Proceedings The Knowledge City

PROCEEDINGS
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
The Knowledge City:

Spirit, Character and Manifestation
13th-14th NOVEMBER 2007
MEDAN INDONESIA
Scientific Committee:
Abdul Ghani Bin Saleh, Prof., BE, Bsc, PhD. (USM)
Julaihi Bin Wahid, Assoc. Prof., BArch, MArch , PhD. (USM)
Gunawan Tjahjono, Prof., Ir., MArch, PhD. (UI)
Alip Bin Rahim, Assoc. Prof., Bsc, MSc, PhD.(USM)
Tjuk Kuswartojo, Ir. (ITB)
Edited by:
Morida Siagian, Ir., MURP
Syamsul Bahri, Ir., MT
Dwira Nirfalini Aulia, Ir., M.Sc
Basaria Talarosha, Ir., MT
Imam Faisal Pane, ST., MT
Novrial, Ir., M. Eng
Salmina Wati Ginting, ST., MT
Beny O.Y. Marpaung ST, MT
Published by:
Departement of Architecture
University of Sumatera Utara
Medan-Indonesia
i
USU Press
Art Design, Publishing & Printing
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Medan, Indonesia
Telp. 061-8213737; Fax 061-8213737
Kunjungi kami di:
http://usupress.usu.ac.id
07
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ISBN: 979 458 313 8
Perpustakaan Nasional: Katalog Dalam Terbitan (KDT)
Proceeding International Seminar The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and

Manifestation 13th-14th November 2007. Medan--Indonesia; Edited by Morida
Siagian [et.al]--Medan: USU Press, 2007
xvi, 483 p.: ilus.: 24
Bibliografi
ISBN: 979-458- 313-8
Dicetak di Medan, Indonesia
ii
List of Contributors
No.
1.
Name
Agus Budi Purnomo
Nationality
Indonesia
2.
Ari Rahadini
Indonesia
3.
Arya Ronald
Indonesia
4.
Astuti
Indonesia
5.
6.
Azizah Hanim Nasution

Budi Arlius Putra
Indonesia
Indonesia
7.
Dedes Nur Gandarum
Indonesia
8.
Dhani Mutiari
Indonesia
9.
Dwira Nirfalini Aulia
Indonesia
10.
E. Edwards Mckinnon
Singapore
11.
12.
Galih Widjil Pangarsa

Gerarda Orbita Ida Cahyandari
Indonesia
Indonesia
Organisation
Trisakti University Research Center : Jalan
Kiai Tapa, Grogol, Jakarta Barat;
Telp.0215663232 ext 141-144; Email:
agusbudi@dnet.net.id
Majoring in Architecture , Civil and
Structural Engineering Department,
Semarang State University, Kampus
Sekaran Gedung E2 Lantai 1
Gunungpati, Semarang, Central Java,
Indonesia; Phone. (024) 8508102; Fax.
(024) 8508102;
Email: ayik12@yahoo.com;
Home address: Srondol Bumi Indah K14,
Semarang;
Mobile phone: 08562668344
Department of Architecture and Planning,
Faculty of Engineering, Gadjah Mada
University, Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta 55281;
Email: aryaronald@ugm.ac.id,
arya211143@yahoo.co.id,
aryaronald@yahoo.com;
Mobile phone: 08156887829
Research Centre for Human Settlement;
Bukit Idaman Kav 72 Bandung 40142;
Phone: 022 2002144 (Home); (Mobile):
0816616751; Email:
sasti@bdg.centrin.net.id
Email : adeanasti@yahoo.com
Pengurus Ikatan Arsitek Indonesia Daerah
Jambi, Pegawai PU Kabupaten Bungo,
Dosen Luar Biasa FT UNBARI Jambi, Jl.
Slamet Riyadi, Jambi 36122
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Civil
Engineering and Planning Trisakti
University, Jl. Kiai Tapa no.1 Grogol,
Jakarta Barat 11440;
Tel/Fax 021 5684643; Email:
Dedesng@yahoo.com
Department of Architecture, Engineering
Faculty of Surakarta Muhammadiyah
University ; Email:
dhani_mutiari@yahoo.com
Magister Architecture of Engineering,
School of Postgraduate Study, University of
Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia;
Email : citina @ indosat.net.id
Asia Research Institute, NUS;
Email: <ramasintas1@attglobal.net>
Email : galih.wp@gmail.com
Engineering, AtmaJaya Yogyakarta
University; Jl. Babarsari 44, Yogyakarta
55281; Tel.(0274) 487711 ext.1153; Email:
idach@mail.uajy.ac.id
iii
13.
Handinoto
Indonesia
14.
15.
16.
Hendaru Sadyadharma
Henry Sitorus
Hinijati Widjaja
Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia
17.
18.
19.
Dr., Huzili Hussin

Ida I. Gede Raka
I Made Benyamin
Malaysia
Indonesia
Indonesia
20.
Dr. Izaidin Abd. Majid
Malaysia
21.
Irwansyah Harahap
Indonesia
22.
23.
24.
Jansen H. Sinamo
Johannes Widodo
Laksmi Gondokusumo
Siregar
Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia
25.
Lita Nasution
Indonesia
26.
L. Edhi Prasetya
Indonesia
27.
Prof. Dr. Mohd. Taib Hj. Dora
Malaysia
iv
Departement of Architecture, Faculty of

Civil Engineering and Planning, Petra
Christian University, Jl. Siwalankerto 142144, Gd. P. LT 6, Surabaya 60236;
Telp (031) 8439040, 8494830-31, 2983372;
FAX. (031) 8417658; Email:
handinot@peter.petra.ac.id
Email : hendarusadyadharma@yahoo.com
Email : sitorhen@yahoo.com
Lecturer of Landscape Architecture Trisakti
University Indonesia ,Address: Jl. Kenari I
A 6/ 22 Pondok Sejahtera Tangerang
15000 Indonesia; Telephone and fax:
Office (62 -021) 5663232 and Fax : 0215602575; Mobile (62-021) 70105039;
Email: hinijatiwidjaja@plasa.com
Email: huzili@unimap.edu.my
Email: raka@bdg.centrin.net.id
Dosen Fakultas Ekonomi, dan Ketua
Program Studi Ekonomi Sumberdaya,
Program Pascasarjana,Universitas
Hasanuddin, Makassar;
Alamat : Jalan Panampu 2, Lr. II, No.A-4,
Makassar, 90211, Sul-Sel; Telp./Fax. :
0411- 453475; Email :
imadebenyamin@yahoo.com
Centre for Languages and Human
Development, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka; Karung Berkunci 1200,75450, Ayer
Keroh, Melaka, Malaysia; Tel: 6062333071; Fax: 606-2333144;
Email: izaidin@utem.edu.my
Phone : 08126050625 / 081631163414;
Email : suarasama@yahoo.com
Email : jansensinamo@cbn.net.id
Email : jwidodo@nus.edu.sg
Department of Architecture, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Indonesia,
Kampus UI - Depok 16424; Tel. : [021] 786
3512; Fax: [021] 786 3514; Email:
laksmisiregar@yahoo.com
Program Doktor Pengelolaan Sumberdaya
Alam dan Lingkungan SPs USU. Address :
Jln. Karya Setuju No. 22 Medan, Medan.
Telp. (061) 6614021/081361682949
Department of Architecture, Pancasila
University; Jl. Srengseng Sawah,
Jagakarsa, Jakarta Selatan; Telp.(021)
7864730 ext. 15/30; Fax (021) 7270128;
Email: prastyan@yahoo.com
Universiti Teknikal Kebangsaan Malaysia
Locked Bag 1200,Ayer Keroh,
75450 Melaka, Malaysia; Tel: +606 233
3371; Fax: +606 233 3369;
Mobile: +6 012 603 3700 ; Email:
mohdtaib@utem.edu.my
28.
29.
30.
Ir. Mindo Siagian, MSc.

M. Ridwan Kamil
Nurmaidah
Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia
31.
Nurtati
Indonesia
32.
Ngakan Ketut Acwin

Dwijendra
Indonesia
33.
Qomarun
Indonesia
34.
Rini Raksadjaya
Indonesia
35.
36.
Rudolf Sitorus
Samuel Hartono
Indonesia
Indonesia
37.
38.
Sismudjito
Soni Pratomo
Indonesia
Indonesia
39.
Suharman Hamzah
Indonesia
40.
Suparti Amir Salim
Indonesia
41.
Syafiatun Siregar
Indonesia
42.
Teguh Utomo Atmoko
Indonesia
Email: siagian_mindo@yahoo.co.id
Email: urbane@cbn.net.id
Staf Pengajar Universitas Medan Area;
Email: midah_zizi@yahoo.com
Department of Architecture, Institut
Teknologi Nasional-Bandung; Email:
nts_80@yahoo.com
Lecturer of Engineering Faculty,
Architecture Department, Udayana
University Bali; Email:
acwindwijendra@yahoo.com
Architecture Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Muhammadiyah University of
Surakarta, Indonesia; Jl. A. Yani Tromol
Pos 1, Kartasura, Surakarta 57171; Phone:
0271-717417 Ext 225; Email:
qomarun@ums.ac.id
Program Studi Arsitektur SAPPK ITB, Jl.
Ganesha 10 Bandung 40191, Lecturer.
Architecture Design Research Group. Ph.
022 2504962; Fax 022 2530706; Email
address: rinirr@rad.net.id
Email : sitorusrudolf@yahoo.com
Departement of Architecture, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Planning, Petra
Christian University, Jl. Siwalankerto 142144, Gd. P. LT 6, Surabaya 60236;
Telp (031) 8439040, 8494830-31, 2983372;
FAX. (031) 8417658; Email:
samhart@peter.petra.ac.id
Phone : 08163116344
Dosen Tetap Fakultas Teknik Universitas
Batanghari Jambi, Jl. Slamet Riyadi, Jambi
36122; Phone: 0741668280;
Fax:074165598; Alamat: Jl. A. Thalib RT 08
No. 55 Jambi 36124; HP. 08127477535;
Email: sonipratomo@yahoo.com
Construction Management Laboratory, Civil
Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Hasanuddin
University,Makassar, South Sulawesi; Telp.
0411-587636, Fax. 0411-586015; Email:
suharmanhz@yahoo.com
Lecturer, KK-PP / SAPPK-ITB; Prodi
Arsitektur-ITB, Labteks IX, Jl. Ganesa no.
10, Bandung; Phone: (022) 2504 962; Fax:
(022) 2530 705; Home Address: Kopo
Permai III, Blok F12 / 13, Bandung 40239;
HP: 0812 2182 389; Email :
bupar@bdg.centrin.net.id;
bupar@ar.itb.ac.id
Staf pengajar UNIMED;
Email : syafiatunsiregar@yahoo.co.id
Kampus UI - Depok 16424; Tel.: [021] 786
3512; Fax: [021] 786 3514; Email:
tiua552003@yahoo.com
43.
Triatno Yudo Harjoko
Indonesia
44.
45.
Wan Burhanuddin
Widiastuti
Malaysia
Indonesia
46.
Wirsal Hasan
Indonesia
47.
Wiwik D Pratiwi
Indonesia
48.
Yohanes Basuki Dwisusanto
Indonesia
vi

Kampus UI - Depok 16424; Tel.: [021] 786
3512; Fax: [021] 786 3514; Email:
gotty@eng.ui.ac.id
Email: wburhan@alum.mit.edu
Udayana University, Kampus Bukit
Jimbaran, Bali; Perum Padang Galleria No.
67, Denpasar Bali; Phone: (0361) 734312;
Mobile: (081) 557 669 12; Email:
Wiwied@ar.unud.ac.id dan
syamsul_alam_paturusi@yahoo.fr
Lecture, Fakultas Kesehatan Masyarakat,
Universitas Sumatera Utara; Jl. Universitas
Kampus USU; Program Doktor
Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan
Lingkungan SPs USU; Jl. Mustafa 18
Medan ; Telp. 061-6611627; HP.
0819863979; Email: wirsal@yahoocom
School of Architecture, Planning and Policy
Development
Institut Teknologi Bandung; Alamat :Jl.
Ganesha 10 Bandung 40132; ph.+62 22
2504962 fx.+62 22 2530705;
Email : wdpratiwi@ar.itb.ac.id
Engineering and Planning Parahyangan
University; Jalan Sariwangi 14A
Parongpong Kabupaten Bandung; Telp
022-2017932; HP. 08122350359;
Email: jbase@home.unpar.ac.id
Preface
The progress of urban planning and urban design in most textbooks and
seminars in Indonesia has relatively hardly discussed cities from spiritual point
of view. This view is a perspective that goes beyond intellectual and technical
aspects, transcends commercial and economical dimensions, and surpasses
the material and sensorial features.
The spiritual approach has to do with meaning, vision, and values that
held dear by those who are involved in designing a city, and especially for those
who are destined to live there. Spirituality makes us stronger since its relating
us to the vital element of this life, more visionary since its connecting us with the
glorious dimension of this universe, more affectionate because its resonating us
by the loving grace of our Creator The Great Designer, and wiser because its
inspiring us by the wonder of His creation that spread out with enchant.
In this perspective, the work of designing a city like all other
professions is a sacred duty or Gods calling for us, not a mere side job, let
alone a rush rush project.
The spiritual poverty has brought our cities into the trap of banal egoism
and brutal commercialism that breeds violence and all kinds of urban criminals.
There have been so many cities, very successful in increasing their local
revenues, but very poor in terms of space quality, cultural heritage appreciation,
and respect for people. Developing a city is so often treated as merely drafting a
city plan or urban design, building industrial complexes or business centers and
land expansion or sea reclamation. This phenomenon is getting worse because
of the poor understanding of the spiritual dimension that mentioned above.
The spiritual approach would provide spirit to the knowledge we
commonly use in designing a city. Now, it is not just the knowledge driven by
mathematical intelligence, but also the knowledge that considers even adopts
philosophical and religious concepts, emotion and aspiration understanding, as
well as culture and urban anthropology.
Having understood this new knowledge, then the design process can be
proceed to the making step, that is how a city is made and produced. Without
this knowledge, a city will fail to express something civilized that have a
character laden with spiritual values. A city might functions as a machine of
living, an artefact of culture, a production place, or a social entity. But more than
that, a city should have a character and honour of its own since they are the
reflection of the soul and aspirations of its dwellers. Futhermore, as a cultural
product, a city should be able to facilitate the development and growth of its
people behaviour towards nobility.
This seminar is held for those noble purposes. With colleagues from all
fields of knowledge, we collect ideas, concepts, and experiences to develop and
spread the idea of knowledge city wishing the idea of this seminar can
donate the discourse of urban planning which finally improve the quality of
human life.
vii
We welcome you, share your ideas and hope what we have done with all
our heart will be heard with heart. Thank you.
The organizing comitee of International Seminar The Knowledge City: Spirit,
Character, and Manifestation,
Departemen Arsitektur Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan - Indonesia
viii
Programme
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR The Knowledge City:
Spirit, Character, and Manifestation
Medan, 13th - 14th November 2007
DAY 1 : Tuesday, 13th November 2007
08.00 08.30
08.30 09.00
09.00 09.30
09.30 10.00
10.00 10.45
10.45 12.30
12.30 13.30
13.30 14.00
14.00 15.00
15.00 15.30
15.30 16.00
16.15 17.00
17.00 17.30
Registration
Welcoming Speeches:
Chairman
: Morida Siagian, Ir , MURP
Rector of University of Sumatra Utara
: Chairuddin P. Lubis, Prof., DTM & H, SpAK
Governour of North Sumatera Province
: Rudolf Pardede, Drs.
Key Note Speech: Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X
Coffee Break
Presentations of Invited Speeches (1)
10.00 10.15
Johannes Widodo, Dr.
10.15 10.30
Jansen H. Sinamo
10.30 10.45
Galih Widjil Pangarsa, Dr.
Moderator : Abdul Ghani Bin Saleh, Prof., BE, Bsc, PhD.
Discussion Time
Lunch Break
13.30 13.45
Wan Burhanuddin, Prof.
13.45 14.00
Ida I. Gede Raka, Prof. Dr.
Moderator : Julaihi Bin Wahid, Assoc. Prof., BArch, MArch , PhD.
Discussion Time
Coffee Break
15.30 15.45
M. Ridwan Kamil, ST. MUD.
15.45 16.00
Rudolf Sitorus, Ir. MLA.
16.00 16.15
Irwansyah Harahap, MA.
Moderator : Rithaony Hutajulu, MA.
Discussion Time
Resume
ix
DAY 2 : Wednesday, 14th November 2007

Paralel session Call for Paper
Member will be divide become 2 parallel groups with schedule
below:
08.30 09.00
09.00 12.00
Registration
Call for Papers
09.00 09.15
Group II
Topological Comparison of
Palace City of Mataram
and Aceh in the 17th
Century
Agus Budi Purnomo
Jogjakarta and
Cakranegara: An Initial
Study on Two Capitals of
the Last Kingdoms in the
Archipelago (Until the 18th
Century) Which were
Designed Based on the
Local Traditional City
Planning
Handinoto and Samuel
Hartono
Re-Emphasize Urban
Linkage Continuity as An
Effort for Conservating
Panggung Krapyak
Yogyakarta
L. Edhi Prasetya, Dharma
Widya
Transformation of Spiritual
Concepts in Urban Space
Widiastuti
09.15 09.30
Symbolism: The
Configuration of A City
Arya Ronald
09.30 09.45
Civic Buildings and Public

Places as Reflection of the
Human Spirit of
Togetherness
Teguh Utomo Atmoko
Discussion
Transformation of
Classical Chinese City
Planning: Case on
Surakarta and Bandung
Dhani Mutiari, Nurtati
09.45 10.00
10.00 10.15
Group I
10.15 10.30
An Organism Named Solo

(The Concept of City as
Genetics)
Qomarun and Arya Ronald
10.30 10.45
The Influence of Cultural

Sensitivity Toward Human
Development Ecosystem
Astuti
Discussion
The Existence of Balinese
Traditional Culture Value
on Denpasar City
Development
Ngakan Ketut Acwin
Dwijendra
A Study on Residential
Preference in Suburban
Areas of Medan, Case
Study: Kelurahan Gedung
Johor Kecamatan Medan
Johor Kota Medan and
Kelurahan
Delitua
Kecamatan Namorambe
Kabupaten Deli Serdang
Syafiatun Siregar
Characteristics Study
Resident Living of Slum
Settlement on River Bank,
Case Study: Asahan River,
Tanjung Balai, North
Sumatera
Nurmaidah
10.45 11.00
11.00 11.15
11.15 11.30
11.30 11.45
12.00 13.00
13.00 16.15
11.45 12.00
Lunch Break
Call for
Papers
13.00 13.15
13.15 13.30
13.30 13.45
13.45 14.00
14.00 14.15
14.15 14.30
Discussion
City as A Human
Development Ecosystem:
Exploring the
Characteristics of An
Entrepreneurial Region
Izaidin Abdul Majid, Mohd.
Taib Dora, Prof. Dr.,
Kamariah Ismail, Dr., Huzili
Hussin.
Invaluable Cultural
Heritage at Risk: An
Appeal for the
Conservation of Important
Archaeological Sites at
Kota Cina & Deli Tua
E. Edwards Mckinnon
The Relation of Urban
Ecology of Symbolism in
Morphology (City Shape
and Structure) of
Semarang City
Ari Rahadini
Discussion
Discussion
Bandung Colonial City
Revisited
Rini Raksadjaya
The Jambinese Melayu

Settlement Pattern
Soni Pratomo, Budi Arlius
Putra
Urban Ecology
Lita Nasution
Pembangunan Perumahan
dan Permukiman Nasional:
Permasalahan, Harapan
dan Tantangan
Mindo Siagian
Urban Social Diversity,
Urban Self Image, and
Inquiry Paradigm
Approach
Dedes Nur Gandarum
Understanding the
Dualism in City Planning
Laksmi Gondokusumo
Siregar
Discussion
Discussion
City as An Urban Social

Diversity: A Case Study of
Rukun Tetangga in Kuala
Lumpur and Selangor
Prof. Dr. Mohd. Taib Hj.
Dora, Dr. Izaidin Abd. Majid,
Dr. Raja Roslan Raja Abd.
Rahman, Norliah Kudus,
Zawiah Mat, Noor Maslian
Othman
Identification of
Denunciating Consumers
to Developer After Housing
The Knowledge City:

Whose Knowledge? A
Case Study of Jakarta
Communitys Green
Behavior Management to
Sustainable City
Azizah Hanim Nasution and
Hendaru Sadyadharma
Historical Background of
City Establishment and
Some Problems
Underlying Its
Development Process
Sismudjito
Discussion
Design as An Instrument
to Improve the Quality Life
of the Poor: Issues for
Research
Suparti Amir Salim
Materializing
Environmentally Oriented
City*
xi
14.30 15.00
15.00 15.15
15.15 15.30
15.30 15.45
15.45 16.00
16.15 16.30
16.30
xii
16.00 16.15
Reviewings
& Conclusion
Closing The
Seminar
Take Over
Suharman Hamzah
Understanding Urban
Kampong in Indonesian
Urbanity, Case Study:
Kampongs in the City
Center of Bandung
Discussion
Gated Community as A
Social Segregation in
Housing Estate in Medan
Traditional Fort of Keraton
Yogyakarta and Sacred
Axis Influenced Social and
Political Development in
Colonial and Modern
Period
Gerarda Orbita Ida
Cahyandari
Functional Transformation
in Fort of Yogyakarta
Palace, A Case of
Occupying Adaptability in
Historical Area
Dina Poerwoningsih and
Pindo Tutuko
I Made Benyamin
Discussion
Discussion
Multicultural Heritages in
A City as Productive
Tourism Places
Wiwik D Pratiwi
Discussion
Spirit Acculturation of
Tangerang City Existence
Hinijati Widjaja
Slum Area on Deli River
Bank
Wirsal Hasan and Edhy
Mirwandono
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Introduction
Programme
Contents
Page
iii
vii
viii
ix
xiii
Part One: THE KNOWLEDGE CITY: SPIRIT, CHARACTER,

AND MANIFESTATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Cosmopolitan Spirit and its Manifestation in Southeast

Asian Cities
Johannes Widodo
Manusia, Kota dan Etos Pembangunan
Jansen H. Sinamo
Towards A Nusantara City
The Production of Knowledge City
Wan Burhanuddin
Developing City with Character: What A University Can Do?,
Case of Indonesia
Ida I. Gede Raka
Alam, Meramu Kota: Spice Creates the Space
Rudolf Sitorus
Huta dan Kota: Apa Maknanya untuk Kita?
Irwansyah Harahap
1
13
22
34
57
65
74
Part Two: CITY AS A COSMIC SYMBOLISM

8.
Topological Comparison of Palace City of Mataram and Aceh in

the 17th Century
Agus Budi Purnomo
9. Symbolism: The Configuration of A City
Arya Ronald
10. Jogjakarta and Cakranegara: An Initial Study on Two Capitals
of the Last Kingdoms in the Archipelago (Until the 18 th Century)
Which were Designed Based on the Local Traditional City
Planning
Handinoto and Samuel Hartono
11. Re-Emphasize Urban Linkage Continuity as An Effort for
Conservating Panggung Krapyak Yogyakarta
L. Edhi Prasetya, Dharma Widya
91
100
114
130
xiii
Part Three: CITY AS A SPIRITUAL MANISFESTATION

12. Civic Buildings and Public Places as Reflection of the Human
Spirit of Togetherness
Teguh Utomo Atmoko
13. Transformation of Classical Chinese City Planning: Case on
Surakarta and Bandung
Dhani Mutiari, Nurtati Soewarno
14. Transformation of Spiritual Concepts in Urban Space
Widiastuti
15. The Existence of Balinese Traditional Culture Value on
Denpasar City Development
Ngakan Ketut Acwin Dwijendra
143
151
162
178
Part Four: CITY AS A HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ECOSYSTEM

16. An Organism Named Solo (The Concept of City as Genetics)
Qomarun and Arya Ronald
17. The Influence of Cultural Sensitivity Toward Human
Development Ecosystem
Astuti
18. City as A Human Development Ecosystem: Exploring the
Characteristics of An Entrepreneurial Region
Izaidin Abdul Majid, Mohd. Taib Dora, Prof. Dr., Kamariah Ismail,
Dr., Huzili Hussin.
19. Invaluable Cultural Heritage at Risk: An Appeal for the
Conservation of Important Archaeological Sites at Kota Cina &
Deli Tua
E. Edwards Mckinnon
20. The Relation of Urban Ecology of Symbolism in Morphology
(City Shape and Structure) of Semarang City
Ari Rahadini
21. The Jambinese Melayu Settlement Pattern
Soni Pratomo, Budi Arlius Putra
22. Pembangunan Perumahan dan Permukiman Nasional:
Permasalahan, Harapan dan Tantangan
Mindo Siagian
23. A Study on Residential Preference in Suburban Areas of
Medan, Case Study: Kelurahan Gedung Johor Kecamatan
Medan Johor Kota Medan and Kelurahan Delitua Kecamatan
Namorambe Kabupaten Deli Serdang
Syafiatun Siregar
24. Characteristics Study Resident Living of Slum Settlement on
River Bank, Case Study: Asahan River, Tanjung Balai, North
Sumatera
Nurmaidah
xiv
193
206
217
230
239
252
252
265
279
25. Bandung Colonial City Revisited

Rini Raksadjaya
26. Communitys Green Behavior Management to Sustainable City
Azizah Hanim Nasution and Hendaru Sadyadharma
27. Historical Background of City Establishment and Some
Problems Underlying Its Development Process
Sismudjito
28. Urban Ecology
Lita Nasution
289
297
306
313
Part Five: CITY AS AN URBAN SOCIAL DIVERSITY

29. Urban Social Diversity, Urban Self Image, and Inquiry Paradigm
Approach
Dedes Nur Gandarum
30. City as An Urban Social Diversity: A Case Study of Rukun
Tetangga in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor
Prof. Dr. Mohd. Taib Hj. Dora, Dr. Izaidin Abd. Majid, Dr. Raja
Roslan Raja Abd. Rahman, Norliah Kudus, Zawiah Mat, Noor
Maslian Othman
31. Identification of Denunciating Consumers to Developer After
Housing Take Over
Suharman Hamzah
32. Understanding Urban Kampong in Indonesian Urbanity, Case
Study: Kampongs in the City Center of Bandung
33. Gated Community as A Social Segregation in Housing Estate in
Medan
34. Traditional Fort of Keraton Yogyakarta and Sacred Axis
Influenced Social and Political Development in Colonial and
Modern Period
35. Understanding the Dualism in City Planning
Laksmi Gondokusumo Siregar
36. Design as An Instrument to Improve the Quality Life of the
Poor: Issues for Research
Suparti Amir Salim
37. The Knowledge City: Whose Knowledge? A Case Study of
Jakarta
38. Materializing Environmentally Oriented City*
I Made Benyamin
39. Multicultural Heritages in A City as Productive Tourism Places
Wiwik D Pratiwi
40. Spirit Acculturation of Tangerang City Existence
Hinijati Widjaja
321
334
346
354
366
379
390
397
407
425
438
454
xv
41. Slum Area on Deli River Bank

Wirsal Hasan and Edhy Mirwandono
42. Unctional Transformation In Fort of Yogyakarta Palace, A Case
of Occupying Adaptability in Historical Area
Dina Poerwoningsih and Pindo Tutuko
xvi
461
473
Part One:
THE KNOWLEDGE CITY:

SPIRIT, CHARACTER, AND
MANIFESTATION
International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

and Manifestation, Medan, 13th - 14th November 2007
THE COSMOPOLITAN SPIRIT AND ITS

MANIFESTATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN CITIES:
THE RISE, THE FALL, AND THE REVIVAL
Dr. Johannes Widodo
Department of Architecture & Asia Research Institute (Asian Cities Cluster)
4 Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566, Republic of Singapore
jwidodo@nus.edu.sg
Abstract
Southeast Asian cities have been developing since the
beginning of the first century around the Mediterranean of Asia,
where great civilizations mingled, interchanged, and mixed,
creating locals and yet interrelated Cosmopolitan hybrid culture in
both intangible and tangible forms. This harmonious coexistence
and its coherent manifestations in the built forms were the
character of our Southeast Asian cities, continuously sustained
even during the long period of European imperialistic rule with
their divisive politics although seeds of fragmentations and
conflicts had been sown onto the cities and regions since the
beginning of their arrival in our coastal cities. The segregation,
fragmentation, and contestation in our cities have been intensified
since the end of Second World War, when Modernism is being
used as vehicle for the Nationalism, Socialism, and Rationalism
spirit against the dying old Colonialism, especially during the Cold
War period. Ironically the Modernist idealism to liberate the city
and its population was failed to deliver good results: the cities
become a harsh place for contestation and conflict between the
rich and the poor, the formal and the informal, the powerful and
the powerless. Across Asia, the conflict is getting worse today.
Conservation, Preservation, and Revitalization of urban heritage
have become increasingly important today, in order to retain and
to revive the inclusiveness and cohesiveness of cosmopolitan
spirit. Perhaps it is the only hope for us to reverse the destructive
forces in our cities today. We may use it to stop the erasure of
memory, to bridge the gaps between communities, to connect
fragments of the city, to rebuild the cohesive community spirit,
and to make a city a better and sustainable place for present and
future generations.
A. The Rise of Southeast Asian Cosmopolitan Cities
Located right at the cross-road of world trading routes,
Southeast Asia has been very open towards various influences
from outside: India, Arab, Persia, China, Europe, Japan, and the

rest of the world. All of those influences were peacefully and

harmoniously absorbed and adopted into local culture, then
expressed into unique but yet closely linked culture, language,
architecture, and artifacts. Diverse, eclectic, fused, adaptive,
tolerant, inclusive, integrative, can perhaps describe the complex
nature of Southeast Asian architecture and urbanism.
At the dawn of Southeast Asian urban maritime civilization,
the vessels from the north (China, Japan, and Ryukyu) sailing to
the south made use of the northern monsoon between JanuaryFebruary, and returning home by the southern monsoon between
June-August. Indian and Arab ships went eastward by the
southwest monsoon between April-August, and returned by the
northeast monsoon from December. During the cyclone periods
or the changing monsoon seasons, these traders stayed in
Southeast Asian ports and inhabited the markets, while waiting
for their trading partners from the other parts of the world.
These exchanges took place mostly in and around the
South China Sea, Java Sea, and Melaka Strait which could be
perceived as the Mediterranean of Asia lying between two
great sub-continents (China and India), and between two great
oceans (Pacific and Indian). Since the first century the coastal
regions and their hinterlands therefore became fertile grounds for
the growth of new civilizations, new blends of urbanism and
architecture, new settlements and cities. They are formed by
complex layers of various cultures, ideologies, economies, and
ecosystems (e.g. native-vernacular, Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic,
Chinese, Colonial, Modernist, Nationalist, Communist, Corporate,
etc.), manifested in the hybrid urban morphology and architectural
typologies. Southeast Asian urban societies and cities are
characterized by rich cultural collage/interweaving of community
diversity, hybridity in the built-forms and material culture,
persistence and permanence of urban patterns and artifacts.
The city is like a boat or a vessel, loaded by people, goods,
activities, rituals, and symbolism a vessel of civilization sailing
across history, from the past heading towards the future. The
trading ships and immigrant boats were not only carrying people
and goods, but also conveying cosmological and geometrical
memories from its original places into the new landscapes,
implanting new layers in the new lands. The different layers from
different cultures have been super-imposed, adapted, and
undergone process of indigenization along its history, forming a
truly blended cosmopolitan urban morphology and culture,
manifested in the myriad of forms and artifacts in different
localities.
In 1980s, Sutan Takdir Alisyahbana an Indonesian
esteemed scholar proposed a geographical term for this
dynamic region, that is Bumantara (literally means region in

between), located at the centre of international maritime,

commerce, and exchange corridors. It was continuously shaped
and enriched by Indian, Islamic, Chinese, and European cultural
layers and elements constantly nurtured and developed along
its history.
Mediterranean of Asia
Figure 1. Mediterranean of Asia (image source: Google Earth)
In Southeast Asia cultural and geographical boundary is

always blurring, overlapping, or intersecting, and has never been
clearly defined. People in different places, islands or continents
are keep moving, communicating, and intermingling from past till
present, influencing each other and producing hybrid, fused,
diverse architecture and material culture. Diversity, eclecticism,
fusion, acculturation, adaptation, can perhaps describe the nature
of Southeast Asian architecture and urbanism from the past into
the present and future. Never ending process of layering,
transformations, and hybridization, is probably the best to
describe its dynamic and sustainable characters. For more than
two millenniums of its urban history, many cities in Southeast
Asian region have been demonstrating their ability in preserving
its primary elements and basic morphological patterns, and by
this is clearly demonstrating its tangible and intangible traces and
connections along transformation process.

