e.g.: Photodiode, Phototransistor, Wave front sensor.
7. Mechanical Sensors e.g.: Strain Gauge, Potentiometer (measures displacement).
8. Thermal & Temperature sensors. e.g.: Calorimeter, Thermocouple, Thermistor, Gardon
gauge.
9. Proximity & Presences sensors A proximity or presences sensor is the one which is able
to detect the presences of nearby objects without any physical contact. They usually emit
electromagnetic radiations and detect the changes in reflected signal if any. e.g.: Doppler
radar, Motion detector.
Further classification can be done based on the principle of operation and nature of output
signal (analog or digital).