B. Fragmentation of Contemporary Southeast Asian Cities

Modernization is not developed in a vacuum, but in
different aspects of specific contexts natural, environmental,
social, cultural, physical, and historical. Modernization is a
structural process in formal, environmental and cultural sense. It
is a continuous social-cultural process of transplantation,
adjustment,
adaptation,
accommodation,
assimilation,
hybridization, and materialization manifested in the myriad
forms architectural production and reproduction. In Southeast
Asia the ancient and the modern, the Asian and the non-Asian,
have mingled and merged for centuries producing multi-layered
and wealthy variations of living architecture, which evolved and
developed from the past into the future. Diversity, variety,
unpredictability, all of this is the basic nature of Southeast Asian
urban culture and its materialization for centuries.
The Europeans has started to expand their hegemonic
ambition since late 15th century, initiated by the Portuguese (to
India, Melaka, Java, eastern Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan,
Japan), followed by the Dutch (to India, Melaka, Indonesia,
Taiwan, Japan), British (to India, Malaya peninsula, Bengkulu,
Java, China), Spanish (Philippines), French (to Indochina, China),
and German (to China). They introduced many new typologies
into the urban infrastructures, urban design, and architecture,
such as boulevards, streetscapes, faade, building techniques,
and new functions (military establishments, public buildings,
churches, urban squares and plazas, markets, railroads, stations,
plantation houses, and many more).
Initially the Europeans built the fortified trading posts in the
existing port cities as their first strongholds in Southeast Asia. It
was located on the most strategic place in preexisted city, near
the old harbor and market right at the river mouth, easily
accessible from the sea. The reason for this was to have an
effective control over the whole city inward. The fort made of
masonry structure was aimed to protect the European dwelling
compounds and warehouses inside, and in most cases the forts
were equipped with defense towers and military barracks. The
pre-existed city outside the trading post generally had the
characteristic of a cosmopolitan town consisted of a developed
Chinese area well connected to the native settlements or
enclaves by the market. The Chinese had been the main player in
the regional and domestic market, and soon they built a mutual
relationship with the European traders as middlemen. The
Chinese acted as the mediator between the European and the
other population groups.
When the European had managed to secure their position
and started to extend their hegemony, the trading post was soon
replaced by larger castle with European typology, surrounded by
moat and armed with large guns. The castle would be enlarged

when the European population increased, and they had enough

strength to control the other population groups. In addition to
residential function, the castle also had military function to defend
themselves, to threaten the city and other enemies, and for the
base for territorial expansion. European type town was built inside
this large castle, completed with a church, open central square,
administration and military buildings, warehouses, and dwellings.
It looked like a medieval European walled town but with more
military personnel, more commercial functions, and less civilian
population. Outside the castle normal urban activities of the preexisting city went on and even further enhanced by the rising
international commercial activities. The harbor facility would soon
be upgraded, accommodating the rising export of commodities
to Europe.
Figure 2. Sociologic model of Melaka (Malaysia)

in 18th-19th centuries (jw)
In the colonial cities of the later period, segregation policy

of dwelling areas according to different races was implemented
almost in all colonial cities of Southeast Asia. By law the urban
population was racially and their settlements were physically

segregated: European, Chinese and other foreigners, and native

population. Normally there was no clear physical boundary which
separated the different racial zones, although in some cases
there were rivers, walls, or roads which functioned as the physical
boundaries. Nonetheless the non-physical legal boundaries had
caused internal densification process within each restricted zones
especially on the ethnic quarters. The over-densification would in
turn lead into the environmental disasters and public health
deteriorations of the whole city. The European area was allowed
to develop freely to all directions. But the deterioration of urban
environmental condition had forced the municipality governments
to abandon their restrictive policy and to launch improvement
programs in urban sanitation and utilities for the benefit of all
population groups. On the other hand the European area freely
developed and expanded, forming elegant European-style city in
the tropics. But the worsening environmental condition had forced
the colonial municipality governments to abandon their
segregation policy, and launched housing and infrastructure
improvement programs in inner cities.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, rapid
modernization process had been taken place, started by the
revolution on transportation and urban infrastructure, in order to
cope with the rapid population, commerce, and industrial growth.
Transportation revolution, started by the construction of railroads
followed by the introduction of automobiles and the construction
of wider roads had opened all isolations and breaking up physical
segregations. In a very short period of time the technological
revolutions in many aspect of daily life such as electricity, gas,
telephone and telegraph, newspapers, banks, post office, public
transportation, etc. had transformed the colonial towns into a
more modern and functional cities. The rationality of function and
the logic of economy had gradually replaced the politically and
culturally motivated racial policy in the planning and design of
Southeast Asian cities. Municipal governments introduced
building codes and regulations, in order to improve sanitation
condition and public safety in the inner city. New building typology
had been introduced and old building typology was improved
following the new regulations to provide pedestrian arcades, open
backyard with utility functions, fire escape, etc.
In early twentieth century the colonial governments
policies shifted to a more ethical approach towards their colonies,
parallel to the rise of ethics and socialist movements in Europe.
New housing areas were planned and developed inside and
around the city, to accommodate the rapid increase of urban
population. Infrastructure and housing improvement programs
were implemented to improve the well being of all segments of
the urban population.

Figure 3. Morphologic model of Semarang (Indonesia)

in early 20th century (jw)
Harbors were enlarged or upgraded, some industrial

estates were developed, and the central business districts in the
city centers were rejuvenated. Trade fairs were organized to
accommodate the rapid growth in local and international
commerce and trade. Many fresh ideas from modern urban
planners and architects were manifested into city plans, urban
designs, and architectural styles blended with the elements
from the local, natural and cultural contexts. The port cities in
Southeast Asia had grown up to the level similar to other modern
port cities in the world of that period. Some cities across
Southeast Asia such as Penang, Singapore, Medan, Batavia,
Semarang, Surabaya, Makassar, and Manila were linked to the
modern international maritime trade networks and developed into
the major regional growth and distribution centers.
A lot of idealism and hopes were put into the
transformation and the future of the cities in Southeast Asia, but
the global economic recession and the World Wars which raged
in the first half of twentieth century had terminated these dreams.

New political movements for independence and urban riots

against the colonial establishments had proliferated all over the
region. The economic recession and social-political instability had
stopped some urban development projects and had left many
parts of the city deteriorating and dilapidating. The Second World
War and the invasion of Japanese Imperial army to East Asia and
Southeast Asia gave the final blow to end the colonialism history
in Southeast Asia, and changed the course of urban history and
morphology of this region. Almost 300 years of European
colonization history had to come to an end. A new chapter of the
Southeast Asian urban history would soon begin to emerge, riding
the waves of decolonization and the spirit of national
independence.
Soon after the War newly independent countries were
appearing across Southeast Asia. For around two to three
decades since 1945, the countries in Southeast Asia were
struggling to overcome the past legacies of colonialism such as
divisions and poverty - and at the same time trying very hard to
re-build the nation politically, socially, economically, and
physically. During the so-called Cold War period between 19451965, especially after the 1st Afro-Asia Conference in Bandung in
1956, in the newly independence nations of Asia (new emerging
forces) new architectural manifestations using the Modernists
International Style language were applied across Asia (e.g.
Soekarnos Indonesia, Nehrus India, Sihanouks Cambodia, Ho
Chi Minhs Vietnam, etc.) as tangible sign of breaking away from
the colonial past.
Since the economic boom (following the oil boom)
around the 70s and 80s, rapid economic growth has accelerated
the cultural and physical transformation process, very often
leading to the fragmentation and destruction of old urban fabrics
and architectural heritages, resulting in cultural amnesia and
loss of identity. The layers of urban history and shared heritages
which kept the shared memory of the whole community for many
generations and centuries had been forgotten and even erased
completely, to be replaced with totally new forms alien to the long
lasting pre-existing cultural and morphological contexts. In many
contemporary Southeast Asian countries, many fine buildings
from the colonial period and historical urban fabric have been
being destroyed because of anti-colonialism sentiment or to give
way to the speculative and commercially motivated
developments. The urban communities and academics in Asia
are often powerless and clueless in facing the fragmentation and
rapid transformation of their cities. The long standing culturally
sustainable in Southeast Asia is undergoing very serious threat.

C. Restoring and Reinventing the Cosmopolitan Spirit of

Our Cities
The current trend of internationalization and reductionism
has caused alienation, conflict, amnesia, and loss of identity in
different cities, not only in the developed world but also in the
newly independent countries. In the current age of economic
globalization, trans-national consumerism, and the emergence of
global culture, the city is physically fragmented, socially divided,
and spiritually dried. Cities became look alike, because of similar
design, similar fast-food outlets, similar brand-name shops, and
similar urban culture. The contrasts between the formal and
informal urban social fabrics, between core and peripheries,
between big cities and rural settlements, are widening and often
conflicting. These negative trends have triggered reactions in
different levels of society, from governments to local communities.
They have similar intentions to re-invent local identities, to rediscover their unique characters, re-compose the fragments of the
urban fabric, to re-build the sense of community, and to regain
their self-esteem. The motivation is not just economic gain as
tourism or investment, but also cultural and political as well.
Top-down approach, which considers the people as
object of development with little choices, has failed to satisfy the
diverse aspiration of the community and individuals. There were
lots of examples of conservation projects from the past which
disregarded the original community and merely focused into the
physical or commercial aspects of the building. Large segments
of the old urban fabric were taken over by government or
developers, the original inhabitants were evicted, and then the
empty building shells were re-used or converted into commercial
uses or even worse: the whole old structures were razed to the
ground, then replaced by totally new functions and new buildings.
Various
community
movements
and
non-government
organizations are mushrooming in different places across the
regions to rebuild the community ties, to heal social and racial
divisions, to regain control over their own aspirations, and to
protect their own heritages. To strengthen their efforts, various
heritage organizations and movements have formed alliances and
networks, and even partnerships with government institutions.
International organizations actively supported them as individual
groups or through the networks to empower these alliances. We
have gradually abandoned the top-down or bottom-up
approaches, and moved towards promoting a more equal
partnerships and cooperation among different stake-holders.
In 2003 UNESCO Asia Pacific Awards for Culture
Heritage Conservation gives a Merit award to Virtuous Bridge
project in Medan, Indonesia. This project is initiated by Sumatra
Heritage Trust. Albeit the object itself is simple and looked small,
but this restoration project has given great contribution towards

the healing process of social divisions which lingered for more

than three decades in Indonesian urban communities including
Medan. It stands as a moving testimony to the unprecedented
cooperation between the multi-racial multi-religious residents,
businesses, and government agencies. The restoration process is
based on careful historical research, rediscovering the forgotten
role and legacy of the citys founding fathers and harmonious
inter-racial relationship in the past. The bridge becomes a vehicle
to uncover an important chapter in their shared history and to
awaken a new consciousness about their local heritage. The
newly restored bridge has become a unique symbol of the citys
multicultural cosmopolitan legacy, and a model for future
community-initiated efforts in conserving local heritages
throughout the region.
Figure 4. Virtuous Bridge, Medan, Indonesia
The city is a sum of the memory of the people, the

accumulation of creative contributions of its community all along
its historical timeline. It is materialized in urban patterns,
architectural objects and other artifacts passed from the past
generation to the present generation as heritage, in the form of
urban tradition. A person is part of a family, and a family is part of
the community. The experience of the individuals are shared by
the community, and embedded into the collective memory of the
inhabitants of that particular place. Locality or home is
supposedly the most important place for every human being,
where they feel secured, contented, and proud of. We can
associate home with a house, a neighborhood, a district, a city, or
even a country. Sense of home is formed through process of
familiarization, when a person becomes accustomed to the
articulation of space by inhabitation. The daily ritual of living,
working, and playing which constitutes the ordinary life of a
person shapes his or her cognition and affection towards the
built forms and space.
10

We have come into the realization that the survival of the

human race and humanity depends on how well we look after the
environment, and how good we maintain harmonious
relationships with the others. Ecological-, economic-, social-,
cultural- sustainability becomes our main concern nowadays, to
ensure continuity from the past into the future. Conservation,
preservation, restoration, revitalization efforts of our material and
living heritages are aimed towards the community cultural
continuum. We are obliged to prolong the lifecycle of those
heritages for the sake of the future generation, to ensure the link
with their roots and the transmission of memory from the past into
the future. In doing so, it is essential to form a civic coalition, a
community network and alliance among all stake holders, to
maintain a balance between conservation and development, and
to ensure an orderly and healthy evolution of the built
environment and its community who lives within it.
Time factor is crucial. Familiarity of the ordinary develops
over time from infancy into maturity. Sometimes it needs several
generations to ensure maturity and familiarity until it is rooted into
the collective memory. In the contemporary fast-food and instant
culture, things change very fast, including the built environment.
Immediate enjoyment and instant gratification have pushed rapid
changes and amnesia, discontinuity and total detachment from
the past. Demolition, redevelopment, rebuilding, become the
order of the day. We should return to the slow-food mode, to
allow the fermentation process to develop naturally. By slowing
down the process of change, we will allow time to reconnect the
past with the present, to allow maturity process to happen again,
and to cure the loss of memory.
The architecture of our cosmopolitan cities has many
layers: morphological, sociological, and symbolical (form,
function, and meaning). It is in the intersection of many disciplines
from art to science, from philosophy to engineering. Therefore
inter-disciplinary approach is necessary in this complex and interrelated matter. To ensure continuity and sustainability we need to
empower the ordinary members of the community through
training and education. The vanishing or dying craftsmanship and
traditional skills should be revived and revitalized, and have to be
updated with the current technological advancement and
contemporary innovations. Architects, academics, scholars,
trainers, professionals have special role as facilitator in
community education through various ways. They should help the
community to respect and to be sensitive to their own legacy, to
teach them in understanding the existing ordinary fabrics and
artifacts, to train them in discovering their own heritage, and to
maintain the tradition and to promote the contemporary
appropriation of their own inheritance. In this sense, conservation
means nurturing community cultural continuum for the present
11

and future generations, also means restoring and reinventing the

cosmopolitan spirit of our cities and citizens.
References
Alisyahbana, Sutan Takdir (1987). Bumantara The Integration
of Southeast Asia and its Perspectives in the Future.
Jakarta: Center of Southeast Asian or Bumantara Studies,
Universitas National.
Rossi, A. (1984). Architecture of the City. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Widodo, J. (2002). Southeast Asia Architecture. In
Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, edited by David Levinson,
David and Karen Christensen, et.al. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, pp. 148-152.
Widodo, J. (2004). The Boat and The City Chinese Diaspora
and the Architecture of Southeast Asian Coastal Cities.
Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academics.
Widodo, J (2007). Contributing to the Communitys Cultural
Continuum. In Asia Conserved Lessons Learned from
the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture
Heritage Conservation (2000-2004), 46-50. Bangkok:
UNESCO Bangkok Office.
12

MANUSIA, KOTA, DAN ETOS PEMBANGUNAN 1

Jansen H. Sinamo
To change life, we must first change space
- Henri Lefebvre, French writer
jansensinamo@cbn.net.id
Meskipun Homo sapiens sudah jadi spesies unggul sejak

40.000 tahun yang silam tetapi kota sebagai bentuk organisasi
sosial baru muncul kurang dari 10.000 tahun yang lalu. Sebelum
itu, manusia hidup sebagai kelompok-kelompok nomaden yang
terus bergerak sebagai pemburu dan pengumpul hasil-hasil alam
untuk makanan mereka. Kelompok-kelompok itu belum memiliki
pemukiman karena mereka belum sanggup melumbungkan
surplus makanan secara memadai. Hidup mereka sangat
marjinal: bertahan hari lepas hari melulu oleh kemurahan alam.
Namun selepas itu, di berbagai wilayah di dunia, gejala
kota akhirnya muncul juga ketika jumlah anggota kelompokkelompok nomaden itu terus bertambah dan mulai bermukim. Hal
ini dimungkinkan oleh tiga faktor: ketersediaan pangan di wilayah
itu, bertambah baiknya pengorganisasian kerja di dalam
kelompok-kelompok itu, dan berkembangnya pertukaran
komoditas atau perdagangan antarkelompok.
Ketersediaan pangan di berbagai wilayah yang disebut di
atas terjadi karena iklim Bumi semakin hangat. Sesudan zaman
es terakhir diperkirakan usai sekitar 13.000 tahun silam tanah
terus menghangat sehingga memunculkan banyak tumbuhan
baru, khususnya berbagai jenis tanaman pangan. Inilah awal
zaman
pertanian.
Lumbung-lumbung
dibangun
untuk
menampung surplus pangan itu. Hewan-hewan liar dijinakkan
dan diternakkan, terutama kambing, domba, kuda, kerbau, dan
sapi. Teknologi pengolahan tanah berkembang dengan
memanfaatkan tenaga hewan-hewan itu. Semua itu menyumbang
terhadap surplus pangan lebih lanjut. Akibatnya, pemukiman
semakin berkembang dan semakin terjamin (sustainable), jumlah
penduduk bertambah karena semakin cukup makan, dan ragam
pekerjaan non-petani pun bertambah pula seperti seniman, ahli
bangunan, ahli irigasi, tukang, pedagang, dan lain-lain.
Singkatnya, proto-kota pun lahir.
Diversifikasi sosial juga muncul. Lahirlah kelas elit: para
penakluk, kaum bangsawan, dan agamawan yang memerintah
dan menentukan tata kehidupan bersama dalam kelompok itu.
Mereka jadi kelas penguasa atas kaum tani, penata irigasi,
1
Disampaikan pada seminar internasional The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

and Manifestation, 13-14 November 2007, Danau Toba Convention Hall,
Medan, Indonesia.
13

gembala, pedagang, tukang, dan seniman. Demi keperluan hidup

bersama dan kelanggengan kelas penguasa itu dibangun dan
diperkenalkanlah bangunan-bangunan publik, tata upacara dan
peribadahan, alat tukar, sistem perpajakan, dan metoda
akumulasi kekayaan.
Pasar pun lahir. Perdagangan pun marak. Kota pun kian
berkembang.
Aksara juga ditemukan, demikian pula ilmu-ilmu hitung
dan ukur yang dipakai dalam perdagangan, pembangunan irigasi,
pertukangan, dan pembangunan kota. Ilmu-ilmu prediktif juga
muncul untuk menentukan musim tanam, musim panen, hari-hari
raya, dan saat untuk berperang. Lahir pula ekspresi seni dalam
arsitektur kota dan bangunan-bangunan publik. Maka kota pun
semakin ramai.
Demikianlah kota Yeriko muncul di wilayah Palestina
yang sekarang sekitar tahun 7000 SM yang tumbuh dari desa
menjadi kota dengan sekitar 3.000 penduduk.
Antara tahun 4000-3500 SM kota besar pertama dengan
populasi sekitar 25.000 muncul di wilayah Mesopotamia, di
lembah sungai Tigris dan Eufrat: Babel dan Niniwe. Kotanya
sudah berkubu. Rumah-rumah dibangun dengan batu-bata yang
terbuat dari lempung yang dibakar. Meski jalan-jalannya naikturun-berkelok, sempit, dan tanpa perkerasan yang memadai,
mereka sudah memakai alat angkut beroda.
Di Mesir, di sepanjang lembah sungai Nil, kota sudah ada
sejak tahun 3300 SM seperti Tmn-Hor, Tell al-Rub, Pr-Bastet,
Hwt-ka-Ptah, To-She, Akhetaten, dan Kemet. Tetapi kita lebih
tahu tentang piramid-piramid Mesir daripada kota-kota di atas.
Di India ada dua kota utama, Harappa dan MohenjoDaro, yang muncul sekitar tahun 2500 SM. Jalan-jalannya lurus
sehingga membentuk blok-blok pemukiman berbentuk segi
empat. Sudah ada sistem pembuangan sampah dan air limbah.
Inilah kota pertama yang menujukan tanda-tanda pembangunan
yang berencana. Barat kota adalah pusat religius, politik, dan
pendidikan. Petani tinggal di luar tembok kota dekat perladangan.
Kelompok miskin menempati pinggir kota tetapi masih berada di
dalam tembok. Pedagang dan seniman tinggal di dekat pusat
kota, sedangkan bangsawan, agamawan, dan punggawa
kerajaan menempati wilayah pusat.
14

Di Yunani kota muncul di sekitar tahun 2000 SM seperti

Sparta, Thebes, Argos, Delphi, dan Olympia. Athena jadi kota
utama sekitar tahun 800 SM. Struktur kotanya berbentuk
lingkaran. Jalan-jalannya berpangkal dari pusat dan memencar
keluar secara radial. Bagian-bagian kota juga memencar dari
pusat sehingga setiap kelompok penduduk merasa tinggal
dengan jarak yang sama dari pusat kota.
Di Cina kota muncul antara tahun 2000-1500 SM seperti
Chang'an, Fanyang, Jiankang, Lingzhou, Xiangyang, Yinxu, dan
Zhaoge.
Kota Roma dibangun antara 700-600 SM. Kelak, ketika
kekaisaran Romawi semakin berjaya Roma pun menjadi kota
internasional pertama di dunia.
Di Amerika Tengah (Meksiko, Guatemala, Honduras, dan
El Salvador) kota-kota mulai tampak pada sekitar tahun 200 SM.
Di Eropa kota-kota bermunculan mulai abad ke-4 dan
satu per satu menjadi kota industri sejak abad ke-18. Inilah
permulaan kota-kota modern yang kita kenal sampai sekarang.
Sesudah itu, gejala desa yang mengalami proses kotanisasi
merambah dengan cepat ke seluruh dunia. Dan urbanisasi pun
menjadi sebuah gejala global. Kini dunia telah memiliki ratusan
kota raksasa: metropolitan dan megapolitan.
Kota Raja, Kota Tuhan
Tidak banyak kota yang diketahui siapa arsitek
pembangunannya? Hal ini wajar sebab fenomena kota
sebenarnya lebih masuk akal difahami sebagai fenomena
emergence, dimana pemukiman kecil berubah jadi desa,
berkembang perlahan-lahan, dan akhirnya menjadi kota; daripada
fenomena arsitektur, dimana seorang arsitek agung merancang,
merencanakan, dan membangun sebuah kota dari nol sampai
selesai.
Tetapi ada kekecualian. Tradisi menyebutkan kota Babel
dibangun oleh raja Sargon (hidup sekitar abad ke-24 SM). Neo
Babel dibangun (mungkin lebih tepat diperluas dan ditata ulang)
oleh raja Nebukadnezar (630-562 SM). Kitab Daniel dalam
Perjanjian Lama mencatatnya sebagai berikut: Semuanya itu
terjadi atas raja Nebukadnezar; sebab setelah lewat dua belas
bulan, ketika ia sedang berjalan-jalan di atas istana raja di Babel,
berkatalah raja: Bukankah ini Babel yang besar itu, yang dengan
kekuatan kuasaku dan untuk kemuliaan kebesaranku telah
kubangun menjadi kota kerajaan?
Legenda juga menyebutkan Roma dibangun oleh
Romulus dan menjadikannya ibukota kerajaannya.
Catatan yang lebih dapat dipertanggungjawabkan adalah
kota-kota yang dibangun oleh Iskandar Agung (Alexander the
Great: 356-323 SM) dalam ekspedisi penaklukannya selama
sepuluh tahun. Di setiap wilayah ia meletakkan rancangan,
15

memulai pembangunan, atau menata ulang kota yang

ditaklukkannya sesuai dengan gaya dan selera seni dan
arsitektur Yunani. Kota-kota yang dikaitkan dengan jenderal
akbar ini antara lain Alexandria (Mesir), Iskandiriyah (Irak),
Alexandria Asiana (Iran),
Alexandria Ariana (Afganistan),
Kandahar (Afghanistan), Alexandria Bucephalous (Pakistan),
Alexandria Eschate (Tajikistan), dan Iskenderun (Turki).
Kota-kota kuno yang dibangun oleh atau atas perintah
seorang raja mempunyai fungsi yang mirip: sebagai lumbung
kekayaan, pusat kekuasaan, dan lambang kemuliaan, bahkan
sebagai kota Tuhan. Babel atau Babylon misalnya, nama kota itu
berasal dari bahasa Akkad babilu, yang berarti gerbang para
dewa. Dalam paradigma kuno itu, raja umumnya dianggap
sebagai representasi Tuhan, bahkan titisan Tuhan. Maka kota
raja juga berarti kota Tuhan. Vatikan, Mekah, dan Yerusalem
sampai hari ini tetap disebut kota suci bagi para pemeluk teguh
agama-agama samawi.
Namun demikian, tidak banyak kota-kota kuno itu yang
bisa bertahan hingga kini. Tiga kota yang disebut belakangan
adalah sedikit yang jadi kekecualian. Kebanyakan telah runtuh
dan terbenam dalam timbunan debu tebal dari abad ke abad
sehingga
hanya
para
arkeolog
saja
yang
mampu
merekonstruksinya.
Problem utama kota-kota kuno itu sehingga akhirnya
ditinggalkan warganya, kosong, dan jadi reruntuhan adalah
sanitasi. Tumpukan sampah dan limpasan air limbah jadi sumber
berbagai penyakit menular yang membinasakan warganya.
Selain itu, api yang tidak bisa dikontrol marak menjadi kebakaran
besar sehingga menghanguskan seluruh kota.
Tetapi perang adalah sebab utama kehancuran kota-kota
kuno. Yerusalem misalnya, dalam sejarahnya yang panjang sejak
abad ke-18 SM sempat tiga kali dihancurkan: pada tahun 586 SM
oleh raja Babel, Nebukadnezar; pada tahun 70 oleh penguasa
Romawi di Palestina, Jenderal Titus; dan pada tahun 1480 oleh
pasukan Mongol yang merambah dengan buas dari Asia Tengah.
Namun Yerusalem terhitung beruntung: ia selalu
dibangun kembali. Kota-kota seperti Khartago, Sukhothai,
Ayutthaya, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Karakorum, Akkad, Ur,
Babel, Niniwe, Persepolis, Troya, Machu Picchu, dan Pompeii kini
tinggal hanya reruntuhan, bahkan hilang terbenam.
Berbeda dengan kota-kota kuno, problem kota-kota
modern terutama disebabkan tekanan populasi dan manajemen
kota yang buruk. Soal tekanan populasi ini dapat kita apresiasi
dari data berikut ini. Jika pada sekitar tahun 8000 SM penduduk
dunia hanya 100 juta, pada permulaan abad Masehi masih 300
juta, tetapi sejak abad ke-19 jumlah itu meningkat dengan sangat
pesat: tahun 1800 (1 milyar), tahun 1930 (2 milyar), tahun 1962 (3
milyar), tahun 1974 (4 milyar), tahun 1987 (5 milyar), dan tahun
16

2000 (6 milyar). Ketika urbanisasi berlangsung justru karena daya

tarik kota itu sendiri maka pada titik jenuh tertentu tekanan
populasi itu mengakibatkan komplikasi berbagai masalah bagi
kota tersebut dan segenap warganya.
Kota Rakyat, Kota Publik
Era kota raja dan kota Tuhan berakhir sudah. Kini kotakota di dunia adalah kota rakyat, kota publik, atau kota warga.
Artinya, kota adalah urusan publik, urusan segenap warga kota.
Dikatakan tegas: setiap kota harus mampu memenuhi aspirasi
dan kebutuhan warganya. Dikatakan lain: kota dinilai tidak lagi
berdasarkan selera raja, selera penguasa, tetapi dinilai
berdasarkan keterpenuhan aspirasi publik, yakni hidup yang
berkualitas bagi segenap warga kota.
Dewasa ini, sejauh menyangkut kualitas hidup warganya,
Zurich dan Jenewa adalah dua kota terbaik di dunia. Demikian
hasil survei Mercer Consulting yang diterbitkan pada bulan April
2007. Vancouver menduduki nomor tiga dan berturut-turut diikuti
oleh Wina, Auckland, Dsseldorf, dan Frankfurt. Penilaian itu
didasarkan atas tiga puluh sembilan determinan kualitas hidup
manusia yang dikelompokkan dalam sepuluh kategori sebagai
berikut:
1. Political and social environment (political stability, crime, law
enforcement, etc.)
2. Economic environment (currency exchange regulations,
banking services, etc.)
3. Socio-cultural environment (censorship, limitations on
personal freedom, etc.)
4. Health and sanitation (medical supplies and services,
infectious diseases, sewage, waste disposal, air pollution,
etc.)
5. Schools and education (standard and availability of
international schools, etc.)
6. Public services and transportation (electricity, water, public
transport, traffic congestion, etc.)
7. Recreation (restaurants, theatres, cinemas, sports and
leisure, etc.)
8. Consumer goods (availability of food/daily consumption items,
cars, etc.)
9. Housing
(housing,
household
appliances,
furniture,
maintenance services, etc.)
10. Natural environment (climate, record of natural disasters, etc.)
Jika hal-hal di atas merupakan faktor penentu bagus tidaknya
sebuah kota, maka dikatakan sebaliknya, secara negatif, maka
kota yang buruk adalah kota yang:
1. fasilitas kesehatannya tidak memadai;
2. fasilitas pendidikannya tidak memadai;
17

3. infrastruktur dan fasilitas angkutan massalnya buruk;

4. jalan-jalan besarnya tidak memadai;
5. jalan-jalan kecil buat warga pejalan kaki tidak ada atau
dibiarkan tak terawat;
6. kantong-kantong penduduk miskinnya banyak;
7. keamanannya rendah atau sudut-sudut kota tertentu
keamanannya rendah;
8. kelompok-kelompok premannya yang memeras warga kota
banyak;
9. keterlibatan warganya dalam memelihara fasilitas kota
rendah;
10. ketersediaan air bersih, listrik, dan teleponnya rendah;
11. korupsi di jawatan-jawatan publik di kotapraja tinggi;
12. kotanya semrawut, tidak ada zonasi kota yang terencana dan
tersistem;
13. peredaran dan penggunaan narkoba dan minuman keras
tidak terkontrol;
14. permusuhan dan perkelahian antarkelompok warga kota
tinggi;
15. sektor kumuhnya banyak;
16. tingkat kemacetannya tinggi;
17. tingkat krimininalitasnya tinggi;
18. tingkat penganggurannya tinggi;
19. tingkat polusinya tinggi; dan
20. wilayah lampu merah dan perjudiannya berkembang tidak
terkontrol.
Pengembangan Kota dan Etos Pembangunan
Meskipun kota-kota modern kini adalah kota publik,
urusan publik, dan bukan kota raja apalagi kota Tuhan, tapi
secara politik warga kota kemudian menyerahkan tanggungjawab
pemerintahan dan manajemen kota mereka kepada seorang
walikota melalui proses pemilihan umum. Itu berarti walikota
adalah orang yang menjadi wali-pemegang-amanah seluruh
warga kota agar kota mereka dikelola menjadi kota yang baik.
Selanjutnya, proses, program, dan proyek untuk
mewujudkan aspirasi seluruh warga kota itu secara teknis
diserahkan kepada para kontraktor pembangunan dan
pemeliharaan kota.
Tetapi secara profesional semua aspirasi warga kota di
atas diserahkan kepada para arsitek. Inilah sebuah profesi yang
semakin penting peranannya dalam menjawab masalah-masalah
perkotaan dan pemukiman di seluruh dunia.
Tri Harso Karyono, guru besar arsitektur Universitas
Tarumanagara dan peneliti utama pada Balai Besar Teknologi
Energi (B2TE BPPT), Serpong, dalam artikelnya Pemanasan
Bumi dan Dosa Arsitek, di harian KOMPAS, Selasa, 11
September 2007, mengatakan: Arsitek berperan besar dalam
18

[pemanasan] Bumi. Kekeliruan tangan arsitek akan memanaskan

Bumi dan berpotensi lebih besar membasmi manusia
dibandingkan dengan kemampuan teroris.
Sedemikan dahsyat peran arsitek modern bagi kehidupan
manusia sebagaimana dikatakan Tri Harso Karyono di atas,
maka tidak berlebihan jika peran arsitek itu dapat saya
ungkapkan bagi kehidupan sebuah kota sebagai berikut: Arsitek
berperan besar dalam menentukan hitam putihnya sebuah kota.
Kekeliruan tangan arsitek akan menghancurkan sebuah kota dan
berpotensi membuat kota itu menjadi kota setan.
Semakin krusial peranan suatu profesi dalam
masyarakat, semakin penting pula profesi itu merumuskan
etosnya, menegakkan etos itu, dan menghukum anggota profesi
yang melanggarnya. Hanya dengan demikian sebuah profesi
punya tempat yang terhormat dalam masyarakat. Sejumlah
profesi sudah melakukannya: dokter, wartawan, dan pengacara.
Ciri khasnya: mereka punya asosiasi profesi, dan dalam tubuh
asosiasi itu terdapat sebuah dewan kehormatan sebagai
mahkamah tertinggi dalam penegakan etos profesi itu.
Sekarang, marilah kita selidiki serba sedikit tentang etos
ini. Dengan memeriksa sejumlah kamus, kita akan menemukan
bahwa etos adalah sebuah kata yang memiliki banyak makna,
antara lain: (a) esprit dcorps; (b) karakter, keyakinan, dan hakikat
moral dari seseorang, sekelompok orang, atau sebuah institusi;
(c) kode perilaku suatu perusahaan yang menentukan cara
bagaimana
mereka
memperlakukan
karyawannya,
pelanggannya,
lingkungannya,
serta
tanggungjawabtanggungjawab legalnya; (d) spirit khas suatu budaya atau era;
dan masih banyak lagi.
Tapi untuk keperluan seminar ini saya memilih
mengartikan etos sebagai sebuah rumusan yang disepakati
bersama tentang apa yang dianggap paling penting oleh
sekelompok orang untuk pekerjaan (profesi) yang mereka
jalankan, dan perilaku apa yang dituntut untuk mencapai hal
paling penting tersebut, termasuk apa-apa yang tidak boleh
dilanggar dalam pelaksanaan pekerjaan atau profesi tersebut.
Inilah definisi etos profesi yang berlaku umum untuk
semua profesi seperti keguruan, kedokteran, kehakiman,
kependetaan, kewartawanan, kemiliteran, kepengacaraan, dan
kearsitekan.
Dan hari ini kita berbicara tentang etos kearsitekan atau
etos arsitek.
Ketika kota dirumuskan oleh panitia seminar ini yang
notabene terdiri dari sejumlah arsitek muda yang idealis, kreatif,
dan berwawasan luas (1) sebagai sebuah simbolisme kosmik,
(2) sebagai manisfestasi spiritualitas manusia, (3) sebagai biosfer
hidup
yang
berkelimpahan,
(4)
sebagai
ekosistem
pengembangan manusia, (5) sebagai mandala penciptaan karya-
19

arya yang estetik, (6) sebagai wilayah kerja yang produktif, dan
(7) keragaman sosial budaya manusia urban, harus diakui bahwa
aspirasi ini adalah sebuah rumusan yang ideal, luhur, dan
menyeluruh.
Dengan mengandaikan bahwa konsep kota di atas sekarang
diterima dan dianggap sangat penting oleh komunitas arsitek di
negeri ini, maka dalam bahasa etos, idealisme tentang kota di
atas di tingkat perilaku kerja dapat coba saya rumuskan
sebagai berikut:
Etos 1: Kota adalah simbolisme kosmik; maka sebagai
arsitek
profesional
kita
wajib
merancang,
membangun, dan mengembangkan kota yang
mengingatkan warganya bahwa kota sebagai ruang
kehidupan adalah bagian dari kosmos ciptaan Tuhan
yang
punya
desain,
keteraturan,
keluasan,
keagungan, dan keindahan.
Etos 2: Kota adalah manisfestasi spiritualitas manusia; maka
sebagai arsitek profesional kita wajib merancang,
mampu membuat seluruh warganya merasa
terhubungkan satu sama lain, yang merasa menyatu
dengan lingkungannya, serta memetik makna,
identitas, dan kebanggaan daripadanya sehingga
menumbuhkan rasa cinta pada kotanya.
Etos 3: Kota adalah biosfer hidup yang berkelimpahan; maka
lapang, longgar, lancar, bersih, hijau, berlimpah
dengan air segar dan udara murni, serta bebas dari
sampah maupun limbah.
Etos 4: Kota adalah ekosistem bagi pertumbuhan manusia
yang sehat; maka sebagai arsitek profesional kita
wajib
merancang,
membangun,
dan
mengembangkan kota yang cukup ruang untuk
bermukim, bekerja, belajar, bermain, berekreasi,
beribadah,
berolahraga,
berkesenian,
dan
berkebudayaan.
Etos 5: Kota adalah mandala penciptaan karya-karya yang
estetik; maka sebagai arsitek profesional kita wajib
merancang, membangun, dan mengembangkan kota
yang secara keseluruhan dinilai sebagai indah,
termasuk bagian-bagiannya, unit-unitnya, dan detaildetailnya sehingga mampu memuaskan cita rasa
seluruh warga kota secara sensual-indrawi,
intelektual-karsawi, dan spiritual-rohani.
Etos 6: Kota adalah lapangan kerja yang produktif; maka
20

mampu
menyediakan
cukup
ragam
mata
pencaharian bagi segenap warganya: dari jenis
pekerjaan yang cuma mengandalkan otot, keringat,
dan fisik sampai jenis pekerjaan yang mengandalkan
imajinasi, kreativitas, dan inovasi.
Etos 7: Kota adalah wahana keragaman sosial-budaya
manusia urban; maka sebagai arsitek profesional kita
wajib
merancang,
membangun,
dan
mengembangkan kota yang mampu menyediakan
ruang untuk ekspresi keragaman sosial-budaya itu,
interaksi sinergis dalam pluralisme itu, serta kultur
apresiatif dalam kebhinekaan itu.
Sesungguhnya perumus etos suatu profesi haruslah
orang dalam profesi itu. Demikian pula etos arsitek haruslah
dirumuskan oleh para arsitek itu sendiri. Orang seperti penulis
makalah ini, meski pun sering dijuluki media sebagai mister etos
atau guru etos, paling banter bisa berperan sebagai konsultan
saja.
Sebagai penutup, izinkanlah saya meninggalkan sebuah
saran: panitia seminar ini perlu sesegera mungkin berkoordinasi
dengan Ikatan Arsitek Indonesia guna merumuskan sehimpunan
etos arsitek yang luhur, menyeluruh, inspirasional, dan
motivasional sehingga pada satu waktu nanti kita akan melihat
kota-kota di republik ini sungguh-sungguh menjadi kota-kota yang
gemah ripah loh jinawi, tata tentrem karta raharja.
Apa yang saya rumuskan di atas adalah sebuah
percobaan dan harus dianggap sebagai sebuah masukan saja.
Terimakasih dan selamat berseminar.
Jakarta, 15 Oktober 2007
21

TOWARDS A NUSANTARA CITY

Department of Architecture, Brawijaya University, Malang
galih.wp@gmail.com
Abstract
Two difficulties appear in finding out conception of a city
in Indonesia. First, it is an irrefutable fact that since the 1960s,
education on planning in Indonesia in which the concept of a
city developed and implemented has been based on western
urban and architecture theories. The education on planning not
only the continuation of installed planning practices developed
by the Dutch colonial government in the beginning of 20th
century, but also had had something to do with economic
planning of New Orders regime from 1970s onwards. Second,
the specific geographical character of Indonesia is hardly
understood as an integral point of view, in the sense of both
empirical and meta-empirical. For many academicians, as a
whole reality, the empirical and meta-empirical phenomena are
not unknown or forgotten: city is viewed at both as physical
phenomena in the landscape and as cultural and even as mental
(arte)fact. But, for the fast-changing cities of Southeast Asia, it
seems that the fundamental problem emerges from basic system
of knowledge. That is, how to read holistically locality and
universality of the phenomena. The reading becomes more
difficult due to the historical trajectory of sciences of planning and
architecture, in which Eurocentric played a dominant role. It
seems that the answers require new paradigms for the sake of
the human as well as the nature. This would be a common
(politics and) scientific platform to develop a Nusantara City. The
common platform should be respected and maintained in theory,
politics and policy of urban in the process of structuring and
systemizing the local-heterogenic and global-opened Nusantara
cities, where the territorializing and the centers determination
would create fuzzy territories and dynamics centers in
harmony.
Key words: Nusantara, city, concept
Asian Independence
Through modern education and global transfer of
information since 20th century, scientific concept or notions of city
has undoubtedly been spreading in English language, from
22

Europe and North America to non-Anglo-Saxon countries.

Concerning the language(s) used in the development of urban
and architecture theory, one of fair confessions apparently came
from Grnlund (2002), Danish urban planner and researcher from
The Royal Academy of Copenhagen. He wrote unequivocally in
his website Urban Winds:
this problem of the urban does not only concern
the nature-turned English. The concept of urban is
difficult in all the European languages and countries
that I know of, including Scandinavian, German and
French not to talk about the understanding of the
word urban in North America.
Survey on notion of city in English text books, leads to
obscure views of similar widely used concepts with different
aspects: town and urban. In most dictionaries town,1 city,2
and urban3 are words whose content derived from the histories
of civilizations of the Greek polis, the civitas and urbs of Rome,
the Christian Heavenly City, European industrialized cities in the
late 19th century, and the 20th century urban renewal and
urbanism. Following evolution of the terminologies, Grnlund
found three reasons for unclear concept of city due to:
language, invisibility and the Information Age. In his website,
Grnlund also wrote a good summary of the different
terminologies used in both urban planning theory and
architecture. Finally, he formulated his own understanding of
urban as urbanity, and constructed following questions:
Is it possible to find a meaningful concept of 'the
urban' today? Is it possible to find, deduct or
construct such a concept of urbanity, on which it
is possible to build a theory and practice of urban
Town. From Old English tn. In old north west European languages, is a
fortified, an enclosed place; see Webster New Universal, 2nd Ed, 2003; also The
English Oxford Dictionary (cited by Grnlund),The Concise American Heritage
Dictionary, Houghton, 1980, etc. Now, in general English use, commonly
designating an inhabited place larger and more regularly built than a village,
something analogous to the town as being a home of many people; main
business or shopping area; the community of a town in its corporate capacity.
City. From Latin civitas, its primary sense was citizenship, the body of citizens,
the community; as the equivalent of Greek polis and Latin civitas in the original
sense of a self-governing city or state (city-state) with its dependencies; (in GB)
a borough usually the seat of a bishop; only in later time city was the word taken
as urbs, the town or place occupied by the community; also means major
metropolitan center of a region.
Urban. From French 13-14th century and Latin urbanus; of pertaining to or
designating a city or town; living of a city; characteristic of or accustomed to city;
living in a city; the state, condition or character of a town or a city; life in a city;
town-life. The evolution of this word in informal (slang) language is remarkable:
there are 29 notions of the word urban (see in Urban Dictionary website that
gives visitors to define and choose liberally definition of word).
23

design and planning that has a reasonably solid

theoretic foundation useful in the years to come?
Such questions would probably urge to review the
concept of city in Indonesia. Nevertheless, Indonesian concept
of city does not have to follow the conception developed in
European countries or in English language. Bahasa Indonesia
(and Malay) possesses only one word for English town, city, and
urban, that is kota 4. In Kamus Umum Bahasa Indonesia
(1989), the first meaning of kota is a wall surrounding a fort
which in English; it is similar to the word town. Nowadays, in
general use, kota bears a meaning of dwellings area formed by
houses, constituting a unity of heterogenic society, and also
central area of many activities: governmental, economic, cultural,
5
etc. Anyhow, the word urban became popular at the later time:
The 1961 edition of Kamus Umum Bahasa Indonesia does not
have the word urban as its entry yet. The word urban in
Bahasa Indonesia became popular a decade later. It seems that,
as rapid as politico-economics changes under Soehartos New
Regime, in the late of 1960s was also a period of radical
alteration of science (and culture).6 From 1970s onwards, the
concept of city in Indonesia has been developed rapidly, as more
and more schools of planning and architecture had been
established and supported by graduates, particularly from USA
and European countries, who brought English textbooks to be
used at their home universities. It is of no exaggeration to say that
Eurocentric views prevailed in planning and architecture theory
through English language.
In Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Balai Pustaka, 1989), the first meaning of
kota is a wall surrounding a fort. Kota is a Sanskrit word, used in 14th Old
Javanese or Kawi (as kuta) and 16th century Modern Javanese (as kitha);
kota was also used in other Nusantara vernacular languages.
In the well-known 14th century text Negarakretagama (Couplet 8, Line 1), a
depiction of city was a place having terracotta brick walls, thick and high,
surrounding the castle. In Old Javanese-Indonesian dictionaries, the similar of
kuta is kota (see dictionaries by Zoetmulder, Winter & Ranggawarsita,
Prawiroatmodjo, Mardiwarsito, etc).
Kuta is translated in English by town or city (see Zoetmulder-Robsons Old
Javanese-English Dictionary).
In other local language such as Batak Mandailing: a city is dwelling clusters
surrounded by wall(s) (for example in expression batu tembok dingding ni
kota, literally brick wall of city).
To find out the use of word kota in Malay (in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei), see
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Brunei, 2003, Kamus Bahasa Malayu Nusantara,
Brunei.
5
The notion of the word city had been developing as proved by Sanskrit kuta or
bandar, which is from Arabic (), indicating a harbor, harbored area of a city,
trading city or harbor office. In Bahasa Indonesia the word syahbandar means
harbor official.
6
For a short discussion on impact of Soehartos politics on architecture see
Pangarsa (2007b)
24

Language system is the foundation of system of

knowledge. The conception of city is a structure of
comprehension built from notions and ideas about a city. In fact, it
could be structured by one or more languages. Idea emerges in
someones mind in a certain language and realized in his/her
societal and natural circumstances and expressed in the same or
other language(s). The problem would be found in interrelation of
thoughts in the level of idea (in meta-language, spiritual or
affective domain, rasa) and in the level of realization (in
narrative language, intellectual or cognitive domain, akal). The
entire activity of thoughts in the two levels would be an intuition
that is how to interpret empirical phenomena in meta-language
7
and how to realize meta-empirical ideas in narrative language.
In both processes, it will conceptually face Anglicized language,
whether in mother, societal (circumstantial, vernacular) or
national-language. Through English language, Eurocentrism
spreads mentally, inclusively in the disciplines of architecture and
planning.
Concerning Eurocentrism, some Asian intellectuals has
noted important remarks on the subject.8 They propose to
achieve an Asian Renaissance education of architecture. Even if
in that subject the author have no objection at all, but it is
proposed to name the spirit as Asian (Scientific) Independence
in the sense of appeal to study and to affirm the Asian locality
as scientific parameters beside its universality.
Nusantara: its Locality and Universality
In fact, development of urban scientific phenomena in
Indonesia as in others parts of the world not only that it has
its own spatio-temporal scales and substantive social processes,
but also has its own geographical natural-elementary settings.
Unfortunately, discourses let alone an effort of formulating
conceptually what is a city in Indonesia are rare. In spite of lack
of fundamental studies, it should note two important points.
Indonesia has naturally, societally and historically structured from
Southeast Asian region been called Nusantara since 14th century.
Nusantara is not a political territory of modern Indonesia; it would
be a Southeast Asian cultural space spread out between
Formosa Island in North to Alor Isles in South, between Aceh in
West and Papua Island in East, including coastal regions of
7
8
For details, see Pangarsa, 2007a: 46-49.

Among them are my colleagues Dr. Widodo from National University of
Singapore and Prof. Burhanuddin from Universiti Sains Malaysia who
underlined respectively the Eurocentrism in architectural historiography and in
history of civilization in which Eurocentrism has been showed as the real
content of globalization. See The Proceeding of Seminar on Challenges and
Experiences in Developing Architectural Education in Asia June 8-9th 2007,
Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta.
25

Southeast Asia: 9 Space of very high cultural plurality in sense of

geo-historically, its system of beliefs, and society. The Nusantara
Archipelago is essentially different from another Asian continental
countries and archipelagoes with four seasons such as Japan.
And also, Southeast Asian wide-ranging area have played a role
as a bridge and glue, between India and Arab to China during
the spreads of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam.10
Thus, the geo-historical developmental trajectories of
Nusantara could be affirmed as a basic parameter in formulating
a proper concept of a city for the region. The importance is to
communicate the idea. In the years to come, there will appear
discourses to scrutinize the links between theory, politics, and
policy using paralell narratives of the Nusantara cities in multidiciplinary views. The Nusantara City would not be a city of the
past, but parts of the actual discourses of a global city, knowledge
city, creative city, sustainable city, and resurgent city. Making a
Nusantara City is a great work that would be certainly impossible
to be executed by a single discipline group.
As has been shown through many works of scholars,
traditional or conventional point of view on Nusantara is a
linguo-anthropological or a historical, in which Nusantara is
considered as a part of Austronesia. Is there a new approach? In
field of planning, actions of European and North-American
11
postmodernists trying to see beyond and to connect their
spatial approaches to other fields (including local system of
9 Note the conventional concept of Nusantara in Wikipedia Encyclopaedia: Used
in a geo-politico-cultural context, the term Nusantara generally encompasses
those Southeast Asian islands and some neighboring continental territories
where Malayo-Melanesian-Polynesian languages and associated cultures are
dominant. In this context, the term Nusantara is interchangeable with Kepulauan
Melayu ("Malay Archipelago"). From this point of view, Malaysia (including
mainland Malaysia), the Philippines, the Melanesian-Polynesian islands and the
islands of Indonesia including Papua are all included in the concept of
Nusantara. Linguistically, the concept could be stretched to include the islands
of Taiwan and Madagascar, as the native languages of both these islands are
also Austronesian languages.
For a modern study of Austronesian anthropology, see excellent work of Fox, J.,
1995, Austronesian Societies and Their Transformations, Canberra: Department
of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian
National University. For archeological studies on spreads of Austronesian, see
among other the classical study of Heine-Geldern 1945, Prehistoric research in
the Netherlands Indies, New York.
The topic still actual as shown by a seminar that will be held in Brunei
Darussalam, 24-26 January 2008: Seminar Antarabangsa Dialek-dialek
Austronesia di Nusantara III (SADDAN III).
10
This statement is communicated the my article (2007c).
11
In the opinion of some scholars, postmodernism has the potential of
acting as a conceptual bridge that links changes in planning to changes in other
fields. See for instance Hirt, 2005. Postmodern urbanism talks about changes of
approaches: from value-free to value-laden planning, from efficiency to sense of
place, from anti-tradition to tradition, from separation to integration and planning
forms and densities.
26

beliefs), begins to reach Indonesia. However, a holistic view of

Nusantara seems to be far away yet. Nevertheless, some
prominent characters of Nusantara could be presented.
Region with Two Seasons: Leafy All Year Round
The first phenomenon, Nusantara as described
geographically above is a tropical region; it has two seasons and
leafy all year round. Note a small scene, well-known both in
Christian and Islam: Adam and Hawa (Eve) had been deceived
by evils deception to eat the forbidden fruit, they is covered their
genitals (aurat) with the leaves of the Heaven. It seems that the
leaf is a fundamental need of human being to descend his
generations and to keep his existence. Primitive man used leaves
as shelter; cattle transforms leaves into animal-protein that we
eat. Thus leaves provide human protection from climate and
hungry. For believers, the earth had been created by Allah
Almighty God as provision for human being to prepare his
eternally life. Trees, caves, hamlets, countries, villages, or cities
and even the earth, essentially is dwelling for all, a home for
human beings.
Prophet Muhammad said in well-known hadeeth: my
home is my heaven. As a home or dwelling for all human, the
earth should have a nuance of heaven. It is clear that human
being is very close with his nature and leaves on his
environments.12 The relation between man and his environments
is not just in physical parameters (temperature, oxygen, etc) but
also in a resonance of the meta-empirical energy. Perhaps it
would be peculiar to be explained that the nature of human being
(fithrah) has the same vibratio-motion of the energy of bio-cosmic
essence13 with the leaf. There is no need to prove by
sophisticated physics and its experiments that leafy environments
bring a peaceful nuance to every human. A little vegetation in a
room will give a different feeling compared to an empty one. As a
matter of fact, man living in Nusantara, should be sufficient; it is
leafy and has two seasons. Nusantara cities should be different
from those of European counterparts.
The Origin: Tree-Dwelling
To sketch the realities of Nusantaras existence and
image of its nature, surveys on the origin of the Southeast Asian
12
The modern world begins to know better the reality. Following

indigenous knowledge on the use of leaves, new disciplines spring: ethnomedicine and ethno-pharmacy. Some scholars call it soft science, which
integrating tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge as a whole. For the
philosophy and discussions on its organization, see, Capra (2004)
13
See Pangarsa, 2007a, Part 2.1. Soil and Water: Nature of Man. In
Bahasa Indonesia, I prefer to use the terminology gerak-getar ketenagaan zat
hidup.
27

architecture might be helpful. There are two types of the origin of

dwellings in the world: cave or troglodyte-dwelling and treedwelling. It is known that Southeast Asia archipelago is the region
of the second type and continental Asian is of the first. Beneath
platformed floors of a house spreads a continuous space from
one house to the others, passing courtyards, village alleys, and
paddy fields constituting an integrated natural leafy environments
and those of sheltered man-made with different scales and
degrees of privacy. It seems that it would not only be physical, but
also energy of bio-cosmic essence phenomenon.
The main point is how to find out the boundary marks
between inhabited and non-inhabited territory. The proposed
concept is that the boundary should be defined not only by
physical elements but also by or bio-cosmic energy as well. In
conventional scientific point of view, it is usually regarded as
spatio-anthropological paradigms with myths, legends, or
traditions of beliefs. In the primitive age or even today, traditional
rituals held in villages usually intended to bring a safety and
secure life in certain villages territory (e.g. ritual of slamtan,
bersih desa, ruwatan14, etc in Javanese villages). In traditional
villages, the territory is often indicated by planted trees or bushes
as a fort. So that in intention to conserve man-environment
interrelation described above, vegetation use of spatial
territorializing would be most reasonable method to be replicated
when they make vast clustered dwellings. In Javanese old
tradition, a forestry region is often regarded as a non-human
15
dwellings space or non-occupied space.
Island: Sea-bordered Living Space
By nature, coasts surrounding an island are forts
separating and protecting the land part from the others.
Apparently, the Nusantara cultures have been formed by islands
boundaries. The architecture and the language of Island of Bali
are completely different from those of the native of Lombok (in
southern regions of the Island). Or, that of Mentawai is also very
different from Nias although they are relatively very close to
each other. Boundaries of cultural spaces are also formed by
water and land elements (large rivers, high mountain, vast
14
15
In principles, the aims of the rituals are to save and to secure villagers
from diseases, pests, disasters, dangers, etc.
The traditional view implicated in the writing of babad as history in
almost all regions of Java (Babad Banyuwangi, Babad Blitar, Babad Madiun,
etc., that in this case babad means the histories of) and in puppet show scripts
(for example, the well-known scene of Babad Alas Wanamarta, the Opening
of Wanamarta Forest). A babad tells a history when people cuts (Javanese:
mbabad) trees of forests to establish village, city or country. The scene of babad
indicates clearly a spatial territorializing.
28

forests, etc). For greater or more populated islands will be

explained on the following paragraph.
An etymological comparison of two words Austronesia and
Nusantara explains the appropriate view. Austronesia is a
Greek word consisting two elements, Austrlis (South) nsos
(islands); Austronesia would be southern islands, including
Nusantara. Thus, the center of spatio-temporal origin axis
mundi or the spatial reference is Greek, from which European
cultures had developed. Thus in the word Austronesia it would
be a trace of Eurocentrism, subordinating Nusantara. Nusantara
comes from two Old Javanese words nuswa or nusya (island) and
antara (between). Coincidently, the word nusa has the same
meaning as nsos, means island. Thus, a reasonable
explanation of Nusantara would be "the whole combined
archipelago countries" without a center but an entire
archipelago. However, by nature the five main islands of
Indonesia become the centers.
In the reality of cultural developments in Nusantara, a
high mountain is often considered as the center of an occupied
space. That is empirically a figuration of the vertical axis that
could appear in symbolism of local political power. Mount
Semeru is considered as the center of space and power by
Hindu-Buddhist of old Eastern Javanese kingdoms. By the nature
of society, the territory of this occupied space is geographically
very dynamic. So that finally, it could be concluded that
Nusantara is open or having position as a free space
connected to a center. The center will culturally and politically be
defined in accordance to the system of beliefs in society, planted
by dominating power(s).
Hospitality of the Nature and the People
Observing its moderate climate, thriving and prosperous
lands with abundant resources, it would be not too exorbitant to
say that initially as a host for peoples living in its environment
the nature of Nusantara is a space with extraordinary hospitality.
The nature of Nusantara contributes special characters to its
people, which is well known as friendly to visitors, having
perceptive way of thinking, etc. At a glance, it looks like a given
character of the people. But people could not present real
hospitality without a grateful attitude to whom or to which he
believe and considered as the Supreme Substance, giving
prosperity and saving his life. Having its own system of beliefs,
each social group manifests its attitude in traditions that exist in
diversity. But it seems that a common view and attitude is
conserving nature. Hence, the hospitality of natural environment
around them is reciprocated by the same attitude; people cultivate
29

or take advantage of, but not to force the nature to fulfilling their
greed.16
Universality in Symbolism of Geography
Being open in both natural and societal point of views,
Southeast Asian or especially Nusantara played a role as a
bridge and glue between India and Arab to China. During the
parallel periods of the spreading of Hinduism and Buddhism,
cultural and political ruling powers had planted many religionbased spatial conceptions, blended through the processes of
acculturations with local religions or system of beliefs. It could be
noted that Balinese villages is centralized to Mount Agung in Bali.
Mount Semeru, the mounts Dieng, Arjuna, Penanggungan, etc.,
in Java had also been considered as central of transcendental or
spiritual space. The spatial conception is not only locally;
Indonesian Hindus still regard the Ganges in India as Holy River.
The site and the Temple of Vihara Agung (The Great Vihara) in
Trowulan, East Java was selected and established in 1980s due
to divine inspiration of Thai Buddhist priests. The regionalism of
spatial orientation was also proved by studies on the Chinese
diaspora: the mother-land of continental China is a spatial
orientation for Chinese descendants abroad.
Although coming lately, an important phenomenon is
Islam, which brought about Nusantara a new global orientation.
Each prayer and mosques of Islam have spatial orientation to the
Kaaba, believed as the sacred point in the earth. A study by
Gani (2004: 28, 58) showed that among hundreds of countries in
relation to the Kaaba, Nusantara has a peculiar position. The
region is exactly oriented to the two vertical important elements:
The Multazam and the Door of Kaaba. The Multazam is the wall
between Hijr Aswad (the sacred stone mounted on the
Southeastern corner of the Kaaba) and The Door, which is
believed by Muslims as best a place to pray. In brief, Nusantara
would be a planar projection of Kaaba central point through the
two vertical elements explained above. Explanation should be
sought to prove the matter. Nonetheless, it seems that the
phenomenon could answer clearly cultural territory of Nusantara
and explain Aceh is called Serambi (Veranda of) Mekkah and
among first Islamized Nusantara countries.
What is the lesson derived from the Kaaba? Like the
meaning of the Kaaba symbolism itself determined in the earth
as the first dwelling for the first human being Adam each
16
In the past, in most of Indonesia regions, people had indigenous

knowledge conserving vegetations by restricting the cultivations following the
climatic circle, mystical or mythological accounts. The same traditions
implemented in animal husbandry.
30

dwelling would be able to sustain his life and other creatures. 17

Consequently, as the Kaaba that becomes (symbolically) a place
to stop for all of human beings, each dwelling of Adams
descendants has a universality. In dynamics and heterogenic
world, what is useful value of the Kaaba? It is not too hard to
accept that a dwelling, village, city or built environment should not
destroy its environment. In other word, the value of harmony or
togetherness both in terms of human society and society of the
nature is a priority in achieving sustainable life for all. Every
empiric environment has interrelation with its meta-empiric reality.
Every place of built environment in Nusantara would have its
spirituality. That is a view as a basis that empiric and metaempiric balance should be maintained properly both for human
and nature. Nusantara is a unity of heterogeneity. Thus, a
common or universal platform is required to achieve a living in
harmony between the creatures of Allah, Almighty God.
Resource and Market of the North?
The long history of human civilizations since 14 th century
has been a history of suppression of human being, its nature, and
both. After a long colonial period, European and American overrationalized economic-based development has became a single
paradigm and truth of a new capitalistic religion in which
emerges the worldly spirit of gaining quickly, multiplying
outcomes in the shortest time possible and in a most efficient
way. Based on this spirit, science in very exclusive disciplines
which sides only to human greed spring. The victim are nature
and underprivileged people. Would they be sacrificed in the
names of development of human civilization, colonial or postcolonial? This is proper time to leave the Darwinian view of
struggle of life behind, even though it is late to take such action.
Peaceful scientific implementations in the other hand needs no
victims at all.
For many centuries, Southeast Asia regions including
Nusantara became subjugated territory of the Northern countries
(Western Europeans and Northern Americans). Executed in
politico-military or physical methods, the first period say before
Second World War exploited explored natural resources:
minerals, agricultural products, etc. The later period especially
in last four decades is the pretense of scientific methods.
Undoubtedly, the aim of the second period has been to create
17
The Hadeeth narrated by Abdullah bin Umar, cited in Gani (2004),

explained that Allah, descended Adam with a house as place (for human
being) to stop; it will be surrounded (thawaf), as His Throne is surrounded (by
angel). It is known that Prophet Ibrahim and his son Prophet Ismail had (re)built
empirically the Kaaba. Another lesson: in order to sustain the life, by miracle,
Ismail had made appear a source of water called the Water of Zamzam. See
Pangarsa, 2007a: 20.
31

markets for advanced technologies of the North, such as in

genetics, informatics, robotics, nano-techs, etc. By spreading
scientific information, values of truth, good, or beauty is
patterned. A mislead in interpreting the slogans as InformationAge, Globalization, Internationalization, Cosmopolitanism
and other names, would trap into the invisible loop hole, that is a
scientific-politic-economical dependence to the Northern
countries. The tall stacks of debts of Indonesia are undeniable
reality. The winners of the game of power are the Northern
countries. The disciplines of architecture and planning play a very
little part of this big game. A symbolism is required in politics of
culture, not only as a simple way to built mental attitude but also
to create an applicable proper (read: peaceful) scientific
perspective.
Conclusion: Science for Human and Nature
The facts discussed lead the following questions: Having
four seasons would Europeans or Northern American countries
are more appropriate for industry whilst Nusantara more
adequate for agriculture? What kind of agriculture is appropriate?
How far do Nusantara have to develop the industries? What is the
scale of its cities? How to reconstruct the existing cities? How to
develop sheltered-landscape urban architecture? What is the
appropriate local-global architecture typology for each regions of
Nusantara and its cities? What are local-indigenous-exclusive and
cosmopolitan-universal-inclusive characters of a Nusantara City?
What are the interrelations of a Nusantara City to its surrounding
villages? The list of question can be extended, but it seems that
the answers require new paradigm.
The necessary step that should be taken is to free the
people of Nusantara from debts. In real sense, the debts are of
financial and of dependencies to science and technologies. By
freeing from financial debt, the people of Nusantara can obtain
freedom from dependencies, so they can develop their of system
of knowledge. By integrating the system of knowledge (in
cognitive domain) with the system of beliefs (in affective domain),
a new vista appears, not only widening and deepening the
understanding of self, but also the understanding of other. The
scientific-politic-economical game subordinating Nusantara and
the other parts of the world to the North must be stopped by
deconstructing its inner-axis: the science. Then, a second step is
to reformulate science for the sake of the human as well as the
nature. Otherwise, the suppressions of human being and the over
exploitations of nature continue.
To avoid that catastrophe, a reality should be understood:
The nature (fithrah) of human being has the same vibratio-motion
of the energy of bio-cosmic essence with the nature. The concept
leads to regard a Nusantara City as a denser group of nodes of
32

the energy so that managing functions, limits, scales,

densities, etc must be done with respect to a balance interrelation
between man and his nature. In a Nusantara City context, it would
concern urban as an entity of reality. New holistic fields of study
would be required, such as urban ecology which not only serves
people, but also with substances of bio-urbanism or biodiversity for the sake of both human and nature. This would be a
common (politics and) scientific platform to develop a Nusantara
City. The common platform should be respected and maintained
in theory, politics and policy of urban in the process of structuring
and systemizing the local-heterogenic and global-opened
Nusantara cities, where the territorializing and the centers
determination would create fuzzy territories and dynamics
centers in harmony.
Reference
Capra, Fitjrof. 2004, Hidden Connections, Strategi Sistemik
Melawan Kapitalisme Baru, Jalasutra, Yogyakarta
Gani, Muhammad Ilyas, 2004, Sejarah Mekkah Dulu dan Kini,
translation by Anang Rikza Mesyhady, Al-Rashid
Printers, Madinah
Grnlund, B., 2002, New Urban Theory, in Urban Winds
Website
Hirt, Sonia A., 2005, Toward Postmodern Urbanism? Journal of
Planning Education and Research 25:27-42 DOI:
10.1177/0739456X04270465, 2005 Association of
Collegiate Schools of Planning
Pangarsa, Galih Widjil, 2007a, Merah-Putih Arsitektur Nusantara,
Penerbit Andi, Yogyakarta
________, 2007b, Di Bawah Bayang-Bayang Beringin:
Pertumbuhan Benih Arsitektur Setempat di Indonesia,
Seminar Nasional Perkembangan Arsitektur di Indonesia,
UNDIP, Semarang, May 5, 2007.
________, 2007c, Arsitektur Nusantara: Menuju Lokalitas dan
Universalitas Pendidikan Arsitektur, Seminar on
Challenges and Experiences in Developing Architectural
Education in Asia June 8-9, 2007 Universitas Islam
Indonesia, Yogyakarta
33

THE PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE CITY

Wan-Burhanuddin b Wan-Abidin
Dip.Arch (ITM), BFA, B.Arch (RISD), S.M.Arch (MIT).
School of Housing, Building and Planning
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang
wburhan@alum.mit.edu
1. Introduction
The concerted effort focusing on the spiritual component
in the making of cities, and globally discussing it is indeed
commendable. However it is hoped this reaction to the current
practice and theory of city planning will not just draw from
materials grounded in Eurocentrism which has produced endless
disinformative mindsets in its global governance campaign. 1 One
recent example is the Doktrin Perancangan Sejagat (Universal
Planning Doctrine) which calls for the strengthening of the interrelationship between three elements Creator (P), Man (M) and
2
Environment (A) shown in Figure 1. By locating the human (M)
in the center, the model is very much a regurgitation of
renaissance anthropocentrism.
Figure 1: Universal Planning Doctrine Vs Production Trinary

1
Solihah (ed.), Proceedings of International Conference Challenges and

Experience in Developing Architectural Education in Asia, Yogyakarta, 2007, p
A-10 A10-11.
Doktrin Perancangan Sejagat was discussed at length for some years from late
1990s on, at various levels of the government and was finally adopted as the
underlying philosophy in Town Planning in Malaysia. See the application of this
model
at
http://www.mpsp.gov.my/dasarmpsp/Garispanduan/12PembangunanSejagat/G
P12_03DoktrinPembangn&PerancangnSejagat.htm.gov.
,
http://www.geocities.com/unit7ppkl/prinsip.html.
34

As opposed to the Universal Planning Doctrine, there is

an alternative model, the Production Trinary3 which centralizes
the Creator (see plan) and locates below the Creator (see
elevation), three elements all on the same level, Man (Actor),
Environment (Site) and Law (Rules) which does not exist in the
Doctrine. This model demands that man as Actor enslaves
himself to the Master (Allah the Creator), manages using the
Rules of the Ruler (Allah the Creator), the environment (on earth
as a Site) owned by the rightful King (Allah The Creator). The
trinary is further detailed so as to generate an operative model
called the Production Model (Figure 2).
The Production Model consists
of six elements which may be
described in the context of the
production of a city in this
manner:
A city located on a site
somewhere is the product of
different actors with different
intentions acting on an order
(get brief, design, build, market,
sell, buy, inhabit, demolish),
based on (by breaking/ bending)
rules.
These six elements may be
generalized to represent any
form of production.
Figure 2: Production Model
The production of Knowledge City as a concept (spirit), a

formal idea (character) and utilizable form and space
(manifestation), may also be developed using this Production
Model.
Because this production involves the Creator (Allah as
Al-Khaliq), the first task in the process of production is close
reading Allahs text.4 This product of close reading would define
the spirit of production.
2. Spirit
The first revelation/ instruction/ commandment to be
understood and then carried out is given in Al-Quran, Chapter 96,
Verse 1 (96:1),5
Figure 3: 96:1 Read in the name of your Lord who created!

3
Solihah, ibid.
Where reading is the technique of non hermeneutic logic see Galih W
Pangarsa, Merah Putih Arsitektur Nusantara, UBM, Malang, 2006, pp 46-47.
5
This was the first of the first set of instructions given to Muhammad PBUH. The
translations used here are from http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/.
4
35

Dynamic reading the commandment Read in the name

of your Lord who created! renders the above instruction almost
inoperative, if not quite meaningless. For a start there is the term
Rabb (translated as Lord), Al-Khaliq (The Creator) and there is
always the implicit Allah (already widely used, e.g. in naming
Muhammads father Abdullah) which is not the name Muhammad
was instructed to read in. Given these variables it is suggested
that the instruction is impossible to act on, unless it is close read 6
as follows (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Expunge all isms in the Ism of Rabb who created
Understanding the instruction as expunge/ debunk/

dispose/ displace/ uninstall all other isms in the ISM of your
Rabb who created makes possible the very first step of this
inquiry (i.e. the attempt to understand the ideology/ ism of Rabb
who created). The instruction literally means the denial of other
sources of knowledge (other than that from Allah, The Creator)
and the affirmation of the single source of knowledge, i.e. from
7
Allah.
Once this is practiced, the process of the acquisition of
knowledge may be likened to the creation of a human being from
a clot (96:2) which just does not appear out of the blue, but
formed by first receiving/ accepting what is delivered. It is only
after this conception can the body of knowledge develop
incrementally, cell by cell, without shortcuts!.8 Knowledge as a
product would therefore be similar to the unique human individual
without duplicates just as there are no two congruent identical
6
. 75:16 Move not your tongue to make haste therewith.

. Another rendering of this is found in the statement La Ilaha Ilallah which
literally means the denial of all powers and the affirmation that there is only ONE
power to succumb to, that is the power of Allah.
8
. 23:14 Then We made the seed a clot, then We made the clot a lump of flesh,
then We made (in) the lump of flesh bones, then We clothed the bones with
flesh, then We caused it to grow into another creation, so blessed be Allah, the
best of the creators.
7
36

twins nor the same leaves or snowflakes. And close reading must
be consistently deployed (96:3) in order to be further informed by
The Creator who teaches via His Pen (96:4) and teaches what
humans know not (96:5), implying the consistent endowment of
new knowledge to the reader.9 This is Creator-taught and
termed here as Divine Knowledge.
Why humans must go through this ideological cleansing exercise
is shown in 16:78 And Allah has brought you out from the wombs
of your mothers while you know nothing. And He gives you
hearing, sight, and hearts that you may give thanks.
Reading the above verse as is, we are informed that we are
brought to this earth (not even the mother possesses the
knowledge of the time of delivery), without knowledge but
equipped with the tools to acquire it. How to go about the
acquisition however requires close reading. This is illustrated in
Figure 5.
Figure 5: Acquisition of Divine Knowledge
Given the tools to acquire knowledge at birth, we would

already have acquired knowledge by the time we realize that we
are doing so, the process involving the accumulation of
information (ism of Rabb) and disinformation (other than the
ism of Rabb). This process is normally indicated by the learning
curve where the growth of knowledge is a factor of human
biology, thus implying the reduction of knowledge with age until
9
. The amount of knowledge available to humans is described in 31:27 And if all

the trees on earth were pens and the ocean (were ink), with seven oceans
behind it to add to its (supply), yet would not the words of Allah be exhausted (in
the writing): for Allah is Exalted in Power, full of Wisdom.
37

death. The accumulated knowledge under the learning curve

consists of the ism of Rabb and all other isms muddled up. As we
continue with our inquiry nevertheless, we shall come to a point
10
of conflict where things do not any longer make sense and we
therefore need a more infallible source to ground in our
understanding. If from this point on we start deploying 96:1-5, we
shall begin to unlearn and as we do, the New Learning Curve
would be formed, drastically transforming the nature of the postnatal acquisition of knowledge.
While unlearning may be difficult at the outset because
we are not used to it, it would get easier as we continue to filter
out all isms other than the ism of Rabb.11 This new knowledge
which develops in increments within the limits of our
understanding, leads to the same end, the absence of all isms
other than the ism of Rabb who created.
To ensure that the knowledge remains virus-free, there
shall always be pop-up reminders such as 2:42 And mix not
truth (the haq) with falsehood (the batil), nor conceal the truth
while you know or 3:71 O people of The Book, why do you mix
truth with falsehood and conceal the truth while you know?"
This is the nature of
reading. And reading is
defined in 2:185
Ramadhan is the (month)
in which was sent down
the Qur'an (reading), as
a guide (huda) to
mankind, also clear
(Signs) (baiyinat) for
guidance and judgement
(furqaan) (between right
and wrong), read as
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Read
Reading therefore is accomplished only upon understanding, and

possible only after an experience. It is only from this single source
of experiential knowledge then that each element of Production
Model would be fine-tuned so as to meet the prerequisite of what
may qualify as Divine.
10
. At this point, ones biological age does not matter; Muhammad PBUH started
at 40, Khadija 55, Ali RA 10.
11
. 54:17 We have indeed made the Quran easy
38

If Knowledge City must be divine,
which it should, then it would have
to be the product of the whole
process of Divine Production
consisting of the six divineadjectived elements shown in
Figure 7. Otherwise, it may not be
worth the effort, even if it is just to
think about.12
Divinity is therefore the spirit of
the
holistic
Production
of
Knowledge City . This spirit
embodied in all six elements may
be exemplified as follows:
Figure 7: Divine Production
2.1 Divine Actor

One (or a group) bound by the purpose of creation as
revealed in 51:56,
And I have not created the
jinn and the men except that
they should serve Me (56)
Actors are all the time subjected to ridicule, being called names,
but that would not affect the actor in any way; conversely it may
even reinforce them.
2.2 Divine Intention
It is a conscious objective embedded in those who say as
per instructed in 6:162-163,
Say: Surely my prayer and
my sacrifice and my life
and my death are (all) for
Allah, the Lord of the
worlds (162) No associate
has He; and this am I
commanded, and I am the
first of those who submit
(163).
From birth to death (everything, knowledge included) is all for

Allah and no one else but He.
2.3 Divine Act
It is carrying out the instruction, at the same time
refraining from doing what is forbidden as per 42:13,
12
. 103: 1-2 Most surely man is in loss (1) Except those who believe and do good,
and enjoin on each other truth, and enjoin on each other patience (2).
39

He has ordained you of
the Diin what He enjoined
upon Nuh and that which
We have revealed to you
and that which We
enjoined upon Ibrahim
and Musa and Isa that
keep to establish the
Diin and be not divided
therein. hard it is for the
musyrikin that which you
call
them
to;
Allah
chooses for Himself whom
He pleases, and guides to
Himself him who turns (to
Him), frequently (13).
Clearly indicated also, this Divine Act is loathed by the musyrikin

defined as those who divide The Diin and become sects every
sect rejoicing in what they have with them. 13 This must
knowledgeably be recognized.
2.4 Divine Rule
The law and jurisprudence derived from The Book (AlKitab) as per 5:50,
Do they then seek the
law of the jahiliyah?
And who is better than
Allah for a people who
have firm Faith (50)
As opposed to the rule of Allah there is also the rule of

Thaghut.14 4:60 Have you not seen those who assert that they
believe in what has been revealed to you and what was revealed
before you? They desire to summon one another to the judgment
of the Thaghut though they were commanded to deny him 4:61
And when it is said to them: Come to what Allah has revealed and
to the Messenger, you will see the munafikun turning away from
you with (utter) aversion. Again, these reactions are also to be
acknowledged.
2.5 Divine Site
A territory endowed upon those with divine intention,
performing the divine act as per 24:55,
13
14
. See 30:31-32.
. (Thaghut) adalah setiap sesuatu yang melampui batasannya, baik yang
disembah (selain Allah Subhanahu wa Taala), atau diikuti atau ditaati (jika dia
ridha
diperlakukan
demikian).
see
http://muwahiid.wordpress.com/2007/06/05/makna-thaghut/.
40

Allah has promised, to
those among you who
believe and work
righteously, that He will, of
a surety, grant them the
khilafah on earth (55)
It must also be known that the Divine Site is not merely a

theoretical space but a place, a Divine Kingdom where the Divine
Rule is enforced.
2.6 Divine Product
On the Divine Site shall be located the Divine Product, (
9:33).15
He it is Who sent His
Messenger
with
guidance and the true
Diin (Ad Diinul Haq),
that He causes it to
prevail over all Diin
(Ways of Life), though
the musyrikin may be
averse (33)
This Divine Product would be the result of a Divine Act

(establishing the Diin) and this is termed as The True/Real Diin
(Ad-Diinul Haq).
Ad-Diinul Haq is therefore the spirit of Divine Production.
3. Character
Knowledge City in the context of Divine
located in the Place of The Diin (MaDIINah).
MaDIINah which went beyond the City-State
proclaimed over Yathrib, had structure, form and
that constituted its character.
Production is
Muhammads
of Madinah
regenerativity
3.1 Structure
MaDIINah placed its administration as the basic
component within which citizens as slaves of Allah, were vertically
linked to their representatives, Rasul and Allah (Executive);
horizontally linked to other citizens who abided only the Rules of
Allah which were reworded in the contemporary legal language
(Legislative); inhabited the site endowed by Allah under the
jurisdiction of, thus defining the extent of the site (Judiciary). This
is the seed of Allahs administration, the identity of the City-State
of Madinah.
15
. 61:9 It is He Who has sent His Messenger with Guidance and the Diin of
Truth, that he may proclaim it over all diin (way of life), even though the
Musyrikin may detest (it).
41

Upon the Proclamation of Madinah, armed-warfare, the method to

maintain what was established,
was made manifest. The
production of warfare was also based on the Production Model.
Figure 8: Basic Structure of MaDIINah
3.2 Form
As the forces trying to prevent the establishment of The
Diin (Makkan forces) inevitably crashed, MaDIINahs
administration moved in to Makkah and realized another element,
the Forbidden City (Haram Land), further detailing out the form
of the Divine Product. Surrounding it were three areas of
simultaneous development Citizen Development, Site
Development and System Development (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Basic Form of MaDIINah
42

3.3 Regenerativity
MaDIINah is a living entity and possesses, among others,
the regenerative characteristic. On any terrain (site endowed by
Allah) on this face of the earth, the form and structure of
MaDIINah could be physically adjusted to the conditions of the
site.
This enabled it to be expanded to other continents
including Asia, details of expansion would also be going by the
Production Model, the Product being jannah/ garden/ paradise as
16
a place of safety/ security/ prosperity, Darrussalam, Jerusalem
(Figure 10).
Figure 10: MaDIINahs Regenerativity

4. Manifestation
Knowledge City, emulating the spirit and character of
MaDIINah may choose to make the city in the real and cyber
17
forms.
4.1 Real
The dire need to see the manifestation of MaDIINah has
led some to physically create villages and communities which, not
surprisingly, have been under attack.18 Perhaps there is no need
16
Imran
N
Hosein,
Jerusalem
in
the
Quran,
2003.
http://www.imranhosein.org/images/stories/j_in_q.pdf
There is only one real but many forms of its assymetrical opposite
hyperrealism, surrealism.
18
Recent attempts by Imran Hosein to create Muslim villages may need to
heed Allahs command in 18:20 For if they come to know of you, they will stone
you (to death or abuse and harm you) or turn you back to their religion, and in
that case you will never be successful.
17
43

to panic and therefore act on conjecture to realize The Diin. The

key in establishing The Diin is bringing up what was once
established de facto and de jure but somehow brought down
(sunnah). In other words, the Diin has its history so as to earn it a
matter of fact and that it is universally unquestionable. As the Ism
of Rabb demands 17:36 And follow not that which you have not
the knowledge; surely the hearing and the sight and the heart,
shall all be questioned
In the absence of the historical facts then, our task in this
Grand Unlearning Exercise may need to prioritize the
discernment of historical events based on Divine Production and
those constructed in other isms which do nothing more than
fragment, disinform, distort, mislead.
Without the benefit of local divine narratives, which we
are also to knowledgeably produce, we can only reflect on the
events that had happened at the time of Muhammad, the very
reason why the Sunnah is mandatory. It is from here that we look
at our time to identify the usage of the Risalah in our time.
Figure 11: MaDIINnah has History.

33:21 Indeed in
Rasulullah you have a
good example to follow
for him who hopes in
(meeting) Allah and the
Last Day and
remembers Allah
much.
44

The establishment of MaDIINah should see the downfall

of the state currently suppressing it. This would be followed by an
exodus as per 110:1-2 When there comes the help of Allah and
the victory (1). And you see men entering the Diin of Allah in
companies (2) to benefit from the holistic production. As further
exemplified by the Khilafah, the refinement of the application of
Divine Rules will ensue to ensure that justice prevailed; this was
followed by the refinement of the Divine Actors who should be
economically dependent only on Allah. It was only after this that
the world should witness the flowering of knowledge.
For knowledge to flower however, seeds must now be
sown. The recent conference held in UII,19 although in the realm
of architecture should accommodate the range from nano20
architecture to the cosmos. While the seeds are being gathered,
it is suggested here that a bed be prepared now for the seeds to
be sown. In the absence of a real site, cyber space can be a
viable alternative.
4.2 Cyber
Cyber Knowledge City may only be meaningful with the
manifestation of the real. Assuming that the real exists, making
manifest the cyber Knowledge City can be as real. As shown
(Figure 12), cyberreality can be part and parcel of the real when
the time comes. It is upon the real that the cyberreal rides to
function the way it should, to clearly inform.
This cyberreality would also provide the missing spirit in
the numerous cities and communities (real and cyber) who are
currently toying with knowledge management from cities to the
planet.
19
Islamic University of Indonesia, International Conference Challenges and

Experience in Developing Architectural Education in Asia, Yogyakarta, 8-9 June
2007.
20
Dr Maharika concluded the UII conference that in the spirit of undhagi (life-long
learning), the database accommodating works done in Bhumantara be
managed by UII.
45

Figure 12: Cyber Manifestation
This next scenario is not far-fetched as this Knowledge

City MaDIINah using the same seed, shall not only flower but
also fruit.
14:24-25 Do you not see how Allah sets forth a parable?
A good word like a good tree, whose root is firmly fixed, and its
branches (reach) to the heavens (24). It brings forth its fruit at all
times, by the leave of its Lord. So Allah sets forth parables for
men, in order that they may receive admonition (25).
Figure 13: Seed of Knowledge for All.
46

5. Conclusion
Eurocentrism in whatever guise, shall come to an end
only to be displaced, for another period of time, by the Ism of
Rabb which had first introduced the notion of The Book since time
immemorial. The ideology is however only accessible by close
reading. Close reading shall reveal that we are to install the
ideological anti-virus program and be consistently updating it. The
usage of the anti-virus program shall gradually develop into a fully
running program which does not work as a standalone but always
part of a network that uses the same original program. The
program has an infinite possibility for customization, which for this
very reason, a single platform powered by the Most Infinite is
mandatory. The whole setup needs to be earthed in a state, even
if it is at the outset, a city-state which every member of the
network must be a citizen of. Until we find the state, the best
option would still be leaving everything behind, and if need be,
bite the root of a tree even if we have to die so. 21 Perhaps biting
the tree of knowledge would help? Allah knows best.
6. References
1. Al-Hadeeth: Sahih Bukhari. Volume 4, Book 56, Number 803,
http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/searchhadith.html
2. Al-Quran: http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/,
3. Bellinger, Gene. Knowledge Management- Emerging
Perspectives,
http://www.systemsthinking.org/kmgmt/kmgmt.htm, 2004.
4. ____________.
Mental
Model
Musings.
http://www.systems-thinking.org/index.htm, 2004.
21
. Narrated Hudhaifa bin Al-Yaman: The people used to ask Allah's Apostle
about good, but I used to ask him about evil for fear that it might overtake me.
Once I said, "O Allah's Apostle! We were in ignorance and in evil and Allah has
bestowed upon us the present good; will there by any evil after this good?" He
said, "Yes." I asked, "Will there be good after that evil?" He said, "Yes, but it
would be tainted with Dakhan (i.e. Little Evil)." I asked, "What will its Dakhan
be?" He said, "There will be some people who will lead (people) according to
principles other than my tradition. You will see their actions and disapprove of
them." I said, "Will there by any evil after that good?" He said, "Yes, there will be
some people who will invite others to the doors of Hell, and whoever accepts
their invitation to it will be thrown in it (by them)." I said, "O Allah's Apostle!
Describe those people to us." He said, "They will belong to us and speak our
language" I asked, "What do you order me to do if such a thing should take
place in my life?" He said, "Adhere to the group of Muslims and their Chief." I
asked, "If there is neither a group (of Muslims) nor a chief (what shall I do)?" He
said, "Keep away from all those different sects, even if you had to bite (i.e.
eat) the root of a tree, till you meet Allah while you are still in that state."
Sahih Bukhari. Volume 4, Book 56, Number 803.
47

5. Haekal, Muhammad Husain (diterjemahkan dari bahasa Arab

oleh Ali Audah). Sejarah Hidup Muhammad. Penerbit
Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta Pusat, Cetakan Kelima, 1980,
http://media.isnet.org/islam/Haekal/Muhammad/index.html.
6. Hosein, Imran. The Strange World Today. Video Lecture.
http://imranhosein.org/media/Strange_World_1.wmv
7. MIT Open Courseware. http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html
8. Open Courseware Consortium. http://ocwconsortium.org/
index.html.
9. Pangarsa, Galih W. Merah Putih Arsitektur Nusantara, UBM,
Malang, 2006.
9. Solihah (ed.), Proceedings of International Conference
Challenges and Experience in Developing Architectural
Education in Asia, Yogyakarta, 2007, p A-10 A10-11.
10. Technology Review. http://www.technologyreview.com/.
11. Treder, Mike. Turn on the Nanotech High Beams. In Future
http://www.futurebrief.com/miketrederbeams001.asp,
Brief.
2005.
48

DEVELOPING CITY WITH CHARACTER:

WHAT A UNIVERSITY CAN DO?1
Case of Indonesia
Gede Raka
Faculty of Industrial Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology
raka@bdg.centrin.net.id
Abstract
Cities in Indonesia have been growing very fast.
Unfortunately its grew to become character-less. Cities have
become homogeneous and without specific identity. Poor
leadership, bad governance, ignorance planner or designer,
greedy investor and population explosion have been the main
causes of this random growth. A university can diminish this
tendency by improving its capability in the field of design and city
planning , improve the quality of its graduates, enhancing the
capability of government official, make the citizen more
knowledgeable and take more active role in establishing good
governance.
Key words: city development, character, university role
INTRODUCTION
I have visited many cities in Asia, Europe and North
America. There are cities that I want to revisit again and again.
There are cities that I don not to return to, even if I have lot of
means for that. I want to return to a city where I feel comfortable,
safe, and it has its special charm, special ambiance, special
beauty, as well as unique identity. In this city I see and feel a
strong presence of culture and history. I call this city a city with
character.
In the last four decades, all cities in Indonesia have been
growing very fast. Its swelled geographically and new buildings
emerged everywhere. But the rapid growth was not accompanied
by the enhancement of quality of life; the quality of life in the
cities deteriorate. The growth has been going hand in hand with
higher pollution, worse traffic jam, poorer sanitation, higher
social conflicts and crimes rate.
In a sense, I would say that big cities in Indonesia have
grown to become cities without character. From its physical form
cities have become uniform across Indonesia. We can not
anymore see the uniqueness of a city. Even cities that used to be
very beautiful like Bandung (West Java) and Bukit Tinggi (West
1
Paper presented at International Seminar on Knowledge City: Spirit, Character

and Manifestation, in Medan, Indonesia, November 13-14, 2007.
49

Sumatra) have lost its unique aura. From character point of view,
those cities have been destroyed by random growth and
development.
It is to some extent ironic. Because Indonesian talk a lot
and proud of their cultural diversity; but the development of cities
have become more and more homogeneous. Policy maker,
planner and developer seem do not take into account the local
factor in their undertaking. Cities have become a-cultural and ahistoric.
This paper will examine briefly the factors behind this
character-less development and identify certain role that a
university could play to diminish the trend.
FACTORS INHIBITING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITY WITH
CHARACTER
In Indonesian case, the random growth of many cities
and the development of character-less cities has several causes.
It includes poor leadership, bad governance, ignorance planner,
greedy investor, and population explosion.
Poor leadership
A city is basically a complex system. It is a system of
interaction between
social, cultural, political, economical and
technological subsystems. In order to build and develop a good
city or a city with character we need excellent leader, in this case
mayors (walikota) who understand the complexity of the systems .
He or she should be able to create sound policies and take
appropriate actions for policy implementation.
Unfortunately, in Indonesia, in my opinion, for the last four
decades many cities has been lead by mayors who I believed did
not have enough capacity to understand the complexity of the
systems or did not equipped with ability to manage a complex
system. The political mechanism in choosing a mayor and Local
Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah)
members for a city so far do not make a city get the right people
at the position.
Inability to see a city as a complex system and lack of
vision tend to make a mayor to treat the city as a simple system.
His or her action tend to be partial, reactive and heavily short
term oriented. This tendency will make the city grows randomly ,
with no clear concept and lack of future orientation.
Bad Governance
A corrupt bureaucracy is a perfect representation of bad
governance. Indonesia until now is very well-known for that.
Indonesia has been ranked as one of the most corrupt country in
the world [1].
50

Some cities might have excellent development plan, and

policies. But, the big problem is at the implementation phase.
Good plan and policies are
not implemented or the
implementation is not in line with the plan or the policies. A lot of
distortion and leaks occur during the implementation , and
corruption is one of the most important cause of this distortion. In
so many cases , corrupt bureaucrat who have authority are
willing to make decision which are not consistent with the plan or
policy for some money or bribe , for his personal interest, for the
interest of the person who paid him and against the public
interest or the interest of the society at large.
Ignorance Planner or Designer.
Ignorance planner or designer can cause a city losing its
character. This kind of planner or designer lack of contextual
knowledge. This contextual knowledge encompass knowledge on
local culture, knowledge on the habit of the local society,
knowledge on history related to the city and the society,
knowledge on the characteristic of natural environment, and
knowledge on technology and economy relevant to a particular
city. With out contextual knowledge a planner risk to come up with
a plan
which is a-cultural, a historic, a social and
environmentally not-friendly or not appropriate.
On the other hand, a planner without integrity or lack of
moral courage can make a city losing a chance to keep or build
its identity. This type of planner tend to follow the opinion or
wishes of the project owner without critical examination due to
lack of courage to be different or due to the risk of losing the
project. He or she does not dare to defense a concept which he
believes is good for the development of the city if the concept is
against the opinion or the wishes of the city mayor or government
official in charge.
Greedy Investor
The most important thing for a greedy investor is the
immediate profit he can get for himself. For him, the cultural,
social, historical and environmental aspects of development is not
important . This hunger for immediate profit can destroy identity
of a city.
Things getting worse when the greedy investor meets
with the corrupt bureaucrat. Their collaboration will bring very bad
impact on city development. The investor can easily buy the
bureaucrats or people with authority to make decision in favor of
the investor interest and at the expense of public interest.
Population Explosion
Difficulty in developing a city with strong identity raises
due to the rapid growth of population. Urbanization contributes
51

significantly to this high growth. The urbanization from the rural

area has increased the proportion of population of low income in
the city. This low income population change the face of the
city. Crowded kampong, poor sanitation, poor house quality,
gubuk liar , scattered pedagang kaki lima, are common scenery
in the cities all over Indonesia. The pressure of the population
growth especially very high in the cities in Java.
Urbanization is a consequence of economic development
policy that make cities as
economic growth centers by
concentrating investment in or around the cities. This high
economic activities make it very attractive for people living in the
rural area especially those in the low income group- and then
they moving to the city.
WHAT A UNIVERSITY CAN DO?
It has been mentioned above that a city is a complex
system. it involves many problem dimensions, and
involves
many stakeholders, such as central government, local
government, investors or business communities, city citizens,
religious groups, political groups, academic groups or universities,
youths groups, local artist, guardian of local culture group, rural
communities around the cities. Each stakeholder has its own
interest. Some times their interest are divergent . It implies that
solutions or strategy to build a city with character should take into
account the interest of the stakeholders.
University is only one of those stakeholders. Anyhow, it
can contribute to the betterment of a city development. Firstly, it
can contribute through its knowledge. Secondly, as an education
institution, a university might be regarded as a party with no or
least conflict of interest. This will make a university more
credible and very well positioned in facilitating the process of
interaction among stakeholders. Thirdly, a university is the most
important source of the future leaders, whether it is in the
government agencies, private sectors or the civil community. By
continuously improving and innovating in education paradigm,
environment, process and substance, a university will improve the
quality of their graduates, and in turn can substantially enhance
its contribution for a community and nation better future.
There are several specific undertakings that a university
can initiate in order to make a more significant contribution in
developing cities with character. Those encompass : building
university capability and capacity, improvement of graduate
quality, enhancement of government official capability, education
for public or the society at large, and taking more active role in
establishing good governance.
52

Improving University Capability and Capacity.

a. Creating group of experts.
In order to be credible, a university should have high
capability in the domain where it wish to contribute or involve. In
this case is the development expertise in the field or academic
disciplines needed for the development of cities with character.
The first step in this capability building is forming and cultivating
a group of expert in this area. The group member should consist
of the university teaching and research staff come from various
disciplines. The basic
task of this group is to acquire,
accumulate, testing and creating knowledge as well as
transforming experience into knowledge.
b. Establishing inter-university network of expert
In order to enhance the university capacity, the expert
group should initiate and establish collaboration with similar group
in other universities or research institutes. The collaboration
gradually extended and then become an inter-university network
of expert group. The network then serves as a mean to
strengthen the intellectual and the social capital of the expert
group.
Improving the Quality of the graduate
a. More contextual knowledge and creativity
Learning material or curriculum for planner or designer
should give more rooms for and systematically enriched by
contextual knowledge. This contextual knowledge will broaden
the outlook of the student and help them to see the meaning of
the substantial knowledge that they learn. This contextual
knowledge could involve knowledge on history, culture, sociology,
economy, or technology relevant to the substantial knowledge.
Creating specific or unique identity need imagination and
creativity. Therefore learning process should be design to
encourage curiosity and stimulate the spirit of exploration as well
as experimentation.
b. More emphasis on learning for character strength

In Indonesia, formal education nowadays focuses on
competence development. Competence is important, but without
good character it will bring more harm then benefit. Lack of
integrity, especially lack of honesty, has been the primary cause
of corruption in Indonesia. Therefore the education process
53

should give more attention to and emphasis on the development

of character strengths. It should create a learning environment
that enable and encourage the student to identify and
strengthening virtues and developing good habit. Character
strength or good character is one of the building blocks of
leadership, next to healthy relationship and competence.[2]
Capability Enhancement of Government Official
Bad city is the product of bad policy and bad policy
implementation . Policy formulation and policy implementation are
in the hand of government agencies or officials. In order to
minimize the risk of producing bad policies, first off all the
government agencies and officials in charge should have
capability to formulate sound policies and capability to collaborate
with the right experts.
University with its expert group can make initiative to
enhance the capability of government agencies and government
official in charge of policy formulation. It can also establish a long
term collaboration to ensure that the knowledge needed will be
continuously updated.
Education for Public or the Society at large
The character of a city is also represented by the
behavior pattern of its citizens. A city may be renowned as very
hospitable, or clean, or safe, or law-abiding due to the behavior of
its people. And behavior pattern or good habit is the outcome of
continuous learning process. A university can give a significant
contribution by finding out a creative way of learning for the
public or the society at large. In this case, the society learn
specific behavior that represent the uniqueness of a city. A
collaboration with government related agencies will be needed if
the university wish to accelerate and scale up its contribution.
In addition to learn certain behavior, a university can
enhance peoples knowledge and sense of ownership or
responsibility about their city, especially about its development
policies and its implementation. It can be done by collaborating
with network of NGO. With that knowledge, the community can
participate and scrutinizing policy and its implementation.
Take More Active Role in Establishing Good Governance
The quality of city development is strongly related with he
quality of governance. Lack of good governance ( especially at
state and public sector ) will result in bad development quality,
due to poor policy and poor policy implementation.
54

Poor governance or lack of good governance has been

one of the most important cause of multidimensional crisis in
Indonesia in 1998. And now, in 2007, Indonesia has not made
much progress in implementing the principle
of good
governance. These principles of good governance encompass:
transparency,
rule of law, accountability, participation,
responsiveness, equity, efficiency and effectiveness, strategic
vision, and consensus orientation [3].
In establishing good governance, the transformation of
bureaucracy is a must, because the government bureaucracy is
the principle source of bad governance. Now the government
start the discourse about bureaucracy transformation, but no real
action has been done.
Transformation toward the practice of good governance
in Indonesia is a tremendous undertaking, because the root of
bad governance has been deeply implanted and it is nation wide
and at all level of government agencies ( central and local). In
order to carry out this huge task, Indonesia badly need the
participation of all communities and institutions across the
nation. The endeavor to implement good governance need to be
carried out as a movement. In this movement, a university can
play an important role. Universities can establish an interuniversity network for promotion of good governance. This
network will take a role as partner of government agencies and
local communities in learning to implement good governance
principles and to monitor its development.
CLOSING REMARK
The development of cities without character in Indonesia
occurred because the increase in flow of financial resources
(physical capital)
is not
accompanied by significant
improvement of virtual capital. Virtual capital are intangible factors
that create value or benefit or wealth. Good leadership, good
governance, integrity, business ethic, sense of social
responsibility, and intellectual capability, all are elements of
virtual capital. Physical capital without good virtual capital can
bring more harm than benefit.
The most important resource of a university is its
intellectual capital and this resource is embedded in the academic
community. A university can bring substantial contribution by
improving its intellectual capital, and systematically share it with
government agencies, the business community and the society
at large. Hopefully, this undertaking will gradually make the citizen
become knowledgeable citizen, and with their knowledge they are
able participate in the city development for a better future.
55

References
[1]. Transparency International 2006, www.tranparency.org
[2]. Gede Raka, Leadership is Free: Tapping the Dormant
Leadership Potential for Greater Good , Paper presented at
Asia Regional Training and Development Organization
(ARTDO) 34th International Conference, in Bali, August 29,
2007.
[3} UNDP Policy Document, January, 1997,
http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/default.htm
56

......................................................
........................
M. Ridwan Kamil
57

58

ALAM, MERAMU KOTA

(Spice Creates the Space)
Rudolf Sitorus
Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering
University of Sumatera Utara
PENDAHULUAN
Manusia merupakan mahluk yang berada dan
menghadapi alam kodrat. Dia merupakan mahluk jasmani dan
rohani yang menyatu dengan tempatnya, tetapi dia juga: berjarak.
Dia bisa memandangnya, bisa mempunyai pendapat-pendapat
terhadapnya, bisa merubah dan mengolahnya. (Drijarkara, 1969)
Alam (Bumi), Manusia, Rumah dan Kota memiliki satu
keterkaitan, benang merah yang menakjubkan. Pada awalnya
manusia sangat bergantung dan bersahabat dengan alam.
Tempat mereka tinggal dan berlindung adalah guratan pada
alam bernama gua. Sebagian lagi berada pada unsur alam itu
sendiri, pada batang pepohonan besar dan rindang. Kemudian
manusia membentuk tempat mereka dari bahan yang mereka
dapatkan dari alam sekitar mereka : ranting kayu, kulit binatang,
dedaunan dan akhirnya menjadi bangunan rumah kayu tradisi
yang banyak kita jumpai di Nusantara. Sampai pada
perkembangan budaya selanjutnya mereka memerlukan tempat
tinggal dan berkegiatan yang semakin kompleks, untuk
penyembahan (worship), berdagang (trade) dan kebutuhan
membela kelompok (military). Maka terbentuk dan dikenallah
Kota pada sebuah area di muka bumi.
Kota, rumah dan manusia memiliki kesamaan. Masing
masing memiliki unsur fisik(physical) dan unsur jiwa (spiritual).
Beberapa tempat di Indonesia memiliki spirit yang jelas, seperti
Yogyakarta dan Bali. Keduanya dibicarakan, dikunjungi dan
dikenang oleh manusia dari belahan bumi ini dengan kesan-rasa
yang indah. Seperti halnya pujian yang senantiasa melekat
pada kota Paris. Ini diungkapkan Le Corbusier terhadap
kotanya: What moves me in Paris is its vitality. She has been
living on her present site now for more than a thousand years,
always being renewed.... Paris is alive !!!. Ketiga titik di muka
bumi ini memiliki Jiwa, memiliki Karakter.
Kota-kota di muka bumi bisa, bahkan harus memiliki karakter.
Tetapi tidaklah mudah membangun karakter sebuah kota!
65

Membicarakan spirit kota, Kesadaran untuk membangun

karakter, sebuah kota perlu ditumbuhkan! Menyadarkan
kesadaran inilah yang akan menjadi tujuan dari bahasan.
Manusia tidak dapat menyempurnakan diri
tanpa menyempurnakan dirinya!
(Drijarkara, 1969)
MANUSIA PERTAMA
Kitab Suci menuliskan proses makan buah terlarang
menjadi batu penjuru. Terbukanya suatu lembaran baru,
pengalaman baru, persepsi terhadap ruang yang sama sekali
baru, terbukanya mata terhadap moralitas perilaku: malu -rasa
bersalah - penderitaan dll. Ada tiga hal yang menarik yang dapat
dipelajari dari Kitab Kejadian yang ditulis dua ribu tahun yang lalu
itu.
Pertama, kegiatan awal manusia pertama dinyatakan dan
tertulis dalam kitab suci adalah makan. Peristiwa saat Hawa
tergoda oleh binatang ular dan akhirnya memakan buah yang
dinyatakan tidak boleh untuk dimakan. Saat memakan buah itu
manusia dinyatakan melanggar perintah Tuhan, manusia jatuh
kedalam dosa. Fakta kesehariannya, makan memang sangat
penting dalam kehidupan manusia. Manusia mendapat Energi
Baru, mengalami Pengertian Baru melalui peristiwa makan.
Bumbu Pertama :
Makan adalah kegiatan hidup manusia yang Fenomenal.
Selanjutnya Tuhan Allah membuat taman di Eden, disebelah
Timur; disitulah ditempatkan-Nya manusia yang dibentuk-Nya itu.
(Kejadian 2 : 8).
Kedua, Kitab Suci menjelaskan bahwa Tempat manusia pertama
yang dibentuk-NYA dan diberikan untuk ditempati adalah sebuah
tempat yang indah sebuah taman, di Eden. Dengan peristiwa ini
demkian jelaslah tujuan Visi Tuhan Allah kepada manusia
ciptaan-NYA, adalah : Agar manusia Hidup dan Menempati Bumi
dan Memiliki Tempat yang Indah.
Bumbu Kedua :
Tuhan Allah menghendaki manusia agar tinggal, mengisi
hidupnya dan membentuk tempat yang indah pada muka bumi
ini.
Maka Allah menciptakan manusia itu menurut gambar-NYA
(Kejadian 2 : 7a).
Ketiga : Kitab Suci menyatakan bahwa tubuh jasmani diciptakan
oleh Sang Pencipta sesuai gambar-NYA. Dalam hal ini dapat
dimaknai bahwa perilaku yang dilakukan oleh tubuh jasmani
66

ciptaan-NYA yakni Manusia, hendaklah seturut denganNYA.

Yang dikehendaki oleh Tuhan Allah Sang Pencipta adalah
perilaku mulia yang sesuai dengan gambar-NYA, kemuliaanNYA.
Bumbu Ketiga :
Untuk mengisi Tempat yang dipersiapkan oleh Tuhan Allah,
manusia harus Berperilaku Mulia dalam kehidupannya di muka
Bumi ini.
Demikianlah, keterkaitan tempat (alam,rumah,kota),
kegiatan, dan tubuh manusia sangatlah unik. Selama ini kita
senantiasa beranggapan bahwa tempat selalu berada di luar
tubuh jasmani kita. Hal itu memang benar seperti yang kita
ketahui dan kita rasakan. Rasa dibentuk dan diwarnai oleh
pengalaman-pengalaman kita yang semuanya tertanam di dalam
pikiran. Dengan kata lain semua rasa itu terprogram di dalam
syaraf otak kita, yang adalah bagian dari tubuh jasmani. Demikian
juga dengan Karsa dan Perilaku Manusia. Semua memiliki
benang merah dengan lingkungannya, pola kehidupannya dan
motivasi atau penggerak tindakannya.
SPICE CREATES THE SPACE
Sampai saat ini faktor eksternal selalu dominan
dipertimbangkan dalam kaitan pembentukan ruang (Out-In). Para
akademisi mengkaji unsur di luar manusia dalam merancang
sebuah tempat. Seperti : pertimbangan site, situasi , lokasi
geografis,
iklim makro dan mikro, lingkungan, peraturan
bangunan, bahan bangunan dan konteks dengan sekitarnya; juga
faktor sosial budaya, kepercayaan, cosmologi, antropologi
masyarakatnya. Belum dijadikan pertimbangkan serius adanya
kaitan jenis benda (makanan) yang masuk pada tubuh manusia
terhadap bentukan ruang (In-Out).
Tesis spekulatif saya adalah : Ada hubungan antara
bentukan ruang dengan benda yang masuk kedalam tubuh
manusia.
Rumah adat batak, rumah adat minang, yang masyarakat
tradisionalnya memiliki jenis makanan tradisional yang kaya akan
bumbu (spice), menempati rumah tradisional dari kayu dengan
bentuk
atap menjulang. Sedangkan masyarakat mentawai,
masyarakat papua yang memilki pola makan sederhana : bahan
makanan diproses dan dibumbui dengan sederhana (spiceless) ,
memiliki bentuk atap rumah yang sederhana. (Lihat gbr).
67

Spicy
(Foto : Sumber Roxana waterson)

Makanan kelompok orang yang spicy, bentukan rumahnya
berbeda dengan makanan orang yang spiceless/unspicy
spiceless
(Foto: Sumber Roxana waterson)

Bentukan ruang dapat dipengaruhi oleh makanan yang
dimakan secara teratur, turun temurun dengan jenis yang sama
dan oleh satu komunitas manusia. Bumbu sebagai unsur
didalamnya sangat berpengaruh. Spice influence the space !
Bumbu keempat :
Benda yang masuk kedalam tubuh manusia dapat mempengaruhi
persepsi dan bentukan ruangnya.
Dapat disimpulkan bicara tentang manusia dan tempat
(alam/lingkungan) kita selalu berada pada dua tempat yaitu di
68

dalam (Interioritas/internal/ subyektif) dan yang berada diluar

(exterioritas/external/obyektif).
I shall consider the landscape essentially as human habitat, that
is, as an environment in which people act and to wich they react
(Barrie B. Greenbie,1981).
Bumbu Kelima :
Kegiatan hidup manusia berpengaruh
lingkungannya., juga berlaku sebaliknya.
pada
bentukan
LANDASAN RAMUAN
Ramuan Karakter Manusia
Manusia memiliki karakternya masing masing. Karakter
ini terbentuk oleh pengalaman dan lingkungannya. Ada dua
kelompok ekstrim sifat atau karakter manusia. Dalam kitab
Kejadian telah ditunjukkan adanya karakter yang berbeda di
antara dua manusia, baik dan jahat. Sama seperti yang
dinyatakan oleh para psikolog, ada dua kiblat kondisi dasar
karakter manusia yaitu : Agresifis dan Pasifis. Dari kelompok
ekstrim di atas manusia pada dasarnya lebih mengaminkan
bahwa sifat-sifat tersebut ada pada diri setiap individu. Manusia
memilki kapasitas untuk menjadi iblis atau malaikat. Itu semua
bergantung bagaimana kesempatan dan keadaannya (tempat).
Kesempatan dan lingkungan yang kondusif untuk sifat-sifat yang
dapat terekspresikan, adalah sangat bergantung pada bentukan
lingkungan dimana individu itu berada dan dibesarkan.
Ramuan Pertama :
Skenario pembentukan Ruang harus dimulai dari Manusianya.
69

Ramuan Kesadaran
About one fifth of the land area of the earth is in the
tropics; almost all of these winterless lands are classified as
underdeveloped ((Zimolzak/Stansfield, 1983)
Kota dengan empat musim memiliki perbedaan yang
sangat menarik untuk dikaji bila disandingkan dengan kota
dengan dua musim atau bahkan kota dengan keadaan alam yang
sangat kering seperti di padang gurun afrika. Secara regional,
bumi kita memiliki empat kategori fisik yang memiliki perbedaan
sangat jelas. Kondisi fisik itu berpengaruh terhadap orang orang
yang hidup di dalamnya, yaitu : Daerah dengan empat musim
mempengaruhi atmosfir: rasa, kerja/karsa, kegairahan bervariasi
bagi insan yang mengalaminya dan daerah dengan dua musim
yang cenderung monoton bagi manusia didalamnya. Langkah
langkah perencanaan dan penanggulangan kota harus diracik
dengan bumbu-bumbu yang yang tepat. Dengan kata lain
penerapan konsep atau teori tentang kota yang tepat dan baik
disebuah kota dengan wilayah regional tertentu (dengan
perbedaaan alamnya dan budayanya), tidaklah dapat di ambil
dan ditelan bulat-bulat diterapkan begitu saja di kota lain. Perlu
kajian yang lebih membumi untuk itu.
Ramuan Kedua :
Setiap kota harus memiliki karakter positif agar dapat menjual
dirinya!
Ramuan Tindakan
Seperti yang dinyatakan oleh arsitek Eliel Saarinen
sbb:...mans physical and mental development depend largely
upon the character of the environment in which he is nurture as a
child, where he spends his manhood, and where he does his
work.
Kemonotonan kota
di Nusantara perlu mendapat
perhatian utama.
Kota yang ideal adalah sebuah kota indah, memiliki jiwa
dan karakter, yang merupakan etalase keseharian manusia yang
mendiaminya, yang kaya akan
rona dan rasa budaya yang dimiliki, baik itu pola kehidupannya,
budaya yang berasal dari bumi nya (tanah/ geografi) dimana
manusia itu hidup.
For city is a dramatic event in the environment
(Gordon Cullen. 1961)
Ibarat sebuah pentas drama seeting panggung (Stage
Background) sangatlah menentukan keberhasilan pentas
tersebut. Letak geografis sebuah negara dengan kondisi spesifik
70

alamnya sangat memberi pengaruh yang besar terhadap karakter

kota- kota di dalamnya. Alam pasti mewarnai sebuah kota.
Ramuan Ketiga :
Alam berpengaruh besar pada bentukan Kota
MERAMU KARAKTER KOTA DI NUSANTARA
Realita
Kondisi obyektif yang terjadi pada kota di Nusantara
adalah cukup memprihatinkan! Saat ini ungkapan kekecewaaan,
bukan pujian, lebih banyak terlontar bila membicarakan kota di
Nusantara. Keadaan ini tercermin dan terwakili oleh sebagian
besar
kota-kota di indonesia yang
banyak
memiliki
persamaan, yaitu raport merah : macet , banjir, rawan, tidak
nyaman, padat, penggusuran, unjuk rasa dll. Fenomena penyakit
kota-kegagalan kota- ini muncul karena :
Pertama,
pembangunan kota hanya lebih mengagungkan pertumbuhan
fisik semata. Kedua, akibat perencanaan kota yang parsial tak
berkesinambungan tanpa merasuk pada kebutuhan hakikikebutuhan spiritual insan; pola penghidupan
manusia dan
budaya serta alamnya.
Usaha
Gerakan Nasional penanaman ruh, karakter kota perlu
di upayakan!
Kemunduran kota dan masyarakat di Indonesia saat ini
pernah juga dialami oleh negara adidaya Amerika, setengah
abad yang lalu. Mereka bersama bangkit dan berbenah diri
secara sungguh-sungguh seperti yang dinyatakan Presiden
Amerika Lindon. B Johnson pada tahun 1964 : .. Our society will
never be great until our cities are great. In the next forty years we
must rebuild the entire urban United State.
Peran Pemerintah
Belajar dari suksesnya program keluarga berencana,
program pembangunan karakter manusia dan karakter kota harus
direncanakan, dilaksanakan dan dideklarasikan secara nasional.
Sampai enam dekade setelah Indonesia merdeka, pengelolaan
dan pembangunan kota tidak berdasarkan visi yang kuat, visi
yang berdasarkan kondisi sosial budaya, pola penghidupan dan
potensi alam nusantara (Indonesia negara maritim dan negara
pertanian tropis). Pemerintah kota dan propinsi tidak sinergis dan
tidak memiliki patroon yang diamini semua pihak, untuk
dilaksanakan secara berkelanjutan. Bahkan setiap pejabat
pengelola yang baru memilki armada baru, dengan tujuan dan
motivasi baru yang tidak pernah sejalan, beriringan dari
pendahulunya. Untuk itu program yang dilaksanakan dalam
71

jangka waktu yang panjang dan dilaksanakan secara nasional

adalah sangat di rekomendasikan.
Peran Masyarakat
Sosialisasi dan penyuluhan tentang pembangunan
karakter kota perlu dilaksanakan. Selama ini anggapan yang
salah tentang kemajuan (kota) adalah bahwa kota yang maju
adalah kota yang serba moderen. Sebagian besar warga kota
memiliki sikap bahwa sesuatu yang baru akan selalu diterima
bukan karena keperluan yang sebenarnya tetapi karena dia baru,
demikian juga penolakan terhadap sesuatu yang lama.
... progress means accepting what is new because is new and
discarding what is old because is old.
Garret De Bell, 1970
Partisipasi
Perlu kesungguhan dan kerjasama semua unsur kota!
Gagasan hasil perenungan ini merupakan salah satu
wujud partipasi individu. (yang kedalamannya masih perlu
dimatangkan lebih dalam lagi).
Kesadaran dari Ajaran Sang Pencipta-Desainer alam
semesta (Universal Mind) yang
berisikan ajaran
bahwa:
Manusia bisa hidup tenteram dan damai apabila memiliki
motivasi yang agung, yang senantiasa mengucap syukur dalam
mengisi kehidupan di alam semesta ini. Dan juga dilandasi
dengan sumbangan gagasan yang dinyatakan oleh Victor Gruen,
pada tahun 1964 atas deklarasi presidennya saat itu, yaitu : We
must know what our aims and goals are, what we want our cities
and urban areas to look like, and why. Kami berkeyakinan, bila
dilakukan dengan penuh kesungguhan dalam setengah abad
kedepan, kota-kota di Indonesia akan menuai pujian. Akan
menemukan dan memiliki kespesifikan positif masing masing,
Jiwa dan Karakter Kotanya.
Peran Pendidikan Moral dan Lingkungan
Perlu dibangun dan diterapkan kurikulum pendidikan
dasar, menengah dan atas yang mengutamakan Value. Value
akan kematangan diri, penghargaan terhadap diri sendiri,
penghargaan terhadap orang lain, penghargaan terhadap
lingkungan : ruang, rumah, kota dan alam.
Dengan demikian, sangat penting
sejak dini
diterapkannya kurikulum yang menekankan pengalaman dan
pendalaman : Cinta terhadap Sang Pencipta, perhatian terhadap
keseimbangan alam, keramahan terhadap kemanusiaan, dan
harmoni dengan lingkungan (dari: seminar Knowledge City).
Tahapan yang dimulai dari upaya penyemaian, penanaman dan
penuaian karakter manusia yang positip. Dan selanjutnya
72

manusia-manusia yang positip ini akan membentuk tempat : kota

ideal, kota yang memiliki spirit, dan berkarakter. Mereka adalah :
Insan yang arif, sadar akan keberadaannya, Insan
yang
senantiasa hidup dalam kepatuhan pada-NYA, Insan yang
bersyukur atas kehidupan yang diberi oleh-NYA, insan yang
memuliakan spritualitas dalam rasa dan karsanya selama
mendiami bumi, merawat dan menguasainya .
Bagi mereka, Taman Firdaus, Surga telah dirasakan di Muka
Bumi.
We justify our actions by appearances; GOD examines our
motives (Proverbs 21 : 2)
Medan. November, 13 2007

Sekian.
Bahan Bacaan
ARCHITECTURE WITHOUT ARCHITECTS. Oleh Bernard
Rudofsky, Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City New
York. 1964
BIOSHELTERS, OCEAN ARKS, CITY FARMING : Ecology as
the Basic of Design. Oleh Nancy Jack Todd and John
Todd, Sierra Club Books. 1984
FILASAFAT MANUSIA. Oleh Prof Dr.N Drijarkara. S. J, Penerbit
Kanisius, Yogyakarta. 1990.
HUMAN SCALE. OlehKirkpatrick Sale, Coward, McCann &
Geoghegn, New York. 1980
ONLY ONE EARTH. Oleh Barbara Ward and Rene Dubos, W W
Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1972
MIRACULOUS MESSAGES FROM WATER.Oleh : Masaru
Emoto WellnessGoods.com
SPACES - Dimensioan of the Human Landscape. Oleh : Barrie.
B, Greenbie . New Haven and London Yale University,
1981.
The CITY IN THE WORLD OF FUTURE. Oleh : Hall Hellman, M.
Evans and Company, Inc., New York. 1970
The LIVING HOUSE An Anthropology of architecture in SouthEast Asia. Oleh : Rozana Waterson, Thames and Hudson
Oxford University Press Pte.,Ltd. 1990
WEATHER,
HEALTH,
BEHAVIOUR,
PSYCHOLOGY,
PHYSIOLOGICAL
ASPECTS,
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASPECTS
.Oleh
:
Joseph
D
Agnese.
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=53862032&sid=7&F
mt=4&clientId=63928&RQT=309&VName=
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HUTA DAN KOTA:

APA MAKNANYA UNTUK KITA?1
Irwansyah Harahap
Etnomusicology Department. Faculty of Letters
Universitas Sumatera Utara
suarasama@yahoo.com
Pengantar
physical conditions enter intimately into social and
cultural patterns. the extent to which homo sapiens has
modified his environtments, and how subsistence patterns
themselves were shaped by social organization and belief
(Roy Ellen 1982:49).
Terjemahan:
berbagai kondisi fisik merasuk ke dalam berbagai pola
sosial dan budaya. pada capaian dimana makhluk
manusia telah memodifikasi
lingkungannya, dan
bagaimana pola/prilaku penghidupan menggambarkan
dirinya sendiri terbentuk oleh kelompok sosial dan
kepercayaan masyarakatnya.
Roy Ellen (1982) menyatakan bahwa ekologi budaya
(cultural ecology)sebagai suatu pandangan yang umum-merupakan, the study of the adaptive processes by which
human societies and cultures adjust through subsistence patterns
to a given environtment (hal 53). Pengertian ekologi budaya
mengandung tiga unsur yang saling terkait, yakni masyarakat
manusia (societies) dan budayanya (cultures), pola/prilaku
penghidupan (subsistence) dan lingkup alam (environment). Ia
selanjutnya mengatakan, semakin terinci korelasi [yang
terbentuk dapat diperlihatkan] semakin besar kemungkinannya
untuk dapat menunjukkan satu hubungan yang dapat ditentukan,
dan semakin besar pula ketelitian (accuracy) dalam
memprediksikan akan berbagai kejadian masa depan di bawah
kondisi-kondisi yang terarah (specified) (ibid, hal 53).
1
Ide mengenai tulisan ini pada dasarnya muncul dari percakapan informal antara
saya dengan Rudolf Sitorus dan Sawarjito, dua sahabat saya yang memiliki
latar memiliki disiplin ilmu di bidang arsitektur. Itu terjadi sekitar pertengahan
tahun 2007 lalu. Pada waktu itu kami mencoba untuk sharing pengalaman
mengenai fenomena maupun permasalahan mengenai spirit maupun karakter
pertumbuhan kota, baik yang terdapat di Indonesia maupun yang ada di
belahan lain di dunia, baik dari sisi kehidupan kota, ciri kota, hingga aspek
arsitektural kota. Dalam tulisan ini saya ingin berbagi pandangan mengenai
fenomena kehidupan kota dilihat dari perspektif ekologi budaya.
74

Tesis di atas akan saya gunakan sebagai kerangka

pemikiran untuk memperlihatkan sejauh mana kita menyadari,
memahami, sekaligus memaknai arti dari dua buah kata, huta
(diambil dari bhs Batak: desa) dan kota2, khususnya dalam
lingkup pola/prilaku kehidupan dan lingkup alam yang
membentuknya. Ini tentu saja akan dihubungkan dengan
fenomena tata ruang arsitektural, baik yang bersifat fisikal
maupun kultural dari ciri kehidupan desa maupun kota. Topik
permasalahan yang dibahas lebih difokuskan pada fenomena
budaya desa dan kota yang berkembang di Indonesia, khususnya
di Sumatera Utara. Namun demikian, gambaran mengenai
keberadaan kota-kota lain di belahan dunia lain juga disampaikan
sebagai bahan ilustratif pembanding.
Kota dan Desa
Atmosfir sebuah tempat atau wilayah pada dasarnya
dipengaruhi oleh sebuah hubungan timbal balik yang sifatnya
trikotomis--yakni manusia dan cara berfikir/pandangan hidupnya
(man and his worldview), cara/pola hidupnya (subsistence), dan
lingkup alamnya (environment).3
Dalam konteks lingkup
kehidupan perkotaan (urban) saat ini, munculnya istilah kota
4
(city) dengan label small, big, metro, hingga megapolitan
dengan derivatif terms seperti kota industri, kota satelit, dan
lainnyasesungguhnya menggambarkan bagaimana sebuah
kota (dan masyarakatnya?) ingin membentuk dirinya dalam
2
Saya dengan sengaja mengambil istilah lokal yang berkembang di masyarakat

tradisi di Sumatera untuk menyembut entitas desa sebagai huta (Batak Toba,
Simalungun, Mandailing, Angkola, kuta (Karo) dan istilah yang sama juga
berkembang di bebearapa wilayah lain di Sumatera. Kalau memang benar, kata
kota dalam bahasa Indonesia yang diadopsi dari bahasa Melayu kota [baca:
kot], bisa jadi merupakan spirit awal tumbuhnya apa yang kita sebut kota.
Dengan sendirinya ini memperlihatkan bahwasanya huta dan kota memiliki
akar pengertian kata yang sama, meski konteks penggunaannya pada saat ini
berbeda?
Gaya Barok, sebagai contoh, adalah sebuah fenomena peradaban Eropah
abad 15an yang diawali di Italia. Momentum ini diawali ketika sebuah gereja II
Gesu dibangun sebagai peringatan terhadap St. Agustinus dari Loyola
dimakamkan, memunculkan kreatifitas dua seminan El Greco dan Tintoretto
menghias gereja dengan lukisan yang sangat lembut, rumit dan penuh
perasaan. Gaya Barok mempengaruhi berbagai aspek kehidupan lainnya
semisal musik, sastra, desain arsitektural, seni rupa, lukisan dan lainnya. Seni
rupa dan seni lukis Barok menggambarkan manusia dan seni musik
mengungkapkan emosi dan perasaan manusia. Pada masa ini diri kepribadian
manusia dianggap hanya
sebagai satu unsur/bagian dari kehidupan dunia
(Lihat Karl-Edmund Prier sj, 1993).
Menurut Ehrlich (1970), fakta impetus yang menjadikan munculnya fenomena
urban (kota) diawali dari kesadaran akan dibutuhkannya institusi-institusi
intermediari antara petani, peternak, pelaut-pedagang, dan pengguna jasa.
Embrio dari fenomena urbanisme lewat kota-kota yang terbentuk sepanjang
sungai Tigris dan Euphrate 4000-3000 tahun SM. adalah produk dari kebutuhan
dimaksud (hal 38). Ini memperlihatkan bahwa spirit terbentuknya sebuah kota
berawal dari kebutuhan lanjut dari keberadaan sebuah desa.
75

capaian ekonomis berbalut teknologis5. Ikon sebuah kota

cenderung lebih diukur dari capaian alur kapital serta sarana
teknologi praktis pendukungnya. Apa yang membedakan kotakota megapolitan di dunia, semisal New York di Amerika Serikat,
Vancouver di Kanada, Beijing di China, Tokyo di Jepang,
Auckland di Selandia Baru, Kuala Lumpur di Malaysia, hingga
Jakarta di Indonesia?.
Meskipun tipikal kota yang terbentuk maupun prilaku kota
yang membentuknya tampak secara artifisial berbeda, namun
secara esensial mengandung social impact yang sama.
Ungkapan sarkastis laiknya, just buildings, crowdnees,
rushtime, dan crime, sering menjadi keluh-kesah. Sebagian
kota-kota besar dunia mencoba mengatasi persoalan sosial yang
ada dengan mengembangkan infrastuktur kebutuhan kotalewat
sistem transportasi publik, pelayanan publik, membangun public
comfort area (semacam taman kota, pedestrian, pemukiman
ekslusif, dan lainnya), hingga city rendezvous (public bars, cafes,
hotel lobbies, plazas, restourants, dan lainnya). Sebagian kotakota besar lainnya bekerja keras untuk itu dan malah sering
terperangkap dengan berbagai persoalan tersebut di atas6.
Terlebih lagi, bagaimana semua kebutuhan publik tersebut
dikerjakan dalam perencanaan tataruang kota (city planning)
yang benar-benar memadai?. Ironisnya, dimana pun, semua
7
orang tergiur untuk bermigrasi ke kota(?)
Disamping itu, kota-kota yang ada juga sering diberi
predikat kota budaya, kota diplomat, kota sejarah, kota
peradaban, kota pelajar, dan lainnya. Dalam konteks ini tentu
saja kota-kota tersebut memanfaatkan situs-situs alamiah
maupun sejarah atau potensi lainnya yang dapat dijadikan
resources sebagai bagian dari cara membangun
5
Teknologi dan media elektronik telah memutar arah baru terhadap lingkungan
yang mana didalamnya apa yang disebut moderen dan global laiknya dua sisi
yang berbeda dari mata uang yang sama. Kecenderungan pola dan arah hidup
kosmopolitan menjadi cita-cita yang sama. Semua orang mampu mendapatkan
akses lewat elektronik media tentang hal yang diinginkan. Pandangan tentang
kehidupan (meliputi aspek politik, ekonomi, keluarga, hiburan, hingga ungkapan
spiritual) menjadi lebih kompleks, cenderung menjauh dari ikatan primordial.
(Lihat Appadurai 1996).
Problema tata ruang kota khususnya di Indonesia akan didiskusikan lebih lanjut
dalam tulisan ini.
Ehrlich (1970) memberi catatan mengenai perkembangan pesat dari fenomena
terjadinya urbanisasi pada kota-kota besar di Amerika Serikat dengan apa yang
disebutnya trend dari urbanisasi. Di tahun 1800an, 6 persen dari populasi
warga Amerika Serikat tinggal di wilayah perkotaan; tahun 1850an meningkat
menjadi 15 persen; tahun 1900an meningkat menjadi 40 persen; dan kini lebih
dari 70 persen tinggal di kota-kota besar dan pinggiran kota. Kecenderungan ini
juga terjadi di negara-negara Amerika latin, terutama sesudah akhir perang
dunia kedua. Tipikal kota-kota besar yang berciri huge shanty-towns (kota
kumuh) di Amerika Latin punya istilahnya sendiri, favelas di Brasil, tugurios di
Colombia, ranchos di Venezuela, dan barriadas di Peru (hal 38).
76

identitas lokal, national, hingga global yang bermuara pada

kebutuhan sosial maupun sosio-ekonomisnya. Paris, tidak hanya
terkenal dengan ikon Eiffel Towernya , ia juga dianggap sebagai
kota seni terindah di bumi. Tugu Liberty di Washington DC, tidak
saja menjadi lambang etos kebangsaan Amerika, ia juga
menyedot jutaan turis asing menjadi pemasok kapital income
negara tersebut. Kota Makkah dan Jerussalem bukan hanya milik
bangsa Saudi Arabia dan Israel; Makkah telah menjadi ikon
pemeluk agama Islam di dunia, sementara Jerussalem menjadi
ikon keagamaan umat pemeluk Nasrani dan Jahudi di dunia.
Di negeri Belanda (Holland), bisa dirasakan atmosfir yang
kontras dari tataruang kota antara Amsterdam sebagai pusat kota
industri, Den Haag sebagai kota diplomatik, dan Leiden sebagai
kota pelajar. Kalau mencari situs budaya di negeri Uzbekistan,
begitu kata orang sana, jangan pergi ke Tashkent (ibukota
negara) yang nyaris memiliki bentuk gedung laiknya metropolitan
city dimana saja, tetapi pergilah ke Samarkhand karena tokohtokoh pemikir budaya spiritual besar Islam yang lahir dan muncul
di sana melebihi usia negara itu sendiri. Kota Kuala Lumpur di
Malaysia tiba-tiba menyentak semua perhatian dunia, bukan
karena unikum bangunan arsitektural Menara Kembar yang
dibangun, cuma dikarenakan hanya klaim tertinggi di dunia.
Fenomena semacam ini, sementara sebut saja dengan istilah
labelled-city, sesungguhnya terjadi dimana-mana di dunia.
Berbeda halnya dengan membicarakan lingkungan
kehidupan dalam konteks rural, umumnya di Indonesia dikenal
dengan istilah desa atau pedesaan atau kampung
(bhs.Melayu). Topik mengenai kehidupan desa, terutama di
Indonesia, dapat dikatakan sama sekali tidak menarik perhatian 8.
Mengapa? Di satu sisi, umum sering berpandangan bahwa
entitas desa cenderung dianggap sebagai pelengkap
pertumbuhan kota. Sebaliknya, kota dianggap sering sebagai
mewakili sebuah prestise sosial bagi setiap orang. Menjadi orang
kota dianggap lebih maju dari orang desa. Di sisi lain,
berbagai kajian keilmuan menyangkut kehidupan desa sangat
jarang terjadi di Indonesia, untuk tidak mengatakan samasekali
9
diabaikan (?). Ke dua sisi persoalan di atas menjadikan kita
8
Di Indonesia, penelitian mengenai kehidupan desa lebih sering diarahkan pada

kajian antropologis. Tulisan-tulisan yang ada juga lebih banyak mencerminkan
hal-hal normatif sisi kehidupan masyarakat yang diteliti. Kajian mengenai
kehidupan desa dari sisi pandang yang berbeda, misalnya ekonomi, arsitektur,
teknologi, dan lainnya sangat jarang ditemukan. Dengan sendirinya
pengetahuan yang lebih komprehensif mengenai kehidupan desa (baik
menyangkut pola ekonomi, tataruang, serta kecenderungan-kecenderungan
spesifik lainnya) hampir tidak diperoleh.
Lebih parah lagi, lewat desain ideologi pembangunan (Rezim Orde Baru) yang
mulai dimunculkan sejak awal tahun 1970an, berbagai perangkat sistem
kehidupan desa (sistem sosial, pola hidup dan penghidupan) menjadi tercerabut
dari akar sosial-budayanya. Lansing (1991) dalam bukunya Priest and
77

luput untuk dapat melihat dan memperhatikan sejauh mana

hubungan timbal balik yang terjadi antara keduanya. Kalau ini
terjadi, bagaimana pola kehidupan desa mewarnai pola
kehidupan kota, atau sebaliknya? Kalau ini tidak terjadi, apa pula
yang menjadi landasan maupun spirit kepentingan dibangunnya
sebuah kota?
Ekosistem
Ekosistem --dalam paper ini lebih dibatasi pada pengertian:
ekosistem kehidupan sosial desa maupun kotapada dasarnya
meliputi masyarakat manusia, lingkup alam dan pola/prilaku hidup
masyarakatnya. Menurut Roy Ellen (1982) terdapat unsur-unsur
10
kerangka fikiran dalam memahami sebuah ekosistem ,
diantaranya:
1. Monism, ekosistem didekati secara monistik, dimana
prilaku/kebiasaan hidup dan lingkup alam dianggap
sebagai bagian dari sebuah sistem yang menyatu.
2. Kompleksitas, dimana
prilaku/kebiasaan hidup dan
lingkup alam kadangkala cukup cocok/sesuai, atau
kadangkala ngawur.
3. Konektivitas dan terjadinya hubungan timbal balik.
4. Proses ekologis-sosioekologis.
5. Populasi sebagai unit analitis. (ibid: 75-78)
Kerangka fikiran tentang pemahaman ekosistem sosial
tersebut
setidaknya
dapat
dijadikan
patokan
untuk
memproyeksikan sejauhmana kita memahami serta memaknai
pertumbuhan serta pola arsitektural lingkungan yang ada di
sekitar kita, baik itu dalam tataran area kultur apa yang kita sebut
dengan desa ataupun kota.
Desa sebagai Sebuah Ekosistem
Pertumbuhan desa-desa maupun kota-kota di Indonesia
memiliki kekhasan tersendiri. Pola hidup desa yang sebagian
besar berlandaskan pada kehidupan agrikultur dan hasil laut
memperlihatkan eratnya hubungan antara manusia desa dengan
alam dan lingkup penghidupannya. Orang-orang pantai
Programmers: Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape of Bali
memperlihatkan bagaimana rusaknya tatanan subak (sistem kehidupan orang
Bali yang erat terkait dengan subsistensi, ritual, dan lingkungan yang terbukti
sangat canggih untuk tingkat perkembangan peradaban agrikultur di Asia)
akibat gerakan revolusi hijau (green revolution) yang dipaksakan oleh rezim
pemerintah masa itu.
10
Dalam pembahasan tentang kecenderungan pembentukan ekosistem desa dan
kota yang akan dijadikan contoh nantinya, ke enam unsur pokok fikiran di atas
akan disampaikan secara holistik. Pengetian holistik di sini adalah sebuah
fenomena persoalan yang dibicarakan bisa saja dapat dikaitkan dengan
pembahasan dari ke enam perspektif teoretis di atas tanpa memilahnya secara
linear.
78

cenderung membangun penghidupannya berdasarkan hasil laut,

sementara orang-orang darat lebih memilih mengolah hasil hutan
dan bertani.
Tumbuhnya desa-desa baru pada dasarnya juga lebih
pada kaitan kepentingan primordial dimana populasi desa telah
mencapai jumlah yang lebih besar, baik akibat jumlah anak-anak
yang lahir dari hubungan perkawinan maupun kebutuhan
tambahan orang luar untuk kebutuhan tenaga pekerja. Di
Sumatera Utara, sebagai contoh, tumbuhnya sebuah desa (huta)
atau wilayah yang baru sangat terkait dengan trah marga (clan).
Atau juga berupa pemberian wilayah baru kepada para warga
pekerja pendatang untuk kepentingan pertanian. Bius (satu istilah
yang terdapat pada masyarakat tradisional Batak Toba)
merupakan sebuah sistem tatanan tentang bangunan komunitas
sosial-ekonomi-politik antar-desa.
Keterkaitan antara kehidupan tradisional masyarakat
Batak Toba terhadap alam serta pola penghidupan mereka
termanifestasi dalam berbagai aktifitas ritual-spiritualnya.
Upacara Pameleon Bolon (Persembahan Besar) di komunitas
masyarakat Parmalim Hutatinggi Kecamatan Laguboti Kabupaten
Toba-Samosir, misalnya, memperlihatkan contoh yang kongkrit
untuk itu. Pameleon Bolon merupakan perayaan tahunan terkait
pujian dan rasa syukur warga Parmalim kepada Sang Pencipta
atas anugerah penghidupan dan penghasilan yang telah
diperoleh selama setahun. Dapat dikatakan hampir tidak terdapat
satu pun elemen ritual yang tidak bersumber dari lingkungan
(baik berupa benda-benda ritual, elemen musikal, dan berbagai
atribut ritual lainnya).
Kalau dilihat dari kerangka ekosistem menurut Ellen
(1982), maka contoh di atas memenuhi kriteria monisme, dimana
prilaku/kebiasaan hidup dan lingkup alam dianggap sebagai
bagian dari sebuah sistem yang menyatu. Proses hubungan
ekologis-sosioekologis juga dapat terjelaskan dimana bendabenda maupun atribut ritual yang digunakan pada umumnya
diperoleh dari hutan dan alam sekitarnya. Proses ini juga
dilakukan dengan prasyarat ritual tertentu yang mana alam tidak
semata dianggap sebagai obyek fisikal, akan tetapi kadangkala
dianggap sebagai subyek metafisikal. Konektivitas dan terjadinya
hubungan timbal balik antara manusia, pola subsistensi dan
lingkungan alam juga tercermin dari kehidupan yang ada (Lihat
Diagram 1.)
.
79

Diagram 1.
Kerangka Monisme
Ciri bangunan kehidupan desa-desa seperti yang telah

diuraikan di atas relatif masih dapat dijumpai di berbagai tempat
di Nusantara, semisal warga komunitas Samin di Jawa Tengah,
warga komunitas Badui di Jawa Barat, dan lainnya.
Salah satu ciri lain kehidupan desa-desa yang ada di
11
Nusantara adalah apa yang disebut dengan pasar (traditional
market place). Dalam kehidupan tradisional desa, pasar biasanya
dilakukan di ruang terbuka dimana pada umumnya aktifitas
transaksi jual-beli dilakuan. Di Sumatera Utara dan mungkin di
berbagai tempat lain di Nusantara, istilah pasar juga melekat
untuk menyebutkan jalan raya. Tataruang pasar sebagai
aktifitas jual-beli (perdagangan) kadangkala tidak dapat
dipisahkan dengan image jalan raya itu sendiri12. Itu sebabnya,
jika kita perhatikan kehidupan pasar di desa-desa (umumnya
11
Saya menduga bahwa istilah pasar yang umum dijumpai di Indonesia pada
dasarnya diadopsi dari bahasa Belanda bazaar.. Kultur pasar tradisional
(traditional market) juga umum dijumpai di belahan dunia lain, terutama dalam
konteks berkembangnya tataruang desa menjadi kota. Sebagian tertata ulang
dan dipusatkan di inti kota (city downtown). Aktifitas pasar yang juga identik
dengan keramaian seringkali juga disertai dengan aktifitas lainnya (seperti
pertunjukan kesenian, musik, akrobat, dan lainnya), ini dilakukan umumnya di
ruang terbuka (city boulevard).
12
Konteks mengenai kehidupan pasar akan dibahas lebih lanjut pada diskusi
mengenai tataruang kota, dimana mentalitas kehidupan seperti ini umum
termanifestasi dalam kehidupan perkotaan.
80

dilakukan seminggu atau dua minggu sekali dalam sebulannya)

biasanya dilakukan di arena pinggiran jalan raya. (Lihat Gambar 1
dan 2.)
Gambar 1 dan 2.
Pasar Desa
Karakteristik ekosistem desa dengan ciri monisme relatif

cukup dijumpai pada desa-desa di Nusantara. Namun, beberapa
diantaranya telah berubah sejalan dengan pola hidup dan
penghidupan desa yang berubah. Dengan tumbuhnya berbagai
bentuk industri manufaktur dan lainnya di wilayah pinggiran
maupun kota-kota besar di Indonesia telah membawa akibat desa
semakin ditinggalkan oleh warganya untuk beralih pekerjaan.
Kota sebagai Sebuah Ekosistem
Pengalaman perjalanan saya ke beberapa kota-kota di
dunia memberi arti yang cukup besar dalam membangun
pengetahuan saya tentang tataruang kota yang pernah
dikunjungi. Salah satunya adalah pengalaman ketika berkunjung
ke kota Auckland dan Wellington New Zealand pada awal tahun
2007 lalu. Kalau Paris begitu megah dengan menara Eiffel dan
gereja kathedral Notredame yang sangat mempesona; negeri
Belanda sangat cerdas membangun kota-kota seperti
Amsterdam, Vollendam, dan hampir seluruh kota dengan atribut
suffiks dam berada di bawah permukaan laut yang dibendung;
Pakistan di Asia Selatan dan beberapa wilayah Timur Tengah
lainnya yang menjadikan perbukitan menjadi bagian dari
arsitektur ruang pemukiman penduduknya; Auckland dan
Wellington menjadi sangat luar biasa karena kita masih bisa
menemukan jenis pepohonan gigantis berusia ribuan tahun
berada di tengah kota?. Disamping itu rumah-rumah dibangun
penuh dengan tumbuhan liar sebagai hal yang fungsional,
dimana tumbuhan tersebut berguna sebagai penahan badai
angin dingin yang hampir terjadi setiap harinya. (Lihat gambar 3
dan 4.)
81

Gambar 3.
Gambar 4.
Dari uraian di atas dapat dilihat bagaimana eratnya

hubungan antara manusia, lingkup alam, dan pola/tatacara
kehidupan dimana ke tiga aspek tersebut sangat mewarnai
karakteristik tumbuhnya sebuah kota. Kalau orang Belanda dan
orang Timur Tengah mampu mensiasati alam lingkungannya
tentu saja melalui budaya teknologi yang telah dicapainya-menjadi bagian dari perjalanan sejarah kota-kota yang dibangun;
maka orang New Zealand malah tetap menjaga lingkungan
alamnya yang jauh lebih tua dari usia kota yang dibangunnya.
Melihat kota-kota yang tumbuh di Indonesia mungkin
tidak relevan untuk dibandingkan terlebih lagi jika disandingkan
dengan kota-kota lainnya di dunia. Sudah barang tentu setiap
kota memiliki akar historis yang berbeda dimana-mana. Lebih dari
itu, sebagaimana apa yang dikatakan oleh Lewis Mumford
(1966), dalam bukunya The Culture of Cities,
the nature of the city is not to be found simply in its
economic base; the city is primarily social emergent. The
mark of the city is its purposive social complexity. It
represents the maximum possibility of humanizing the
natural environtment and of naturalizing the human heritage;
city functions as the specialized organ of social
trasmission. It accumulates and embodies the heritage of
the region, and combines in some measure and kind with
cultural heritage of larger units, national, racial, religious,
human. On one side is the individuality of the city. On the
other are the marks of the civilization, in which each
particular city is a constituent element. (hal 6-7).
Terjemahan:
natur sebuah kota tidak semata-mata dilihat dari
landasan
ekonominya;
kota
utamanya
adalah
kemunculan/pembentukan sosial. Apa yang menandai
82

sebuah kota adalah perhatian pada kompleksitas sosialnya.

Itu
mencerminkan
kemungkinan
terbesar
dari
memanusiakan lingkungan alam dan mengalamiahkan
warisan manusia; kota berfungsi sebagai organ khusus
dari proses pentrasmisian. Kota juga mengakumulasikan
dan merangkum warisan sejarah dari satu wilayah, dan
mengkombinasikan dalam ukuran dan jenis tertentu
terhadap warisan budaya dari unit-unit yang lebih besar,
nasional, kesukuan, agama, manusianya. Di satu sisi ini
merupakan kemandirian dari sebuah kota Di sisi lain
adalah penanda dari peradaban, yang mana masing-masing
kekhasan kota merupakan satu hal yang pokok.
Dengan demikian, untuk tidak menyederhanakan
persoalan, menurut pendapat saya, terdapat tiga pilar prasyarat
(requirements) utama terbentuknya sebuah ekosistem sosial
kota, yakni meliputi:
1) prasyarat lingkup alam (environmental requirements): Meliputi
kesadaran tentang apa yang disebut dengan public-private
spheres dan public-private domain;
2) prasyarat
sosial
kemasyarakatan
(human-social
requirements): Meliputi kesadaran tentang apa yang disebut
dengan public-individual services dan
public-individual
responsibilities: rules, laws, ethics, spirituals; dan
3) prasyarat penghidupan (subsistence requirements): Meliputi
apa yang disebut public facilities (termasuk di dalamnya
kesadaran tentang peranan dari government services;
transportation services; hospital services; job services;
banking services; dan lainnya.)
Berbagai prasyarat di atas pada dasarnya dapat dijadikan
ukuran untuk melihat sejauhmana kota-kota yang tumbuh tidak
hanya mampu mengambarkan sisi kwantitas fisikal semata, akan
tetapi juga mampu menggambarkan sisi peradaban maupun
lingkungan kehidupan manusia yang ada di dalamnya.
Wajah Kota Kita
Pertumbuhan kota-kota besar di Indonesia dalam satu
dekade ke belakang terbilang sangat pesat. Jakarta, Medan,
Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Den Pasar, Ujung Pandang,
dan Balik Papan, merupakan contoh kota-kota yang terus
bergerak dan berlomba menuju ke arah metropolitan city.
Tumbuhnya gedung-gedung pencakar langit, dibarengi dengan
berbagai atribut kota metropolis seperti bar, cafe, hotel, plaza,
restoran, dan fasilitas kehidupan moderen seperti kawasan
perumahan elite, banking system, dan lainnya menjadikan kota-
83

kota yang ada seolah ingin mengejar kota-kota besar lainnya di

dunia. Pada saat yang sama pula, migrasi penduduk dari desa ke
kota juga semakin meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. Jika penduduk
kota terus menerus semakin bertambah, sebaliknya penduduk
desa semakin berkurang. Kota sepertinya menawarkan sesuatu
yang menjanjikan?
Jika kita mengacu pada apa yang telah dikatakan oleh
Lewis Mumford sebelumnya tentang spirit maupun karakteristik
tumbuhnya sebuah kota, kecenderungan berkembangnya kotakota di Indonesia kebanyakan hampir memiliki karakter yang
sama, yakni lebih berorientasi pada aspek fisikal. Dari sisi
kwantitatif,
perubahan-perubahan
drastis
terhadap
perkembangan tataruang kota memang cukup menakjubkan,
meski sering menyisakan persoalan terhadap lingkungan maupun
situs-situs warisan kota yang semestinya dipelihara. Dari sisi
kwalitatif, kota-kota yang ada nyaris tidak memiliki handicaps
untuk mengatasi berbagai persoalan dasar kehidupan sosial kota
yang dihadapi (sebagai contoh: pelayanan ruang publik,
transportasi publik, hingga fasilitas publik).
Satu contoh yang umum dijumpai di hampir seluruh kotakota di Indonesia adalah tidak ditemukannya fasilitas/ruang bagi
pejalan (pedestrians). Hal yang lebih absurd lagi, jikapun ada
bahu jalan yang dibangun seolah ruang bagi pejalan, para
pejalan harus mengalah turun ke jalan utama untuk menghindari
pepohonan atau bangunan permanen papan iklan yang
ditancapkan di tempat yang sama, atau seringkali juga diisi oleh
para para pedagang kakilima. Dengan sendirinya, jalanan utama
menjadi ruang kompetisi antara kendaraan bermotor (mobil,
sepeda motor, angkot, becak), pedagang kamilima dan pejalan.
Kondisi kota lainnya yang juga umum dijumpai adalah
mentalitas pasar yang melekat pada kehidupan rural terbawa ke
alam kehidupan kota.
Hampir semua bentuk pasar-pasar
tradisional yang tumbuh di kota memanfaatkan sisi jalan raya
sebagai ruang display maupun aktifitas transaksi jual-beli. Di
satu sisi, pasar (jalan raya) yang selalu identik dengan keramaian
telah menjadi collective mindset bagi para pedagang dengan
harapan keramaian itu menjadi peluang transaksi bisnis yang
diharapkan. Di sisi lain, pemikir kota nyaris tidak memiliki solusi
untuk memecahkan persoalannya. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
karena permasalahan persepsi budaya hanya diselesaikan
melalui kebijakan teknis. Gambaran semacam ini sesungguhnya
tidak mencerminkan ekosistem yang sehat dari kehidupan kota.
(lihat gambar 5, 6 dan 7.)
84

Gambar 5
Gambar 6.
Gambar 7.
Persoalan tataruang kota lainnya adalah tidak

dibedakannya antara apa yang disebut public-private spheres
dan public-private domain sebagai bagian dari estetika maupun
etika arsitektural kota (city environment). Bayangkan saja jika
hampir semua sudut kota dipenuhi oleh atribut iklan berbagai
produk industri hingga politik dan kepentingan personal lainnya,
apa yang digambarkan sesungguhnya adalah sebuah cermin dari
ketidakpedulian masyarakatnya terhadap hak-hak komunalnya
terhadap sisi lain dari kehidupan kota. Kota, bukannya
memanusiawikan lingkungannya--seperti kata Mumford--justru
yang terjadi sebaliknya. (lihat gambar 8, 9, 10.)
Problema sosial kemasyarakatan meliputi kesadaran
tentang apa yang disebut dengan public-individual services dan
public-individual responsibilities juga sangat mewarnai kota-kota
di Indonesia. Jika kota-kota lain di dunia telah selesai dengan
persoalan bangunan kultur kota yang khas dan spesifik
berdasarkan tuntutan alamiah dari ciri maupun sifat kota yang
dibangun (meliputi aspek rules, laws, ethics, hingga spirituals).
Kompleksitas kehidupan sosial sebagian besar kota-kota di
Indonesia pada dasarnya masih sangat diwarnai oleh sikap
primordialitas-bawaan; tidak hanya dari penduduk asal, tetapi
juga dari masing-masing warga pendatang yang bermigrasi ke
kota. Terbentuknya afiliasi-afiliasi sosial di kota-kota besar pada
umumnya lebih mencerminkan ikatan primordial yang ada. Lebih
dari itu, kota cenderung dipandang dari perspektif primordialitas
masing-masing, bukan dari sebuah konsensus yang timbul dari
kebutuhan kota itu sendiri.
85

Gambar 8.
Gambar 10.
Gambar 9.
Salah satu contoh pemandangan yang umum dapat

dijumpai untuk kasus permasalahan di atas adalah privatisasi
ruang publik; misalnya acara perkawinan, peresmian, atau acaraacara inisiatif kelompok yang tanpa aturan tertulis bisa saja
menutup akses publik?. Contoh lain yang cukup menonjol adalah
sikap kekurang pedulian terhadap warisan fisik maupun budaya
yang telah menjadi bagian dari sejarah kota itu sendiri. Sebuah
situs historis kota sering dengan mudah dihancurkan oleh
pengambil kebijakan, sementara warga kota tidak merasa penting
dengan keberadaan situs yang dimiliki. Mengapa ini bisa terjadi?
Kesemua persoalan di atas bisa jadi tidak akan pernah difahami,
karena, sebagaimana yang dikatakan oleh Roy Ellen, kita tidak
pernah menjadikan populasi menjadi unit analisis. Desain
pengembangan kota lebih difokuskan pada aspek fisikal semata
tanpa mempertimbangkan hal-hal yang bersifat historis,
sosiologis maupun kultural.
Problema lainnya adalah menyangkut apa yang disebut
dengan public facilities. Kota-kota besar di Indonesia juga masih
kewalahan hingga saat ini terutama berkaitan dengan
transportation services.
Hampir sebagian besar pelayanan
transportasi publik pada kota-kota besar di Indonesia masih
dikelola oleh bisnis swasta (hal sedemikian ini hampir tidak
dijumpai lagi pada kota-kota besar dengan infrastruktur kota yang
matang). Kemacetan lalulintas yang menjadi rutinitas keseharian
86

tidak hanya disebabkan oleh ratio jumlah mobil yang mungkin

tidak sesuai lagi dengan kapasitas jumlah ruas jalan. Halte, yang
semestinya berfungsi sebagai tempat perhentian dan untuk
bernafas pun tidak lagi berfungsi sebagaimana mestinya.
Sebagai hal yang paradoks, hampir tidak ada satu kota besar pun
di Indonesia yang tidak memiliki peraturan hukum transportasi
kota menyangkut kebijakan perhentian bus. Gambaran ini
sesungguhnya menunjukkan ketidakpedulian masyarakat kota
terhadap hukum, terlebih etika kota.
Disamping itu, kebiasaan kota-kota di Indonesia yang
cenderung menumpukkan segalanya di tengah kota, tanpa
mencoba melakukan ekspansi terhadap aktifitas tertentu ke
wilayah suburb atau daerah lainnya, menjadikan kota menjadi
pengap dan sesak. Kondisi kehidupan kota semacam ini, disadari
atau tidak, sesungguhnya telah menjadikan warga kota
mengalami, apa yang disebut Paul R. Erlich dan Anne H. Erlich
(1970), mental-social illness.
Lantas? Kalau keadaan dan perkembangan kota-kota
kita berlangsung terus menerus seperti ini, akan bagaimana nasib
kota-kota kita di masa depan?
Penutup
Memahami sebuah kota tidak dapat dilakukan dengan
cara melihat sisi parsialnya--bagaimana melihat karakter manusia
yang mendiami sebuah kota, atribut fisik apa saja yang menghiasi
sebuah kota, hingga pilihan kebijakan apa saja yang terlihat
dalam mewarnai sebuah kota. Sebuah kota mestinya harus lebih
difahami dalam konteks yang total dan menyeluruh. Tumbuhnya
sebuah kota sering dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang harus
diterima begitu saja (taken for granted). Kecenderungan sikap
semacam ini tentu saja akan berakibat pada ketidakmampuan
manusia yang hidup di dalamnya untuk memproyeksikan apa
yang menjadi tumpuan masa depan dari peradaban yang ingin
dicapainya.
Untuk tidak menyatakan sebagai sebuah tuntutuan yang
filosofis, kita sering melupakan apa sesungguhnya tujuan sebuah
kota dibangun, mengapa ia dibangun, dan bagaimana tatanan
sebuah peradaban kota disepakati (prasyarat lingkungan,
tanggungjawab, hukum, aturan, hingga etika). Dengan kata lain,
kota adalah sebuah kebudayaan (culture); tidak semata-mata
hanya sebuah fenomena ruang fisikal-arsitektural (tangible
culture), akan tetapi ia juga merupakan sebuah fenomena sosialkultural (intangible culture). Dengan sendirinya, mamahami
sebuah kota dan pertumbuhannya tidak hanya dapat dilakukan
hanya atas dasar keilmuan yang spesifik-partikularistis (by single
disciplinary study), akan tetapi harus didekati secara holistis (by
interdisciplinary studies).
87

Referensi
Appadurai, Arjun, 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural
Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis-London:
University of Minnesota Press.
Edmund Prier sj, Karl, 1993. Sejarah Musik (Jilid 2). Yogyakarta:
Pusat Musik Liturgi.
Ehrlich, Paul R. dan Anne H. Ehrlich 1970. Population
Resources Environtment: Issues in Human Ecology.
USA: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Ellen, Roy 1982. Environtment, Subsitence and System.
London-New-York: Cambridge University Press.
Lansing, J. Stephen 1991. Priests and Programmers:
Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape
of Bali. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Mumford, Lewis 1938. The Culture of Cities. New York: Harcourt
Barce Jovanovich, Inc.
88
Part Two:
CITY AS A COSMIC SYMBOLISM
89
90

TOPOLOGICAL COMPARISON OF PALACE

CITY OF MATARAM AND ACEH
IN THE 17th CENTURY
Agus Budi Purnomo
Trisakti University Research Center
Jalan Kiai Tapa, Grogol, Jakarta Barat
0215663232 extension 141-144
Abstract
Mataram in Java and Aceh in Sumatra were two
contemporary kingdoms in the 17th century Indonesia
Archipelago. Therefore it can be hypothesized that the Palace
City of both kingdoms shares a distinct similarities in their
topological characteristic. This study aims to look at that
hypothesis.
The knowledge that was used to compare the Palace City
of both kingdoms was abstracted from various secondary sources
such as Graff and Arrarniry. From those sources the topological
arrangement of the Palace City were constructed and compared.
From the study it can concluded that in terms of spatial nodes,
such as the inner and central sanctum of both kingdoms are very
similar (in both kingdoms the inner sanctum are known as the
dalam. In both Kingdoms the capital city were organized in term
of a virtual axis (inner to periphery). However, the virtual axis that
governs the Palace City of Mataram has much more cosmological
meaning than that of the Acehnese Kingdom.
Keywords: topological, nodes axis, Palace City.
Introduction
The terms Palace City is used to describe a city which
has a palace as its determinant. In the past, Palace City can be
found in various islands in Indonesia Archipelago (Reed, 1976).
This Paper will discuss the topology of two Palace City in
th
Indonesia, i.e. Aceh and Mataram in the 17 century.
Bustanussalatin or literally The Garden of Kings is a
book written by the famous Islamic scholar Syeikh Nuruddin
Arraniry of Aceh in the 17th Century. Within the book Nuruddin
described the Palace of the King of Aceh at the time of Sultan
Iskandar Muda. Topological description of the Garden of The
Kings was done by the author of this paper in 2006 (Agus, 2006).
A topological description of the Palace of The Kings in Aceh to
this Author knowledge has not been done by anyone before.
91

The Kraton (palace) of Mataram in Java at the time of

Sultan Agung is the contemporary of the Garden of the Kings of
Aceh at the time Sultan Iskandar Muda. Many studies have
described the Kraton of Mataram from the time of Sultan Agung
and up to this day of the Kraton of Jogyakarta (for example
Woodward, 1999).
Both Kingdoms are contemporary in the 17 th century
(Ricklefs, 1991). As contemporaries, in this paper the Author
hypothesize that there is a topological similarities between the
palaces (kraton) of both kingdoms as it its described by many
author in he case of Mataram and from Bustanussalatin in the
case of Aceh. Thus in accord with the hypothesis, the purpose of
this paper is to describe the topological similarities and
differences hat exist between the palace of the king in Mataram
and Aceh in the 17th century.
Topological Description
A topology can be discerned into the following
components. First a topology contains a set of nodes. Secondly a
topology contains a set of edges which connect the nodes to a
certain form of a graph. Thus the third component of a topology is
a graph.
In an urban planning terminology, nodes can be identified as
building, space, vegetation or any other form of artifact that is
non-axial or non directional. Edges that connect the nodes can be
identified as a path, route or other linier element such as river,
wall perimeter etc. Therefore an edge is directional as it is
described by its axis. Graph is delineated by a set of information
that describes how nodes are connected by edges. Therefore a
Graph can have a direction, but also sometime is not directional.
Topological comparison is then done by comparing the existence
of functionally and also philosophically similar nodes, edges and
graph that existed in both palace in Mataram and Aceh.
Topologically the Garden of The Kings described by
Nuruddin Arraniry can be seen at Figure 1. In Bustanussalatin,
Nuruddin Arraniry describes the Garden of the Kings as to have
several nodes that are part of the river Darul Isky. All of the nodes
are two ponds, one bay and two islands. At the Garden there are
also several nodes in the form of buildings. Eight buildings, one
palace and two gates were mentioned in the Bustanussalatin.
There are also several types of vegetation that can be considered
as nodes. Several artifacts are also mentioned in the
Bustanussalatin, such as the stone where the Sultan usually
fishing, one waterfall and several fountains. In terms of edges, in
Bustanussalatin description about the Garden of the King we
could find the Darul Isky River and the walls which surround the
compound. From the descriptions thus we can conclude that the
organizing element is the Darul Isky River. All other nodes and
92

edges are always in several ways related to the River. Thus the
total configuration forms a linier set of nodes and edges along the
River Darul Isky.
Figure 1. The Garden of the Kings According to Bustanussalatin (Agus,

2006).
Topologically the Palace City of Mataram can be seen at

Figure 2. From several Dutch source such as Jan Vos and van
Goens (Graaf, 1958), we also have a detailed but incomplete
description of the Palace City of Mataram in the 17 th century. For
example in Jan Vos description about Kerta in 1624 topologically
can be described as in Figure 2. From the figure, several nodes
can be seen in Kerta. For example in Kerta we can see a set of
Gates (Gerbang), Halls (Bangsal), throne (singasana), open
spaces and trees. All the nodes are arranged along a virtual axe
that culminates near the throne. The compound is surrounded by
walls, and the spaces are separated by walls and connected by
gates.
Compare to the description on the Jogyakarta Palace by
Woodward (1991), Kerta is much simpler than Jogyakarta.
However the total form of the Palace City between Kerta and
Yogyakarta is very similar. Even though separated almost more
than a century, for more detailed comparison we also compare
some of the Palace element in Jogyakarta to that of Aceh in the
17th century.
As in the case of Yogykarta, the nodes are also arranged
along south to north axe. Information about vegetation and the
symbolic meaning of each node that are missing in Jan Vos
description can be filled from Woodward description about
Yogyakarta. Since the purpose of this paper is a topological
93

comparison between Aceh and Mataram in the 17 th century, here,

on this paper the author will not explain the details about the
symbolic meaning contained by the nodes, edges and the total
configuration of Yogyakarta Palace City.
Kerta According to Jan Vos in 1624 (Graaf, 1958)
Yogyakarta According to Woodward (1961)

Figure 2. The Palace City of Mataram.
Topological Comparison
According to Bustanussalatin there are also several state
or court functions that are done on the waterfront of Darul Isky.
The river also functions as a pleasure garden for the king. Further
downstream, in the Garden of the Kings there are several lakes
and wall of stones that is lined with willow trees. Along the river
there is also another lake with a small island and pond planted
with lotus. The theme related to the water body such as lakes and
river also exists in the Palace City of Mataram. According to van
Goens who had visited Sultan Agungs Palace City in 1633, in the
palace compound there is a pond as wide and breath as long as
the firing distance of a rifle and a depth of about 6 meter (Graaf,
1958). The pond also functions as a place where Kings Harem
bath. In the pond there is also miniature boats thus according to
94

Graaf (1958) the pond is very similar to the Taman Sari of the
present day Yogyakarta. Very similar to the fishing pond in the
case of the Garden of the King in Aceh (Iskandar, 1966), in Sultan
Agungs Palace City there was also ponds full of fishes in the
eastern part of the axe.
Bustanussalatin also mentions about various trees (65
types) and flowers (50 types) that were planted along the
riverside. On the other side of the river, there are many other
buildings such as the Balai Rekanan Cina built by Chinese
craftsmen, Balai Kemasan (Golden Room) built by People from
where the Wind Come (West), Balai Cermin (Room of Mirror) and
a small mosque that is surrounded by various coconut trees. In
Matarams case the existence of vegetation whether physically or
symbolically plays an importat role in the Palace City of Mataram.
According to Jan Vos a Dutch who had visited the Palace City of
Sultan Agung at Karta mentioned how the Waringin trees place
an important role in delineating the Alun-alun or open spaces
where he was asked to pass before he could meet Sultan Agung
(Graaf, 1958). Although more recent, Woodward again
eschatologically mention how various vegetation symbolically
functions as the delineation and compartmentalization of the
spaces in the Palace City of Yogyakarta (1991).
There is a conscious consideration on the importance of
water in the design of the Garden of the Kings. This conscious
consideration of the importance of the river can be seen on the
realigned river so it could pass the kings palace compound. The
centrality of Darul al Isky in the design of the garden (Lombard,
1986) also indicates the conscious consideration about the
importance of water in the design. In Matarams case, according
to Babad Momana, the river Opak was dammed as to form into a
lake for the sake of the king (Graff, 1958). Though most of the
pleasure lake of Sultan Agung was devastated by flood and can
not be seen again today, several recent archaeological
excavation had indicates the possibility of the existence of the
moats around Sultan Agungs Palace and was known as Jagang
(Inajati, 2007).
Bustanussalatin describes the garden as a meeting place
between a river (Darul Isky or Krueng Daroy) and other land
located facilities of the garden such as the Medan Khayali,
Gegunungan Menara Permata and the Stone where Sultan
Iskandar Muda usually fishing etc. If we look at the description of
van Goens about Sultan Agungs Place City, very similar to the
Acehnese case, along the procession to meet the Sultan van
Goens indicate the existence of several stately buildings, throne
and space surrounded by walls and planted by trees of various
species (Graaf, 1958). Though Graaf has not mention in detail
about the various functions along the axe, we can surmise that
the condition in Sultan Agung time is not far detached from the
95

condition of Yogyakartas palace as it is describes by Woodward.

As in Acehnese case, every space and other artifact that existed
along the axe contain functional and symbolical meanings
(Woodward, 1991). Unfortunately the depth of meaning describes
by Woodward the case of Yogyakarta Palace does not exits in the
case Aceh due to a very limited source that describes Acehnese
Palace City. However if we look at the pompous names attached
to the buildings along the river Darul Isky (for example Balai
Kemasan (Golden Room) built by People from where the Wind
Come i.e. West) as it is described in the Bustanussalatin, we can
assume that most of the buildings and artifacts that existed along
the river, similar as in the Palace of Yogyakarta described by
Woodward, contains a prominence symbolical meanings.
In the Garden of the Kings that Nuruddin describes in the
Bustanussalatin a river called Darul Isky can be considered as the
organizing elements of the Garden. In Matarams case the
organizing elements is an axe beginning form the south and ends
at the north. According van Goens who visits the Sultan Agungs
Palace City, along the axis, the compound is compartmentalize
into several different open space and delineated by walls and
connected to each other by Gapuras (or stately gate). Thus
topologically the Palace City in Aceh and Mataram can be
considered to have a strong similarity but with different physical
organizing element.
According to Bustanussalatin compiled by Iskandar
(1966) the Garden of the Kings in the age of Sultan Iskandar
Muda is located south of the Kings palace. The river enters the
Garden from the South via an opening on the Gardens wall and
framed by two small forests both on the riverside. The Dutch van
Goens enter the Sultan Agungs Palace City from the south
(Graaf, 1958). It seems the procession direction along the axis in
Aceh and Mataram is different. However, according to van
Goens, in another of Sultan Agungs Palace City located in
Plered, there is no South Alun-alun. On the south part of the
Plered Palace is located the inner sanctum of the palace.
Therefore the movement along the axis in both case Mataram
and Aceh topologically indicates that both Palace City is quite
similar. In both Palace City the graph contains only one dominant
axe.
The organizing element of Garden of the Kings in Aceh is
a river, while in Mataram case it is an axe. In both cases the
organizing element is oriented to the south and north cardinal
direction. However physically the organizing element in Aceh is
waterways, while in Mataram is a circulation axe. The orientation
of the organizing element in Aceh and Mataram is also different.
In Acehs case the organizing elements start from the south and
ends in the north, while in Matarams case, the axis are traveled
beginning from the south and end in the north. However, if we
96

consider the eschatological explanation on the movement in

Yogyakarta Palace done by Woodward (1991), the movement in
both cases is quite similar. According Woodward (1991),
eschatologically the sacredness of places along the axe of the
palace in Yogyakarta moves from the south to the north. The
places along the southern part of the axe are considered a more
profane the ones exist on the northern part of the axe that are
considered as more sacral and related to the netherworld of God.
Eschatologically, the most scared part of the organizing element
in Acehs case is located in the south. The activity on the Garden
of the Kings as it is stated by Nurruddin Arrarniry in
Bustanussalatin is less detailed as its narration move from south
to the north. However, the descriptions of the foreign dignitaries
who had visited the Acehnese Palace City are more about the
Northern part since the southern part where the Garden of the
Kings is located, is prohibited to be seen by others except by the
King and his closest aides (inner sanctum). Therefore in both
cases the axe represents the spectrum of profanity to
sacredness. In pragmatic terms, it is this axe that determines the
expansion of more mundane development such as housing and
commercial center and the extension of the city to modern era.
The garden of Bustanussalatin has a certain theme which
echoes the Mughal Gardens (Koch, 2001) and an image of a
Paradise according to Islam. The Quran describes that in
paradise there are rivers with cool clear water and full of fishes. In
Acehnese case, the taste of Mughal Gardens is stronger than that
of Matarams case. This fact can be understood since the
influence of Islam in both contemporary Kingdoms is quite
different. In Aceh in the 17th century Islam has been deeply
accepted so as to have more influence to the court while the early
Hindu influence is largely diminished. In Mataram in 17th century,
Islam have been adopted by the court, in practice, the syncretism
still largely prevailed in most of the court procession. Unlike in
Aceh, in Mataram in the 17th century the mixture between the
beliefs in monotheism (Allah) still largely mixed with the belief in
the Ratu Kidul (the Queen of the South Sea).
If we look the real motive in writing, it seems the real
reason in writing Bustanussalatin is that the writer Nuruddin
Arraniry was symbolically praising the grand King, Sultan
Iskandar Muda. The Garden of the Kings of Bustanussalatin
contains a romanticized reality. The events mentioned in the
Babad or chronicles (e.g. Babad Momana) that was compared by
Graaf with the events from Dutch sources also indicates the same
elaboration to praise the king not unlike that was done by
Nurrudin Arraniry in writing the Bustanussalatin. Therefore if we
intend to look for symbolical events, we should look at the Babad,
while for accuracy we can look the events that are mentioned in
Dutch sources.
97

Scholars have difficulties in locating the Garden of the

Kings in the present context. Questions still need to be answered
is whether the garden described in the Bustanussalatin had really
ever existed or is it only a mere imagination or romanticized
reality of Nuruddin Arraniry. Similar condition appears for the case
in Mataram. If wee look at the full history of Mataram, we can see
that the Palace City move in accord with the reigning king.
According to Javanese belief in the 17h century, the miasma of
the deceased king is a strong reason for the new king to make a
new Palace City removed from the old one. Therefore each king
has his own Palace City. For that reason, similar to the Palace
City of Aceh in the 17th century, today we could not see any
worthy remnants of Sultan Agungs palace whether in Karta or in
Plered.
Conclusion
After comparing both Palace City of Aceh and Mataram in the 17 th
century, the discussion can be concluded as the followings:
1. The overall form of the topology of Palace City in Aceh in the
17th century and its contemporary, Mataram, is very similar.
Both Palace City have linier topology with a dominating axe.
2. In both cases, there are similar nodes and edges such the set
of gates, vegetation and buildings.
3. The significant difference exists between in the form of
physical characteristics of the organizing element. In Acehs
case the organizing element is a river, while in Matarams
case the organizing element is a circulation axe.
Finally, in terms of the hypothesis set in the Introduction,
we can say that as contemporary kingdoms, their Palace City to a
certain degree topologically similar. However due to data
limitation, a more detailed comparison had not been done. Future
study with a more complete source of information should fill the
gap and do a more detailed comparison on both contemporary
Kingdoms.
References
1. Agus Budi Purnomo. (2006) Waterfront Development
Concepts According to Nuruddin Arranirys Bustanussalatin,
Proceeding of the International Seminar on Waterfront
Development, 22-24 August, Trisakti University, Jakarta.
2. De Graaf, DR. H. J. (1958) Puncak Kekuasaan Mataram,
Politik Ekspansi Sultan Agung, Translation by Pustaka
Grafittipers and KITLV.
3. Inajati Adrisijanti (2007) Kota Yogyakarta Sebagai Kawasan
Pusaka Budaya Potensi Dan Permasalahannya, Diskusi
Sejarah Kota dan Perubahan Sosial Dalam Perspektif
Sejarah, Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional
Yogyakarta, 11 -12 April.
98

4. Koch, E. (2001) Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected

Essays, New Delhi, Oxford University Press,.
5. Lombard, D. (1986) Kerajaan Aceh, jaman sultan iskandar
muda (1607-1636), Balai Pustaka.
6. Reed, R. (1976) Indigenous urbanization in Southeast Asia,
Changing South-East Asia cities, eds., Y. M. Leung and C. P.
Lo, 14-23, Singapore: Oxford Unive. Press.
7. Teuku Iskandar ed. (1966) Bustan us-Salatin, Bab II, Fasal
13, KL : DBP.
99

SYMBOLISM:
THE CONFIGURATION OF A CITY1
Arya Ronald2
arya211143@yahoo.co.id
aryaronald@ugm.ac.id
aryaronald@yahoo.com
Abstract
City development based on mechanistic theory or
methode should not be the only one or the best way to implement
on each city in the world even supported by many experiences
and theories which was confirmed the truth by proofs on that
applied in the other countries it should be to give evidence of
that statement above. Based on several studies (research
method) relating to the formation of some cities in the past, which
was referenced to architectural approach consist of the S-6
process (sensorial, sensual, symbolic, superstitous, symmetrical
and superficial), shows that the living formation realized be more
realistic, and than the life situation itself could created and found
the humanistics atmosphere of life. Progress of the city
development could not arranged by duplicating the development
process and procedurs of other city, it should be considered that
a city is the place for peoples, which one another need to have
his own style of personal interactions, and, in those interactions
should be started from their own cultural experiences. According
to this reality, the activity of planning and design of city
development in Indonesia in general and specifically in Java
needed deeply stare at the core character of the genius loci, and
at the same time take place towards to the global scientific
development of city planning and design in the other countries.
So, it could be concluded in a short sentence that a city as human
settlement (especially in Java) need to have their own cultural life
values, it consist of several aspects that are the personality
values, life vision, local indication and the natural boundaries,
which all of those aspects in a certain situation influenced the
formation of the living environment, the settlement and the
cultural environment of all of the town people in them.
Keywords: city configuration, humanistics atmosphere
Personality is part of the wholeness and oneness of
human behavior that is wisely and wishful 3
1
Presented at the International Seminar, The Knowledge City: spirit, character

and manifestation, Medan, 2007
Senior lecturer of the Department of Architecture and Planning, Faculty of
Engineering, Gadjah Mada University
Poedjawijatno, 1968
100

To understand the term of city (L. Wirth, 1938) there is a

suggestion that a city did not always related to the origin, place
where the city was formed, the form itself and the designer or the
builder of that city, so in the simple meaning a city has always
relation to the extended area, density and the existing of the fix
settlement in connection to social situation which shows as
heterogenic context. A city in general separated based on the
extended area for instance as big city, medium city and small
city, which configuration the largeness of the city site that formed
by the development need of the extended area which was
started from the real activities that needed such areas and than to
be connected to standard of living feasibility in a city.
The origin of the city according to the history of the
Indonesian city in general and especially the cities in Java,
started from a small scale of settlement on a very closed site.
Those settlement formed by peoples that have a family or kinship
relation to the head of the founder society, and, than growing up
to wider society that have an activity or business linkage in small
competencies. Those community begin with authority business up
to the need of small scale government, so, those authority is not
just only based on a central authority, but wider to create their
own business with certain organization that separate the whole
business to some closed authorities from the highest authority
to the lowest class such as set in the society in general.
City of Mataram palace without

fortress in the period of Pleret
authority
City of Mataram with fortress

in the period of Kotagede
authority
City of Mataram with fortress

in the period of Yogyakarta
authority
A settlement developed to a city signed by settle down

right of the society on a certain site that authorized by the
authority, so, the city people existence always have good
connection as servant. The result was that society have their
rights should be less than their duties (shows in the format of
perdikan, pademangan, kadipaten, kasunanan, kasultanan). From
this authority point of view there was movement to social, cultural
and economic occupation more of that come into surface the
political business. Thats mean that the right demands growth
slowly, so, at a certain time there should come to balance
between right and duty. Then, life atmosphere that hierarchically
101

developed further to democratic life atmosphere although

paternalism and parentalism of life did not change, thats mean
that equal right cannot applied any more.
Started from this last situation, city format was changed
to a kingdom city that set the entire citizen became part of the city
resident with mass status. Even more after politic business
influenced the existence of this city, organization of the
government was not the same with the authority holder, but the
power was just the same as the past although the power holder
based on mass status. Paternalistic character was still holding on
while the authority holder was changed as public servant. So,
about the origin of the city in the relative short time should be
sunk to subsurface and the origin of the city would not be
important again.
If a city build or developed started from an embryo of
settlement environment, so, these settlement should selected a
place that would be supported the society life (minimize the
biological life) so as the living pattern of any creature in their
habitat. In the matter of geographical fact there should be near
water resource, have a good fertility in ground and should have a
good access to other settlement or maybe the opposite condition.
Life dependency on these natural resources should be developed
parallel with the technological development (from the simplest to
the advance technology). Related to the acceleration of the
technology development get faster than the socio-economiccultural development, so, the site existence that have a great
character of plantation function could be drowned faster, and then
at the same case any cities should be as the same as it was.
A city formation that started from environmental
competency very closed and like concentric pattern, was directed
by the role of the society figure at that time. Concentric pattern on
a much closed site could not stay for a long time, after there are
geographic consideration on the one side and the emigration
coming from other places on the other side, and then there could
be settlement changing pattern as a new built-environment. On
the other words, the new city development should be drowned the
old city very fast, above all the old city too narrow if it compare to
the new development. It can shows to cities that exist at this time,
as shown by the city of Yogyakarta and Surakarta the old
Sultanate and Sunanate city that it should be categorized as
traditional city which have clear city pattern if we traced again to
the past to understand the concentric pattern of the city.
A city pattern that have a good relation to the builder, and
then look at the history of the city itself which was build by a
certain society figure above all in a very narrow site, could be
acceptable, because this society figure have their central policy
and strong authority to build his settlement as a little city at that
time. On the other words, he did not have good capability to
102

manage this environment he did with his traditional mind related

to this narrow scale, so, if the environment became bigger and
developed faster he did not have a good control. This fact shows
that the development of settlement and its surrounding could be
no control yet, it mean that the city pattern did not have their
orientation to the society figure again. The conclusion was that
the future development of a city pattern did not have close
relation to builder itself. Its a another matter with a city that
developed base on city planning and design, such as Batavia in
that time, further more as the existing city of Jakarta now. It could
shows on the development of Jakarta city map from year to year
until now.
Batavia 1627 developed

based on politics and
authority direction
Batavia 1635 developed based

on stability of the outside area
direction
Batavia 1650 developed based

on stability of the outside area
direction and make more
compact then before
Based on the explanation before should be understood

that definition of a city always related to the dimension of the
area, density and the existence of the permanent settlement, in a
very complex and heterogenic social situation. Those three
dimension formulated the meaning of a city basically, because
base on the acceleration of the development too fast so they like
to show physical fact as the main variable. Related to this last
statement, the city have lost their original meaning that were the
origin, the first place that started to build the city, the original form
of the city and than builder itself, because the factors that make
an influence to the growth and development of this city did not
have significant relation anymore then most of all said that the
city was sinked. New fact after those periods which come to the
surface next is that city development process shows
parametrically, realistic and takes dominantly on the next process,
so, on this context the city take place in the development of a city.
On the city map after this shows that the city of Batavia year
1627, 1635 and 1950 just like the same, but if we looked at the
content of this city and also the reason itself then there are big
differences between each others.
103

Mechanistic development of Jakarta city 1938
Mechanistic development of Jakarta city 1960
The same as stated by Mumford (1938), a city is a point

that filled with maximum consentration of energy and cultural
community. Consentration of energy could be deveded as the
human resources, natural resources and artificial resources (from
the mechanic processes), which were operate at the same time
systematically based on the balance of input and output of that
process. Each of that resource still have their own parameter.
Theoritically those operational system could setted on a map of a
city and their cuold be found the position of the consentration
points, that is the city pattern based on energy consentration.
The other consentration was about the cultural life, these
was a potency and conditions that too difficult to missure.
Nevertheless, the information that could fine from the citizen
with all of their activities, compile by monitoring at certain period.
The intencity as quantitative scale could be missured, such as the
people density, the sum of their activity, the dynamic of their
circulation and the frequancy of changes, and then, after that
should have the map of all that informations. But, in term of
qualitive realities could only have the textual description, not
more, so as what the anthropolog did at any observations.
According to this explanations could be formulated such a
hypothesis, that a city which dominantly by energy consentration
should be categorized into mechanic city, and, on the other side
should be categorized into symbolic city.
If that hypothesis formulation used as starting point to
understand a city at present and in the future, so, there are many
items that miss mainly if we want to develop city for the future. If
we look at the development of city of the Mataram kingdom from
104

time to time, first of all set with characteristic of symbolic city. On

the other map come to surface about city of Jakarta, the
development configuration shows the opposit, there was some
missing link for the first time development started based on
mechanic city performance, but further on the development
directed based on symbolic city concept.
The city of Banten, in a drawing map format, to show strategicsymbolism
To understand the existence of a city should be

formulated that to grow up a certain city, first must started by
motivation, objective and target of city development. But than
there should be a question, is that possible to formulate
motivation, objective and target of city development before
growing up a city? It is important to look before the born of a city the existence and the development of a city, to get better
formulation for the future step. If this idea become realistic, so
development of a city should not depend on theories that applied
in the other countries, which have another character and
characteristic format of culture, as shown in the emosional
configuration that drawn by foreign painter.
Everytime if we look at the of a city, always come to
question who is the planner or the designer, which procedure did
he, what kind of empowerment object did he think to develop a
city and which regulation or laws did he need to make a decision
in planning and design process. In fact, there is no city that
planned and designed just only by one man. To make suggession
for the next analysis, would be useful to know basicly about these
normative models, that are: the cosmic model, the practical model
dan the organic model.4 To elaborate these models have a
4
Kostof, S., 1991, The City Shaped: Urban Pattern and Meanings Through
History: p. 15; Lynch, K., 1981, Good City Form
105

reason that a city pattern or configuration should be directed to a

confugarative form, and, on the next step could be related to the
symbolic configuration analysis in this case begin with Banten
city, as if in this city included that three models.
These three models shoud have complete description as
follows:
The cosmic model, holy city, takes the plan to be an
interpretation of the universe and of the gods. Characteristic
design features of this model are the monumental axis, the
enclosure and its protected gates, the dominant landmarks,
the reliance on the regular grid, and spatial organization by
hierarchy.
The practical model, the city as machine, is factual,
functional, cool, not in the least magical. A city, according to
this model, is made up of small, autonomous, undifferentiated
parts, linked up into a great machine which in contrast has
clearly differentiated functions and motions.
The organic model, the biological city, sees the city as aliving
thing rather than a machine. It has a definite boundary and an
optimum size, a cohesive, indivisible internal structure, and a
rhythmic behavior that seeks, in the face of inevitable change,
to maintain a balanced state.
The city of Makasar, the point site of

Fort Rotterdam, as orientation centre
106

Discussion about city have a good relation to the smallest

unit of the whole formation of a city and its a house. It shows as
an excample the traditional house of Java that have a cosmic
model, including the micro and macro cosmic. The unit of city
represent the unit of some houses in them. Houses should have
dominant role in a city compare to the other unit, for instance the
commercial, office, industry and public service units. A house is
an organic model, because there are living units of activities in a
house that build a united model with the real living system. The
smallest scale of living system represented by house unit, and,
the larger scale could be found on the city configuration. Many
cities growth very slowly, but it does not mean that there was no
development, the real development that happen in that sort of
cities were the process of optimalization of city formation. The
Dutch colonial cities for exsample shows that it is an existing city
that designed as mechanistic practical charcteristic. Its shows
consistence on their houses system based on the factual and
functional concept, and also there found the mechanistic room or
space.
To discuss a city form there are some points that
contributed in the analizing process, so, there should be analized
5
intensively to solved the problems. First of all, there was an
isolatedness feeling in a certain society relating to the
environmental value and the own cultural life; while the expert
said that the environment have a good linkage to the natural
potencies and people should be manage it intensively. The real
condition shows that the people that lived in a city areas must
antisipated there live to a new community, and, there are mixed
one to the other people in a place in the city which have a big
different with their original land and culture. In the one side,
hopely they should compromized to the mechanistic live and the
strong livelihood they must try to optimized the resources that
set to the site, on the other side they must build a new cultural live
that fit to there own original culture.
Some planners have their own concept since now, that
the mechanistic live should be match to the city live pattern, it
shows on the analizing process and its calculation directed to
have a mechanistic balance. More of that, there are many
assumptions that the city live have a big influence to the
mechanistic process that could be design very accurately, as
shown as the existence of shopping facilities, markets, industries,
administration services, offices, schools, sport facilities and, or
the city garden system. In that case the human live value which
have their parameter too relatively too much ignored by the
planners. So, if the people could stay in a certain community or
place, but for a long time in the future they always have an
5
Hough, M., 1984, City Form and Natural Process, p. 1-3
107

isolated feeling not in their physical or visual performance but in

their psychological situation.
In the real condition shows for example the city of
Makassar, the central point of the city was the Ford of Rotterdam;
nowadays further on the development of the city ignored that
monument although for the first start they set their concept have
the relation to the Ford itself as the nucleus or point of interest.
The same as that case it was also configurated on the
development of the city of Batavia now they call Jakarta Tempo
Dulu (Jakarta at the past time). If we looked at the city of Jakarta
today, we learn about many development concept from the first
time was the pactice-mechanistic pattern then change to organic
pattern, after that to the cosmic model, and, the last but not least
to the pracis direction, so, as a whole city development concept
there is no pattern that match to the existing people itself. That
changing model could be directed to the case of housing
development, if we think to the opposite direction, that is the
changing development concept from house to city pattern, then
back to the city to house direction. So, there should be a special
solution according to this phenomenon.
There is a few attention to an understanding about the
natural process of city formation with any changes, however in
many cases there are great influences from the technology
development, that mean the existence of modifications should be
feasible to apply as soon as possible. If it is right that the process
of city formation applying the natural process, so, applied
technology should be the best way to take place in city changing
process. On the real condition, technology developed very fast,
even man so easy to accept the latest technology influences, so,
natural development process realting to the city changes could be
set as a dream or it could be impossible. On the other words,
there should be a policy to control the development of technology
itself. It should be many difficulties, because man live in a city
environment that developed very dinamically, right according to
the quantitive aspect, sort of ethnics, proffesions, grade of
intellectuals, and, futhermore are the mobility of the people from a
place to another places in term of high intensity. Other problem
are technology influences from abroad take place in the
globalization policy, that opened the ethnic-nationalism border to
change to the internationalism paradigm.
There are also ideas said that a city is an living
environment, moreover understood as habitat, so, a city is an
ecological unit that take the natural balance. In this matter,
formation of a city should be synchronised to form pattern of the
habitat itself. How about a city that excessively serious broken?
Usually, city designer proposed a satelite city to take another
direction to make undirectly solution relating to the old broken
city. If this satelite city can take over the problem from the old city
108

peace by peace, to the next step try to change the old city by
ecological concept. In this term of habitat there is cultural
landscape understanding, which have an attention, consideration
and caculating many aspect in the environment (life and dead), to
form the natural balance. But, in this matter in wholeness it could
not take the perfect system as it must be. This ecological concept
should be better then the previous old city condition.
It is government obligation with his system and all the
citizen to develop there own culture in the wide matter 6, so, the
living culture come forward. To make the culture come forward
mean ther should be made thinking pattern come forward, to
make better there behaviour and to incline the quality of there
artefactual product. Each of that component must have a good
opportunity to develop, and, then directed to connect to the
cultural system, social system, personality system and the local
organic system. If that program directed to building or built
environment target as one of the cultural artefact, so, those
program must supported by an understanding which was
formated before, as shown that: a building is not only an object
but also a sign, that any edifice is simultaneously some sort of
7
refuge and a certain kind of massage. Relating to that statement
people who lived in a city should look the city and its traditional
settlement in the scope of managment, as part of the living
place, the place for life and place to develop there own life. On
the other words, those place could be supported the basic living
demand of each people that have an interest to live and want to
build his household in there, that are settlement which fulfilled as
territory, orientation, privacy, identity, comfortableness and easy
to access. 8
If we look at the explanation by Fuller9 that stated also by
10
Minai , architecture in essence develop the analyzing method in
general stated as S -6, its about approach which have
characteristic of: sensorial, sensual, symbolic, superstitous,
symmetrical and superficial. It should be wide and deep analysis
relating to get a perfect architectural product. Is this quiet realistic
to applied to the surface for example if it is directed to the ethnic
of Java?
Creation that functioning sensorial approach, sens come
from the inner heart, and, the words of the inner heart come to
surface by enlightenment, so, if that instruction are wrong then
6
Undang-undang RI, No. 5, tahun 1992, Penjelasan umum: Pemerintah

berkewajiban mengambil segala langkah dalam usaha memajukan kebudayaan
bangsa
7
Winner, 1979: 42
8
Untermann, R. & Small, R., 1977: 39
9
Buckminster, R. Fuller, 1969, "Letter to Doxiadis", Main Currents in Modern
Thought, vol. 25 - nr. 4
10
Minai,A.T., 1984: 25
109

the decision should be wrong. 11 Those enlightenment would give

direction by having influences that come from the outside of the
inner heart, for excample influenced by the tradition, belief,
education and its environment, that: word of the inner heart could
be said as an advicer about good or bad, word of the inner heart
could be said as judger, or, word of the inner heart could be said
as penalty holder.
Creation that functioning sensual approach, this is a
value system that moderate to explosion understanding about
good or bad relating to a certain condition or performance; those
two segment have their relative dimension, its depend on the man
who give his judgment or from which side do they look from.
There should have a good and wide experiences to take place as
judger, according to this judgment there must have a
12
In
responsibility background towards the value system itself.
this value system considered the intellegency, intellectuality,
psychomotoric capability and the sens art.
Creation that performing a certain symbolic approach,
started from the structure of human mind which was influenced by
many condition around them. The structure of human mind build
based on the value system (tradition), and, it should influenced in
the family live pattern, which are consist of each person in them
that have direct blood connection or kinship realtions. This live
pattern develop their live percepsion, it consist of social beliefs,
pattern of mind, ethics and aesthetics. Other thinks that give
influences to the developing of their percepsion are social system,
social structure, personality growth, ecology, life environment, the
need of spacial, and, the need to regulate the spacial system
around them. If those items developed in the matter of machanistic
procedure each people have the same packet without specific
character and characteristic considerations, so, there will be no
identity, welfare, and, prosperity.
Creation including superstitous approach, started from
idealism of the society which pointed to the spirit or the full spirit
which call ilmu kejawen in the Javanese term, or, in the other term
call the perfectism. The priciple of this paradigm is that each
people should live without or minimizing their wrongness life and
doing. So, each man shloud try to live at a perfect and full spirit
knowledge and understanding. According to this condition, usually
man called cosmology and cosmogony to clarify their concept, to
get their own character of life including their settlement as their
specific place for life. Stabileness om this patter of the living places
configure in the exterior and interior format, according to this
statement it was atated by Mulder,13 that: --- the practice of
11
Poedjawijatna,I.R., 1968: 21
Mulder, 1975: 89
13
1975: 40
12
110

mysticism reveals a style of reasoning that emphasises the use of

the rasa, or intuitive feeling, that reveals knowledge directly, and,
in which events and experiences are explained by the principles of
harmony and coordination within the oneness of life. This oneness
is conceived as a structured hierarchy between the outward relates
to matter, passions, drives, and the forces of chaos, and the inner
intuition, self-mastery, quitness and order. The cultivation of these
inner aspects is the purpose of kebatinan or mysticism. Relating to
this statement usually said that it is irrational, but this a real fact that
was applied in the society live.
Creation implementing symmetrical formation, this
application come to surface by the principle of qualitative balancing
the natural equilibrium transfered to quantitative mathematic
equilibrium, as shown as absolute dimension, and, then transfered
back again to the qualitative meaning. If we started to understand
the Javanese philosophy that stated as sepi ing pamrih, rame ing
gawe, amemayu hayuning bawana, there are two absolut number
that are the 0 (zero) mean qualitative equilibrium the nonparametric reality and 1 (one) mean quantitative equilibrium the
parametric reality. In this statement its contain the matter of hard
working, do not emphasize the advantage, and, for the sake of
promoting all of the people in thinking and doing. It could be
understood widely as stated after: --- memayu hayuning bawana
(wereld heil). Heil voor de wereld kan men alleen bewerken,
wanneer men los is van alle materiele begeerten en voortdurend
de rijkdom van de eenheid met agod beseft. Een tweede kenmerk
van dit wereldheil is dat het steeds in harmonie is met de
verlanges en behoeften van de maatschapij. Er moet een eenheid
zijn tussen God, individu en samenleving, en zo ontstaat een heil
voor de wereld.
Thinking pattern
Pragmatism
Idealism
Evaluation
Concept
Transformation
Simulation
Symbolizing
Theory
Early
intention
Early
resistance
Capability
Inclined
Creativity
Idea in the form of a diagram as

reflective understanding
111

On behalf of the natural environment of Javanese

houses, the next diagram configure a balance system as basic
format. As stated before that a city scale have a good relation to
minor pattern of a house, so, there should be a stattement came
to surface that a good city which feasible for their people did not
separated from the pragmatism and idealism of the people itself
to get a certain community balancing. The environment of a city
could not build just only by mechanistic simulation model, and,
then after that must be follows by the symbolic process all of
this depend on manys resistencies and inclines of the people in
general.
Pragmatic creativity could be represent by city planner or
city expert, whereas the role of the people should be represented
the idealistic creativity. So, the existence of city planner or urban
designer could not stand alone as a single fiter in creating and
developing such a city, thats mean that should be very important
to bring the people involving proactively in each step of city
development.
The first voyage of the Dutch navy to approach the port of

Banten at september 7th 1506 in the war situation
Creation with superficial meaning, experience in term of
interpersonal relation can be seen from several side as stated,
that: --- the elements of experience can be devided into four
categories, viz.: 1. the realm of beliefs, 2. the realm of social relationships and social organization, 3. the realm of personality
expression and the individual, and, 4. the realm of matter. This
statement valid in general use, but in the Javanese cultural life
point of belief and social relation should be more dominantly than
the other points. From that S-6 point of view could be made a
conclusion that city development build by mechanistic approach is
112

not the only one best method as well as supported by theories

and experiences which was shows in other country. City that
settled for people that have many cultural live values, there
included many aspect in development analizing, as mentioned: the
personality, live perception, inclined and the natural boundaries; all
of these aspects have great influence to the formation of the living
environment, the settlement and the cultural community of the
whole people in there. This are the real fact that build specific
consideration in the process of city formation and its development
system, and, there is no significant connection to do as the same
as others city which have their own successes in the other country
in this world.
Refferences
Hien,H.A.v.,1896, De Javaanche Geestenwereld en de Betrekking
die Tusschen de Gees, G.C.T. van Dorp en co., Semarang
Jong,S.d., 1973, Een Javaansche Levenshouding, H. Veenman &
Zonen BV, Wageningen
Koentjaraningrat, 1980, Javanese Terms for God and
Supernatural Being and the Idea of Power: in: Man,
Meaning and History, Martinus Nijhof, The Hague
Koentjaraningrat, 1989, Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi, Aksara Baru,
Jakarta
Mulder,J.A.N., 1975, Mysticism and Daily Life in Contemporary
Java, ---, Amsterdam
Mulder,N., 1973, Kepribadian Jawa dan Pembangunan Nasional,
Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta
Poedjawijatno, I.R., 1968, Etika: Filsafat Tingkah Laku, Obor,
Jakarta
Untermann, R. & Small, R., 1977, Site Planning for Cluster
Housing, van Nostrand Reinhold com., New York
Winner, I.P. & Uniker-Sebeok, J., 1979, Semiotics of Culture,
Mouton Pub., The Hague
113

JOGJAKARTA AND CAKRANEGARA

An initial study on two capitals of the last kingdoms
in the Archipelago (until the 18th century) which were
designed based on the local traditional city planning
Handinoto and Samuel Hartono
Lecturers at the Architecture Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning,
Petra Christian University, Surabaya
Corresponding author:
handinot@peter.petra.ac.id
samhart@peter.petra.ac.id
Abstract
Knowledge on the basic town planning of the past can be
invaluable in the development of urban/town planning in the
future. The key to understanding the meaning of urban planning
of the past is to understand how the people at that time classified
their activities, i.e., which activities were considered sacred and
which were profane. This division was basically a religious act of
the pre-modern society to balance themselves with the cosmos,
because life at that time was understood to lie in the living-in-asacralized-cosmos atmosphere. Therefore, they separated the
sacred and the profane areas. However, in the modern era
when people live in the living in a desacralized cosmos
atmosphere, everything is changed. People idolize private life and
property, and private belonging are often considered as
something private. As the result, the space division in the modern
era has changed the sacred-profane into private-public. The
article below shows the importance of acquiring knowledge of
planning in the past which was full with cosmos symbols to
visualize the configuration of nature and functioned as the
backdrop of a social life. It is hoped to help the readers
understand the present urban planning. Jogjakarta in Central
Java (1756) and Cakranegara in West Lombok (1740), which
were the last cities in the Archipelago to design by the local
authorities, are used as the subjects of this case study.
Keywords: settlement of the past,
Jogjakarta, Cakranegara
sacred
and
profane,
Introduction
City planning is not only a place of physical to guarantee
the reproduction process of a society, but also a complete cultural
phenomenon which involve almost all of the life dimensions of the
people in it.
114

Morphologically, some cities in Java, Bali and Lombok 1

were originally designed as planned cities, but later developed
into organic cities 2. The history of the early development of city
planning in Java cannot be separated from the initial concept of
planning the capital cities of some ancient kingdoms in SouthEast Asia. Those were the capitals of some ancient kingdoms like
Majapahit 3 (in 14th century), Moslem Mataram (Kotagede,
Pajang, etc) and the development of those kingdom capitals in
18th century (Surakarta, Jogjakarta) in Java, which designs were
based on the macrocosmic and microcosmic concepts 4.
When J.P Coen controlled and built Batavia in 1619,
cities in the Archipelago generally and Java specifically were
gradually occupied by the Dutch. Since then the designs of those
cities were fully controlled for the Dutch. However, there were
some exception cases, such as Jogja 5 (1756) and Cakranegara6
(1740), which could become the last cities designed based on the
principles of traditional city planning at that time.
Although the planning of kingdom capitals in Java from
the Majapahit (14th century) to Jogjakarta (18th century)
underwent regular development, it was found that there was a red
line in the layout concept based on the abovementioned
7
macrocosmic and microcosmic concepts . These concepts were
understandably applied in accordance with the topography and
the socio-political and historical development of the local
kingdom.
In general, the layout of the city planning and architecture
in South-east Asia until the 18th century was based on the so1
What is meant by West Lombok is the former colony of Karangasem Kingdom in

Bali (especially Cakranegara)
Planned Cities are those designed base on the grand plan concept as the
result of political ambition. Organic Cities are those developed naturally
without certain plans. Former capitals like Jogjakarta, Surakarta and
Cakranegara (in Lombok) were initally designed as planned cities
Architect Henri Maclaine Pont once reconstructed the capital planning of
Majapahit. See Pont (1925), Madjapahit Poging tot reconstructie van het
stadplan, negezocht op het terrein aan den hand van den middleeeuwschen
dichter Prapanca, in magazine Djawa 5(1925), no.4 pp. 157-199. Later, Pont
(1924), Beschouwingen over Madjapahit in Indische Bouwkundig Tijdschriff 10
(1924) pp. 157-164. See also other articles.
Regarding the meaning and capital planning of these ancient kingdoms in
relation to macrocosmos and microcosmos in South-east Asia in general and in
Java in specific, see: Heine-Geldern, Robert (1972), Conceptions of State and
Kinship in Southeast Asia (Konsepsi Tentang Negara Dan Kedudukan Raja di
Asia Tenggara) translated by Deliar Noer, C.V. Rajawali, Jakarta
Jogjakarta was built by Hamengku Buwono I, as the consequence of Giyanti
Treaty in 1755
Cakranegara, ruled by the king of Karangasem, Bali, experienced its golden
years in the reign of King Gusti Wayan Teguh from 1740 to 1775 in Lombok.
Lombok was not occupied by the Dutch before Lombok War in November 1894.
See : Santoso, Suryadi Jo. (1981), Dinamika Perkembangan Arsitektur di
Jaman Prakolonial di P. Jawa in magazine Dimensi no.5, 1981, pp. 34-36.
115

called Form Follow Worldview 8. The traditional architecture in

South-east Asia 9 especially those influenced by Hinduism and
Budhism until the 18th century acquired the same red line in
their basic concept of planning. Robert Heine Geldern (1972:2)
said that the similarity was on the belief about the parallelism of
the macrocosm and microcosm, between human beings and
the universe 10. In real life, this concept was applied on the
harmony between the kingdom and the universe. Harmony could
only be achieved if the city planning in the kingdom was designed
in such a way that followed the model of the universe
(macrocosmic) in its small version (microcosmic). Thus, harmony
and balance between macrocosm and microcosm should be
achieved to produce prosperity and social welfare. If this was not
achieved, then chaos would have occured. The effort to achieve
harmony was the obligation of every person from the
kingdom/government to each individual. This setting up needed
guidelines and these were found in the cosmology (worldview)
which was practiced by the whole people in the kingdom. They
would then need a form giver who understood the details of the
11
cosmography so that they could produce the planning as in line
with the cosmography, which provided classification of planning
based on the values practiced by the locak people. This was very
important for a kingdom which was centrally formed, as most
kingdoms at that time, to achieve prosperity for its state.
Based on this thinking then, the capitals as the Magic
Centre of the kingdom had to be arranged in such a way so that
12
their physical shape reflected that of the macrocosm . This was
a sacred attempt, and consequently the result was a sacred
8
Traditional architecture in general was always influenced by the mindset and the
lifestyle of the people at a certain period of time. The mindset was always
influenced by their worldview about the world and the visible and invisible
realities. Thats why traditional architecture was said to adhere to Form Follow
Worldview
9
Especially: Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Java and Bali
10
According to Heine-Geldern (1972:2-3), this concept of harmony between
macrocosmos and microcosmos was not the typical belief of the South-east
Asia. It had occured since the Babylonian period in 3,000 BC, as well as
Hellenisme in Europe, Roman empire and the middle ages. It flourished in
China especially during Chou dinasty (1030-256 BC) and Han dinasty (206S
BC-220 AD). It reached South-east Asia through India and China and then
blended and integrate with the local religions.
11
In Bali a form giver is called Undagi, who has a high status in the
society.
12
Every building act was conducted with an understanding that the
building to be built was a microcosmos, whose structure and shape imitated or
copied that of the macrocosmos. The act of building itself was an activity which
imitated that of the Almighty when the universe was created. So, setting up
either a city, a kraton complex or any building, the act of building was a religious
act (Eliade, 1959:33-35.)
116

space. Outside of this planning method was understood as

chaotic space or a profane space. This planning was applied
gradually, which meant that it was stated with the planning of the
region, cities, big buildings (kraton, temples, etc) to the housing
complex. Therefore, to understand the meaning of the space
planning and building planning of a city we need to understand
how they classified the human activities, that is, which activities
were classified as sacred and which were profane.
The gradual changes in the society will influence the city
planning as well; however, the knowledge of the basic principles
of ancient city planning becomes an important knowledge for
future city planning.
Sacred Space and Profane Space 13
Sacred space is non homogeneity within homogeneity. Its
mere quality of being homogenous different from its
surroundings that make it sacred. For religious man, this spatial
non homogeneity finds expressions in the experience of an
opposition between space that is sacred the only real and
reality existing space and all other space, the formless expense
surrounding it. This idea of non homogeneity within homogeneity
implies a boundary. Somewhere between the secular and the
sacred one ends and one begins (Elliade, 1959).
In the mind of the religious traditional society (the
religious man), their region was divided in accordance with their
activities, which were sacred and which was profane. In the
sacred space everything - the behavior of the inhabitants as well
as the building structure -- was arranged in orderly; while in the
profane space, everything was chaotic because it was not yet
purified.
The traditional man (Eliade mentioned him as man of all
pre-modern societies) always assumed that cosmos (the earth)
was something sacred14 because it was something wellarranged. On the other hand, outside the earth was chaos and
regarded as profane space (Eliade, 1959). When man would
open a woods and change it into a settlement or farm, they have
13
In everyday life, profan is like commerce, technology, social economic. Religiussacred is like religion, sacred architecture etc.
Cosmos is the ordered world, and cosmology is the knowledge
concerning the structure of cosmos. Cosmology and world view, though related,
should not be used interchangeably. Cosmology refers to more apprehensible
and appealing images and ideas about the universe. World view denotes a set
of more general, less exact represented but generally believed ideas about life
and world (Eliade, 1959).
This is the difference between Cosmology and World view
14
117

to ask permission with an apology ceremony for such alteration.

Anthropologists and theologists have proved that traditional
people always conducted certain religious rituals before they
open a woods and change its function for settlement. It was
meant as an apology to or asking for permission from the gods
or guardians of the earth for such purpose 15.
The man-controlled environment must reflect the cosmos
(the well-arranged world), and this is the sacred one; while the
un-arranged environment is the chaos because it is profane. To
simplify the planning of sacred space, the space then must have
boundary. Physically, the boundary could be in the form of
surrounding walls or fences. Thus, the surrounding walls or
fences of the space planning of kraton, for example, functioned
not only as a security element but also a boundary of the sacred
space from the profane. The main gate, consequently, function as
16
the transition (threshold) from the sacred to the profane .
Macrocosmos And Microcosmos
The image about the world (macrocosmos) partly
influences the microcosmic arrangement which was realized in
the setting of the region, the capital, the kraton complex and the
general buildings around them. As Heine-Geldern (1972:4)
15
Things like these can be found in the opening the woods which later become the
capital of Jogjakarta (1755). Peter Carey even said that Tugu Monument (at the
intersection following Malioboro Street) was set up as a replacement for the
woods guardian because the woods was then changed into a city (see Carey,
Peter (1984) Jalan Maliabara (Garland Bearing Street); The Etymology And
Historical Origins Of A Much Misunderstood Yogyakarta Street Name, Archipel
27:51-63. Tugu (ceremonial lingga) was a tribute to the spiritual guardians of
Jogjakarta, well known as Kyai Jaga.
Initially, he was the guardian of the Banyan tree which was swept off by Sultan
Hamengku Buwono I to build Jogjakarta kraton (Carey, 1984:57). This tradition
originated probably from a land-opening ritual from veda (vedis) culture in India
which was then adopted by the Javanese. According to this ritual, cleaning up
woods to build settlement was legally approved when there was a replacement
site for worshipping the guardian. This is a common custom when the
ownership of such place is transferred.
16
In a city scale, the sacred space was sometimes realized in just a nonphysical boundary. For example, when there was an outbreak or epidemy over
the people in the city and its surroundings, they conducted a ritual by displaying
the kingdom sacred legacy from the kraton to the whole city. In Jogjakarta
specifically during the 1932 epidemy, a procession to display Kanjeng Kyai
Tunggul Wulung (a sacred banner/ flag) was held on Jumuah Kliwon 13 Pasa,
Je 1862 ( Kliwon Friday 21-22 January 1932) around the streets of Jogjakarta.
See R. Soedjana Tirtakoesoema in magazine Djawa (12:41-49). De Ommegang
met den Kandjeng Kjahi Toenggoel Woeloeng te Jogjakarta, Donderdag-Vrijdag
21/22 Januari 1932(Djoemoeah-Kliwon 13 Pasa Dje 1862) for the map of the
procession route.
118

stated, according Brahmana doctrine, the image of the world

(macrocosmos) or the universe consisted of:
Jambudwipa, sebuah benua berbentuk lingkaran terletak
di pusat, dikelilingi oleh tujuh buah samudra berbentuk cincin dan
tujuh buah benua lain berbentuk cincin juga. Di luar samudra
terakhir dari ketujuh samudra tadi, jagad itu ditutup oleh barisan
pegunungan yang sangat besar. Di tengah-tengah jambudwipa
(tengah-tengah jagad raya), berdirilah Gunung Meru, gunung
kosmis yang diedari oleh matahari, bulan dan bintang-bintang. Di
puncaknya terletak kota dewa-dewa yang dikelilingi oleh tempat
tinggal dari delapan lokapala atau dewa-dewa penjaga jagad.
According to Budhisme, the image of macrocosmos is a
little bit different. It was said that,
Gunung Meru menjadi pusat dari jagad raya. Gunung ini
dikelilingi oleh tujuh barisan pegunungan. Masing-masing
pegunungan ini dipisahkan oleh tujuh buah samudra yang
berbentuk cincin. Di luar rantai pegunungan terakhir terletak
lautan dan di dalam lautan ini dijumpai empat buah benua,
masing-masing pada penjuru angin. Benua yang terletak di
Selatan Gunung Meru adalah Jambudwipa, tempat tinggal umat
manusia. Jagad raya itupun dikelilingi oleh sebuah dinding besar
yang terdiri dari batu karang , disebut barisan cakrawala. Pada
lereng Gunung Meru terletak swarga (surga) yang terendah, yaitu
swarga dari keempat Raja Besar atau penjaga dunia. Pada
puncaknya swarga kedua, yaitu swarga ketigapuluh tiga dewa
serta Sudarsana, kota dewa-dewa, tempat indera bersemayam
sebagai raja. Di atas Gunung Meru terdaat lapisan-lapisan
lainnya dari kayangan (biasanya ada duapuluh enam, termasuk
lapisan-lapisan diatas Gunung Meru, tetapi jumlah ini kadangkadang berbeda)
Different interpretation on the universe also took place in
several regions in South-east Asia including Java and Bali 17.
Despite minor differences, the core concept is like this: the ringlike areas which were centered to Mt Meru were actually the
same.
The traditional society in the South-east Asia in general
and Java-Bali in specifics possessed two foundations.The first
was the sacred-religious foundation and the second was the
profane-political. On these foundations the kingdom capitals
were built. Thus, the grand design would include the decision of
17
The image of the universe as the model of regional planning and the palace
complex and building planning was also believed by the ancient Maya in the
American continent. See Jennifer P. Mathews and James F. Garber (2004),
Models Of Cosmic Order: Physical Expression Of Sacred Space Among The
Ancient Maya, Ancient Mexoamerica 15 (2004) pp. 49-59, Cambridge University
Press, USA.
119

which sacred-religious areas and which profane-political areas to

be located.
The concept of regional planning of Javanese Kingdom

Notes :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Sultan,the Centre of Power, is analogous to the inside (dalem) of the

Sultan and where the kingdoms sacred legacy was stored
The boundary of Keraton walls, where inside the royal compound for the
Sultans family, the assistants, and the guard soldiers is built
Nagara or the capital, where the head offices of administration and
government and the compounds for the palace officials (priyayi),
Kepatihan and the foreigners (the Dutch, the Chinese) are located
Narawita Dalem, farming lands under the direct authority of the Sultan,
where all needs of the kraton dwellers are supplied from here (included
here are the staple foods, vegetables, grass for the kraton horses, and
others.
Naragung, where the apanage of the palace officials are located.
Mancanegara, which is controlled by the Bupati. The coastal areas are
included as Mancanegara.
Center, Hierarchy, Axis, and Orientation

The sacred space must be separated from the profane
space. Inside the sacred space (microcosm) human beings could
18
regularly organize their activities based on the cosmology of the
18
From Free Online Dictionary, it was explained that:

Cosmology means:
1. The study of physical universe considered as the totality of phenomena in time
and space
2.
a. The astrophysical study of the history, structure, and constituent dynamic
of the universe
b.
A specific theory or model of this structure and these dynamic.
Cosmography means:
1. The study of visible universe that includes geography and astronomy
2. A general description or depiction of the world or universe
As a noun Cosmography can mean:
1. the science that maps the general feature of the universe, describes both
heaven and earth (but without encroaching on geography or astronomy)
120

inhabitants, and they would need the cosmography to make their

decision. The effort to present this philosophy in their physical
form was realized in the regional planning and the building
planning following the physical elements: Center (Axis Mundi &
Imago Mundi), Hierarchy, Axis and Orientation
Axis Mundi 19 (The Center of the Universe)
In the perspective of the traditional society, the world was
formed into three layers. The first was the World where we live,
the second was the Upper World (Heaven), and the third was the
Lower World, which was often figuratively understood as the dark
world20 . Axis Mundi (very often drawn as a vertical line), was the
centre of the world which connect the above three layers. In the
physical realm, Axis Mundi is presented as the sole pillar (in the
center), the trees (banyan trees) 21, the intersection of the village
center or sometimes the mountains of Meru 22 (Mt. Semeru, Mt.
Merapi, Mt. Agung, etc). Temples are also pictured as (manmade) mountains and understood as the center of the
environment.
Imago Mundi 23 (The Image of the World)
In the perspective of the traditional society, the world
developed from the centre and dispered into all directions.
Consequently, when we wanted to build a new environment, we
had to start it from the center 24, which later was developed into
all wind directions (controlled). A village, then, should start, for
2. a representation of the earth or heaven. Representation- a creation that is a

visual or tangible rendering of someone or something
19
Axis Mundi (Latin): center of the world, the cosmic pillar.
20
These three divisions in their physical form are often symbolized as
Head, Body and Leg of the building, or the mountain, the land and the sea in the
built environment. In Bali there are three kinds of building to represent this
threesome devision: Parahyangan, Palemahan and Pawongan
21
The banyan trees in the middle of the park square (alun-alun) was also
understood at the centre
22
In South-east Asia in general and Java-Bali in specific, the kings were
perceived as the Meru itself, especially during the periods of ancient kingdoms.
Quoting Geldern (1982:15), it was said that the king was the Meru itself. His
right eye represented the sun, the left eye the moon, the arms and legs the four
directions of the wind (North-South, East-West). The gold-layered umbrella on
his head represented the six layers of the lower sky. The sharp-pointed crown
represented the summit of Mt. Meru, and the slippers he put on were the
ground. This meant that the king was understood as similar to the axis of the
universe (Axis Mundi). The title of the Sultan in Solo was Paku Buwono (the
nail of the earth). See also Nusa Jawa : Silang Budaya vol. 3, written by
Lombard, Denis (1996:60-71) in the chapter of King as the Axis of the Earth.
23
Imago Mundi (Latin): the image of the world : image, model, microcosm of the
world.
24
Same thing with when we plan to build a tradisional Javanese house, for
example, what we erect first was the main pillars (soko guru), then the
pananggap, and finally the brim (paningrat)
121

example, from the intersection (as the centre), and then spread
following the winds (north, south, east, and west). As a result,
when a new environment is built, it must be a new construction of
imago mundi. It was understood that the cosmos above the
ground being built can spell any attack from the evil world
(demons) and its tendency of chaos. So, imago mundi (the
image of the world) as a cosmic arrangement should be
represented in each environment.
Hierarchy
Every government structure has hierarchy, so did the
ancient kingdom society in Java and Bali with many different
hierarchies. Some examples included the hierarchy of the public
servants, which was chaired by a patih, hierarchy of palace
workers, hierarchy of the intellectuals and writers, hierarchy of
religion leaders, and many others. In each hierarchy, however,
the king possessed the highest rank both in the sacred (religious)
power and the profane (military and economic) power.
In architecture, the hierarchy was presented in the design
of several forms. One example was the use of floor and walls as
boundary. The higher the floor the higher the rank, whereas the
surrounding walls were used to separate a region from other
regions which belonged to different hierarchy. The concept of
hierarchical microcosm was implemented in the design.
Axis and Orientation
Axis has three functions: as the orientation, the
integrating element, and the boundary in classifying the hierarchy
of space planning (based on the cosmography) in the sacred
space. This can be seen from the placement of which building to
put on the left, on the right, in front of, behind, above and under
other construction. Besides this, axis also functions as a guide in
the design of bulding structure mass. For example, the axis can
arrange or separate a room into two sections (halving), or four
sections (quartering), and others. As mentioned by Bertling
(1923), halving tended to be used to separate matters related the
Upper World and the Human World (a vertical relation), while
quartering to separate human beings in the world (a horizontal
relation).
Axis can function also as the boundary or separator of
sacred space and profane space. Axis is usually controlled by the
wind direction, like North-South and East-West. The center is the
crossing of both axis. Everything in it should be arranged
harmoniously and in balance based on the agreed cosmography.
This balance did not emerge voluntarily, but rather, efforts should
be geared up to keep the balance. Designing a dualistic
microcosm (attempts to balance two opposing elements, such
as, night-day, man-woman, left-right, etc) needs an axis. Dualistic
122

microcosm can be understood as a way to create a harmony of

the upper world and the human world, which is the requirement
of the human beings welfare on earth (Santoso, 1984).
The main function of the North-South axis in a town in
Java is to connect the center of power, which was sacred and in
the South, and the administration and trade areas, which were
profane in the North.
A Case Study of Jogjakarta in Java and Cakranegara in West
Lombok
The power system, which was mentioned as a sacred
magical25, had become the principle of the powers of ancient
kingdoms in the remote Java and Bali-Lombok. This had
influenced the design of the city plan and its architecture.
One instrument to show that power in the physical form
was reflected in the space and building planning based on the
cosmography and its designing principles26 . In those kingdoms
in Java and Bali-Lombok the regulations were not merely
instructed from the top to the bottom (from the king to the people).
Rather, the process was agreed by involving the existing cultures
of the people and integrating them into a cosmological system.
This cosmographic concept was then the approved foundation to
design the regions, space and building in the jurisdiction. Thus,
the designing priciples did not only deal with the shape of the
building, but also involved other architectural dimensions, such as
the relation between the building and its surrounding, modules,
orientation and ornaments inside. All of these were possible to
achieve when the cultural values inherent in the cosmologic
system were supported by some groups or the people in the
kingdom like what happened in the ancient kingdoms in Java and
Bali Lombok.
Jogjakarta was built in 1755 by Sultan Hamengku
Buwono I, while Cakranegara in 1740s during the golden years of
the reign of King Gusti Wayan Teguh in 1740-1775 in Lombok.
Both establishments are used as the case study.
Jogjakarta
The space planning which were related to the macrocosm
and microcosm like Center, Hierarchy, Axis and Orientation were
prioritized in the design of Jogjakarta by Sultan
Hamengkubowono I. So was the classification of space planning
25
More detailded explanation about sacred-magical power or the god king

especially those took place in South-east Asia, which resulted in the physical
design can be seen in Geldern, Robert Heine (1972), Konsepsi Tentang Negara
Dan Kedudukan Raja di Asia Tenggara (Conceptions of State and Kinship in
Southeast Asia) translated by Deliar Noer, C.V. Rajawali, Jakarta.
26
This act is necessary in building an integrating language, or similar polite
expressions between the authority and the people.
123

based on Javanese cosmology which was divided into the five

absolut components, four components which were combined into
the fift (mocopat, kolomudheng, poncosudo) The prototype was a
rectangular world with a center (papat kiblat limo pancer) in the
order of: South, West, North, East, Center. Days were also
categorized as Legi, Pahing, Pon, Wage, Kliwon. So were colors.
Every part had its own characteristics in accordance with its
cosmography which was called hasto broto
As it has been mentioned before, the traditional society
system in South-east Asia in general and Java-Bali-Lombok in
specific had two main foundations, the sacred-religious and the
political-profane. Both complement each other. The politicalprofan was also the basic principle to decide the form and
structure of a kingdom capital. One unit of settlement, which was
called kampong was a very important matter in political-profane
designing. Even many historians on South-east Asian cities
agreed that kampong was the basic principle of planning a city.
In Jogjakarta, the city space planning was based on the
political profane concept with magersari27 as the most used
method in town. Magersari kampongs include Pakualaman,
Gondomanan, Suryodiningratan, Prawirotaman, Tirtodipuran,
Mangkuyudan, Sosrowijayan, Jogokarsan, Pringgokusuman,
Bausasran, Purwanggan, etc. Magersari method with a system of
kawula-gusti
follower-nobleman (the noblemans estate
surrounded by the followers houses) was evidently common
28
during the Majapahit era . This political-profane concept was
directed to overcome security matters which were related to the
structure of a traditional society.
One building which was understood to violate the city
planning was Vredenburg Fort, the Dutch housing and the
railways crossing Malioboro Street. It was difficult to avoid since
the establishment of Jogjakarta as the influence of the Dutch
colonials was very great29.
Cakranegara in West Lombok
The design of Cakranegara basically had the same
principles with that of the capitals of ancient Javanese kingdoms.
27
Magersari method is building a settlement surrounding a center of power which

represents the power of the keratin of that region. In the physical state, it is in
the form of some units of settlement of the kawula (followers) which surround
the Ghrya Sang Pangeran the House of the Prince (the nobleman worshipped
by those followers) In Jogja, some areas which do not follow magersari are
Tukangan, Godean, Jagalan. Usually it is because these areas are influenced
by certain professions
28
See Pigeuad, Theodore G. Th (1960-3), Java in The 14 th century: A study in
Cultural History,, The Hague, Matinus Nijhoff. Vol. III.
29
About the history of Jogjakarta, see Ricklefs, Merle C. (1974), Jogjakarta Under
Sultan Mangkubumi 1749-1792: A History of Division of Java, London.
124

These originated from the book of Negara Kertagama 30, and

thus, the foundation concepts of sacred-religious and politicalprofane were also implemented in the designing of Cakranegara.
The design patterns of sacred-religious such as macrocosm and
microcosm, (Axis Mundi & Imago Mundi), Hierarchy, Orientation
and North-South Axis following hierarchical microcosm and
dualistic microcosm discussed earlier in this paper were applied
in this capital city planning. What is interesting is how the
political-profane concept was applied on this city.
Cakranegara consisted of 33 karang (the kampong in
Lombok). The design of human settlements based on the rank of
the inhabitants (in accordance with the caste) was not found in
Jogjakarta. The width of the street and the size of the land
reflected the rank of the inhabitants. This means that the housing
for the noble people (Knightmans caste) was very much different
from those of traders (Weisyas caste). The name karang was
partly adopted from the vilages in Karang Asem Bali, because
Cakranegara (1740s) at that time was controlled by Karang Asem
kingdom. It was arranged that way so that people from Karang
Asem Bali would stay in the kampong with the same name in
Cakranegara. It can be concluded that there was a colonialization
element in the capital design. In every religious day, the head of
the kampong should be present in the religious rituals held in
Meru Temple (located in the centre accross Mayura Temple),
which was the royal temple. It was located near the cross-section
of North-South and East-West axis. By so doing, the authority
could quiclky check if there was any rebellious leader. So, the
30
Negara Kertagama was an ancient manuscript from Majapahit Kingdom (14th

century). Written on lontar leaves, it told the history of the golden era of
Majapahit. It was discovered on 18 November 1894 at Mayura Temple,
Cakranegara. A linguist, J.L.A. Brandes, was the first scholar to recognize it. In
1960, the manuscript was translated and analized by Th.G. Pigeaud, a scholar
of Javanese language and history in 5 volumes (Java in the 14th Century)(19601963). From this book we can learn the history and prosperity of Majapahit. It is
now kept in Museum of Leiden. Not until 1973, when Queen Juliana visited
Indonesia, was the manuscript returned to Indonesia through President
Soeharto at that time. See J.L.A Brandes (1902) Negarakrtagama; Lofdicht van
Prapantja op koning Radjasanagara, Hayam Wuruk, van Madjapahit naar het
eenige daarvan bekende handschrift, aangetroffen in de puri te Tjakranegara op
Lombok. Or, the latest book of S.O. Robson (1995), Desawarnana
(Nagarakrtagama).
This book (compiled from the lontar trees), written by Empu Prapanca, was
brought by a Javanese Hinduist from Kediri kingdom, after the fall of Majapahit,
to Lombok. Lombok Island was regarded as the last fort of Hinduism to prevent
the coming of Islam in the Archipelago. dibawa oleh orang Hindu Jawa dari
kerajaan Kediri, setelah runtuhnya Majapahit, ke Lombok. This book was later
used as the guide to build government and also defense system in
Cakranegara. This fact was explained by Agung Biarsah from Pamotan Palace,
Cakranegara, east of Mayura Park, Cakranegara (read Kompas, Friday, 28
October 2005, entitled Menelusur Sisa Majapahit di Lombok Tracking the
Remnants of Majapahit in Lombok)
125

design based on sacred-religious was combined with that of

political-profane to create a very compact city planning31.
While the application of macrocosm and microcosm was
jeopardized in Jogja due to the public facilities like Vredeburg
Fort, railways, the office of the Dutch governor and other common
facilities which were placed in front of the keraton, in Cakranegara
with the strong Hinduism and the caste system until the of the
19th century there was no interfere of the Dutch at all.
Summary for Discussion
The capital city Cakranegara morphologically was more
solid than Jogjakarta. The people of Cakranegara in the 18th
32
century adhered to Balinese Hinduism with the caste system
This had affected the design of the city, which was more
controlled from the centre (Mayura Temple), where the king ruled.
Jogjakarta, on the contrary, during its early settlement (during the
reign of Hamengkubowono I), had adhered to Javanese-Islam
(shown from the Agung Mosque on the west of Alun-alun Lor).
However, the design of the capital city Jogjakarta was still
strongly influenced by the ancient Javanese-Hindhuist kingdoms.
The residence of the Resident, as the colonial government
authority, was placed across Vredenburg Fort. It can be
concluded that there was an axis of governmental and colonial
authority which was very strategic. It can also be said that the city
planning was used to blockage the authority of the Javanese king,
and thus, city planning was used by the colonial government as a
political tool. In the early 20th century, these blockages were even
made perfect to jeopardize the sacred orientation of the kraton to
Mt. Merapi by building a number of colonial buildings along the
ceremonial axis like Nillmij, Ned. Handel Mij, Escomto, the
Central Post Office and Javasche Bank.
In an agricultural society (especially until the 18th
century), the territorial boundary was originally a boundary
between humans life environment and wilderness which was not
yet influenced by civilization (sacred v profane). After the social
relation aspect between those settlements developed, this aspect
took part in determining the boundary of a territorial unit.
Basically, this social aspect became the most important one in the
society and later developed into the so-called political-profane.
31
Further explanation about Cakranegara can be read in Funo, Shuji (2002), The
Spatial Formation in Cakranegara , Lombok, in The Indonesian Town Revisited,
Peter J.M. Nas (Ed), Lit Verlag, Institue Of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore,
pp. 201-229.
32
Lombok kingdom in the 18th century was controlled by Karang Asem kingdom in
Bali, and thus, the official religion at that time was Balinese-Hinduism. Further
reading on Lombok can be found in Kraan, Alfons van der (1980), Lombok,
Congquest, Colonization and Underdevelopment, 1870-1940, Singapore, H.E.A.
126

In the later development of cities in Java, the urban

society acquired a heterogenous cultural religous structure. The
social relations between those territorial units were not able to be
organized based on their religious, cosmic principles. Rather, they
were set up to form an administrative structure (tended more to
the political profane than the sacred-religious). However, it did
not mean that the territorial unit in a city had lost its cultural,
religious aspect. In the modern era when living in a sacralized
cosmos has changed into living in a desacralized cosmos,
individual rights of the people tend to be put forward.
The coming of new values as the result of colonialization
in South-east Asia has brought many changes in the social life.
One clear example is the transaction relation theory in daily trade
which is based on market relation theory. In the market context,
every individuals are rivals and competitors to each other. Most
often the competition is not a fair one. Therefore, all transactions
are accepted and approved only in paper which states the
contract, is written word by word, and is guaranteed by the
national government which holds the power to control the legal
enforcement tool. As the result, people tend to be enemies to one
another. Family, regional, school relationships, and friendship
may be seen as irrelevant. Siblings send each other to courts,
and friends are trapped in lengthy court deals. What is important
now is ones self interest, and it should be won through a harsh
competition in the market.
Values like these have created a clear separating line
between the private space and the public space in architecture,
especially in the urban area. It does not mean that there were no
private and public spaces in the past; rather, these new values
have become the priority and defeated the issue of sacred and
profane spaces from the past. The building line (both for the
building and the fence), for example, besides functioning as a
regulator in urban fabric, also functions to separate the private
rights and the public rights of a building. Currently, the
arrangement of sacred and profane spaces is more
emphasized in a religious building complex itself.
The decree of Sultan Hamengkubowono IX from Jogja to
open the kraton walls for public (after the Indonesias
independence) was a surprising decision. This indicates that the
sacred space inside the keraton walls, which for centuries were
not meant for the general public, is now changed. Automatically,
the keraton walls did no longer function to separate the sacred
and the profane, although it does not mean that the public can
venture all corners of the keraton. The privacy boundary of the
Sultan should still be respected. Therefore, the room division
inside the keraton complex is now based on the public space
and the private space of the Sultan.
127

The separation of sacred and profane areas is

implemented in a different levels. This division is started from the
big element, such as the region, to the smallest one, such as the
building details. Setting a boundary in a region means to provide
a surrounding walls or fences around it with a purpose to
differentiate the unorganized outside world. Heine-Geldern
(1982:4) analyzed that in its progress to a modern era in Southeast Asia and Java-Bali, the thoughts on the space planning of
the traditional architecture have become vague and vague. This
has been caused by the emergence of Islam and specifically the
westernization in this area.
Structurally and geographically, there are three kinds of
environments in Java. These are, first, the culture of common
people in the remote areas which is rich in arcaic elements,
second, the culture of monarchist kraton which is very thick in
Jogjakarta, and third, the maritime and heterogenous culture of
those living along the coastal areas. In Cakranegara, however, all
of these are only memories, because the kraton was demolished
by the Dutch when they occupied the region at the end of the 19th
century.
References
Bakker, Anton (1995) Kosmologi dan Ekologi, Kanisisus,
Yogyakarta.
Behrens, Timothy E. (1983), Kraton and Cosmos in Traditional
Java, Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Budiardjo, Eko (1986) Architectural Conservation In Bali, Gadjah
Mada University Press.
Eliade, Mircea (1959), The Sacred And The Profane, Harcourt,
Brace & World, Inc.
Funo, Shuji (2002), The Spatial Formation in Cakranegara ,
Lombok in The Indonesian Town Revisited, Peter J.M.
Nas (Ed), Lit Verlag, Institue Of Southeast Asian Studies,
Singapore, pp.201-229
Geertz, Clifford (1980), NEGARA, The Theater State in
Nineteenth-Century Bali, Princeton University Press.
Gesick, Lorraine (penyunting)(1989), Pusat, Simbol, Dan Hirarki
Kekuasaan, Yayasan Obor Indonesia, Jakarta.
Heine-Geldern, Robert (1972), Conceptions of State and Kinship
in Southeast Asia (Konsepsi Tentang Negara Dan
Kedudukan Raja di Asia Tenggara), translated by Deliar
Noer, C.V. Rajawali, Jakarta.
Kraan, Alfons van der (1980), Lombok, Congquest, Colonization
and Underdevelopment, 1870-1940, Singapore, H.E.A.
Mathews, Jennifer P. and James F. Garber (2004), Models Of
Cosmic Order: Physical Expression Of Sacred Space
Among The Ancient Maya, in Ancient Mexoamerica 15
(2004) , Cambridge University Press, USA. pp. 49-49
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Moertono, Soemarsaid (1981), State and Statecraft In Old Java:

A Study Of The Late Mataram Periode, 16 th to 19th .
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Program, Cornell University.
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Yogyakarta.
Pemberton, J (1994), On The Subject Of Java, Itacha/London:
Cornell University Press.
Pigeaud, Theodore.G.Th. (1940), De Noorder Aloen-Aloen te
Yogyakarta, in magazine Djawa no.3, Mei 1940, pp.176184.
Pont, Maclaine H. (1923/24), Javaansche Architectuur, Djawa
no.3, 1923-24, Pp. 112-127, pp. 159-170 and Djawa
No.4, pp. 44-73.
Ricklefs, Merle C. (1974), Jogjakarta Under Sultan Mangkubumi
1749-1792: A History of Division of Java, London
Robson, Stuard (ed.)(2003), The Kraton: Selected Essays On
Javanese Courts, KITLV Press, Leiden.
Santoso, Suryadi Jo (1984), Konsep Struktur & Bentuk Kota Jawa
s/d Abad ke 18, (tanpa penerbit).
Sullivan, John (1986), Kampung And State: The Role Of
Government in The Development Of Urban Community in
Yogyakarta, in Indonesia, 41, April 1986, pp. 63-88
Suseno, Franz Magnis (1984), Etika Jawa, PT Gramedia, Jakarta.
Tjahjono, Gunawan (1989), Cosmos, Center, and Duality in
Javanese Architectural Tradition: The Symbolic
Dimensions of House Shapes in Kota Gede and
Surroundings, University of California , Berkeley.
http://www.bytrent.demon.co.uk/eliades01.html
129

RE-EMPHASIZE URBAN LINKAGE CONTINUITY

AS AN EFFORT FOR CONSERVATING
PANGGUNG KRAPYAK YOGYAKARTA
L. Edhi Prasetya
Jurusan Arsitektur Universitas Pancasila
Jl. Srengseng Sawah, Jagakarsa, Jakarta Selatan
prastyan@yahoo.com
Dharma Widya
Jurusan Arsitektur Institut Teknologi Medan
Jl. Gedung Arca, Medan
widya65@yahoo.com
Abstract
Conservation is, therefore, primary a process which leads
to the prolongation of the life of buildings and cultural property for
its utilization now and the future. The main essence of
conservation is to raise the people prosperous where the object of
conservation stand, and bring back emotional and astonishment
to its object as part of heritage.
Panggung Krapyak, which built by Pangeran
Mangkubumi later known as Sultan Hamengkubuwana I about
250 years ago, is still stand up now and there is no significant
damaged cause this building as a part of Kraton Yogyakarta
property is protected from public teased and harmed, however as
an old building, climate and minimum maintenance become the
dominant factor of damaging.
This paper would express the ideas and strategy of
rehabilitation and revitalization Panggung Krapyak as a Kraton
Yogyakarta heritage, there is include its historical and
cosmological aspects. Revitalization strategy would embrace
macro context to become the urban linkage continuity that derived
from urban identity of Yogyakarta and also micro context as part
of urban district.
Key words: Panggung Krapyak, Urban conservation, linkage
continuity.
Understanding Conservation
Conservation commonly understand as activity to
preserve, durable and to protect single building or environment
that have hictoric values, or decayed building, even in wide
spread terminology embracing cultural conservation which
building stands. Ordinance iof historic artifact and heritage
130

regulate 50 years as a limit of object or environment which have

historical values that proper to conserve.
Conservation as a knowledge is a multi-disciplinary work covered
several special competence. Consercation interpretation not
merely preserve or protect decayed building, but conservation
have multi-spread terminology emphasizing in action and eforts of
saving historical objects. Some interpretation of conservation in
example:
1. Conservation can be defined as preservation from loss,
depletion, waste or harm. (Martin E. Weafer, 1997).
2. Conservation is, therefore, primary a process which leads to
the prolongation of the life of cultural property for its utilization
know and the future (Bernard M. Feilden 1994).
3. Conservation are entire process to manage building or
environment in order to preserve cultural meanings (The
Burra Charter for the Conservation of Place of Cultural
Significance, 1981).
Level of Preservation Activities
Efforts of preservation or conservation would cover
several activities according needs and conditions of objects and
also refers to urban gestalt and its history because conservation
object can not stand as a single object but as an object which
have spirit and soul in its environment thus preservation can be
described in other word as a efforts to bring the preservation of
the individual building into its urban context in order to have more
coherence of the end result, Feilden (1982) divide several levels
of preservation or conservation activities may take place
simultaneous in various part of whole building, seven levels are
identifield:
1) Maintaining the essential character
Maintaining the essential character of the building is the
continuous protective care a monument or conservation
building, the distinctive, original quality, structure, site or
environment and exterior or interior features should be
respected and retained.
2) Prevention of deterioration
Taking all necessary steps to prevent further decay or
damage of the monument or conservation building,
deteriorated architectural features should be repaired and
retained wherever possible, replacement should be at last
options.
3) Consolidation of the fabric
Physical addition or application of materials that strengthen or
support the actual fabric to ensure its continued durability or
structural integrity, in consolidating the building, the integrity
of the structural system and its historical evidences should
not be destroyed.
131

4) Restoration
Preserving and conserving the historic and aesthetic values
of a monument or conservation building. Respect for original
materials and reference to authentic documents is therefore
essential, as a specialised operation, all available scientific
knowledge and techniques should be employed and this work
stop at the point where conjecture about the original building
form begins.
5) Rehabilitation
Process of returning a property to a state utility, through
repair or alteration, which makes possible an efficient
contemporary use while preserving those portions and
features of the property which are significant to its history,
architectural and cultural values. The best way of that effort is
to keep them in use, the original use is generally best, as it
requires fewer change to its structure, but adaptive-re use
which entails minimal alteration may be acceptable.
6) Reproduction
Replication of missing features or part of the building using
old or new material, missing features and artifacts should be
reproduced where the aim is to maintain the building or
structures aesthetic harmony.
7) Reconstruction
Rebuilding of parts of building or entire building to the original
form using old or new material, this action is necessary for
the benefit of the whole.
Aims of Conservation
Determine precise aims is major factor of conservation,
because conservation is not only physical protection it also
embrace non-physic protection, as identifield:
a) Put back the original appearance of the object.
b) Using heritage object to support uor nowadays live.
c) Make efforts in a certain direction of nowadays which
harmonious with the past as reflected on conservation object.
d) As a reflection of urban history in a three dimensional form.
Principles of Preservation and Conservation
Actions of conservation having basic principles that should be
completely understand in order top get best result, as Feilden
(1994) said with simple word coherence, which mean that result
of conservation should put urban continuity where object stand,
basic prinsiples of conservation can be mentioned as:
a) Conservation should be done basically on apreciation to the
original condition of the object or environment and avoid to
make any physical intervention to the building in oprder to
maintain any historic evidences.
132

b) Purpose of conservation is untuk revival cultural meanings

and spirit of the place and to prevent its from deterioration
c) Conservation of a place should consider any aspects related
to every cultural meanings.
d) Single building or set of historical building should exist in its
origin place, moving the part or entire building to other place
is prohibited, unless it is the only way to maintain its eternity.
e) Conservation policy which appropriate for single place should
base on completely understanding cultural meaning and
physical condition of the object.
Conservation Values
Conservation must preserve and if possible, enhance the
message and values of cultural property, this values help
systematically to set overal priorities in deciding interventions
(Feilden, 1982). The Values assigned to cultural property come
under three major headings:
a) Emotional Values
Deal with the sense of wonder, urban continuity, identity and
spiritual and symbolic.
b) Cultural Values
Related to documentary, historic, archaelogical, aestetic and
symbolism, townscape and landscape/ ecological, technology
and science.
c) Use Value
Related to fuction, economic, social, political and ethnic.
Having analysed these values, they should be condensed
into a statement of the significance of the cultural property.
Conservation actions should put these values in balance, in order
to justify the total result for the community.
Panggung Krapyak History
Panggung Krapyak is a integral part of Yogyakarta
Palace (Kraton Yogyakarta), in term of urban context and also in
cosmologic term as a part of urban imaginary axis, this building
structured completed in 1788, become the last building built by
Sultan Hamengkubuwana I, known as Pangeran Mangkubumi.
Panggung Krapyak was constructed to accomodate King and his
royal family to rest and hunting especialy hunting deers.
The architecture of this building is unique. Each side has
one door and one window. The door and the window are without
shutters. The base of the door and the window is square while the
top part is arch as the design of the doors and windows of a
mosque. In front of the door, there is one stair in the form of halfrounded.
133

Panggung Krapyak is divided into two floors. The ground floor

functions as an entrance while the first floor functions as a
hunting place. The two floors were connected by a wooden ladder
that could be positioned in southwest and southeast parts of this
building to enable the king to ascend it. Now, the ladder is not
available so that we cannot access the first floor.
This building describes the comfort that the king obtained,
even when he went hunting. The high building provides feeling of
comfort and secure for the king; he should not have to worry to be
attacked by wild animals while looking out the targets. The first
floor is also a secure, wide, open place that is bordered with
hollow walls of medium height. There might be the roof on the
building but it disappears now.
In addition to functioning as a hunting place, some people
tell that Panggung Krapyak also functioned as defending post of
the Kingdom. From this place, the movement of the enemies from
south direction could be detected to tell the Yogyakarta Kingdom
if there would be an attack. Some soldiers were on guard in this
post.
Yogyakarta urban structure basically related to Kraton
Yogyakarta existence that stated since Giyanti Aggrement
(Perjanjian Giyanti) February 13rd 1755, that date can be mention
as a day that King (Sultan Hamengkubuwana I) start to build his
palace, completed with its infrastructure to provide a place for
kingdom activity. The next King after Sultan HB I also built the
kingdom palace appropriate with era and its style. Architectural
features, infrastructure, aesthetic, etic, symbol, and religi and
philosophy, all its existence have coherence relation with its
fuction as good as its sign and symbol.
Yogyakarta is unique and distinctive city, structuraly
formed by full of philosophy-simbolic meaning, described in
imaginary axis of Merapi Mountain-Tugu (pillar)-Kraton
(Palace)-Panggung Krapyak-South Ocean (Hindian Ocean),
this axis line is a physical configuration part of urban linkage of
Yogyakarta. This imaginary axis also represent spiritual aspect
and imaginary frame of human live, from early birth to the end of
live facing the God Almighty.
In Yogyakarta urban structure, the imaginary axis of
Panggung Krapyak-Sultan Palace completely form by formation
of Panggung Krapyak on the south to Sultan Palace (Kraton) on
the north connected by D.I. Panjaitan Street (Formerly named
Gebayanan Street) and entering Palace area from Gerbang
Nirboyo (Plengkung Gading) a main entrance gate to the Regol
(gate) Magangan- Alun-Alun Selatan (south square) Siti Hinggil
Selatan (South Palace) Regol (gate) Gadung Mlati Regol
134

(gate) Magangan. Philosophical meaning of those buildings

formation is represent a human process from fetus, born untill the
youth activities as apprentice.
Noth of Regol Mangangan is Kedaton which means
human existence, Kedaton is souronding by Benteng (bastion)
Baluwarti at the outside and Cepuri at the inside, from outside,
there are five main gate can be use to enter the Palace area
which is: Gerbang (gate) Nirbaya, ernang Jagabaya, Gerbang
Jagasura, Gerbang Tarunasura and Gerbang Madyasura. Main
entrance to go to Panggung Krapyak is by Gerbang Nirbaya at
the south of Sultan Palace, Nirbaya means without danger (nir
means dissappear, and baya means bahaya or danger), thus
Plengkung Nirbaya means way to leave or enter the palace that
safe or without danger, ar way that give us safety and walfare.
There no fundamental change occur the imaginary axis
of Yogyakarta, changing process occur slowly, axis in north of
Sultan Palace sign by straight road (Ahmad Yani Street,
Malioboro Street, and Pangeran Mangkubumi Street; formerly
known as Margamulya Street-Malioboro Street and Margatama
Street), there are some building which part of urban history, as
identifield as: nDalem Kepatihan (now Governor Office),
Beringharjo Market and some small grain of shop in Chinese style
building. Yogyakarta interaction with colonial administration and
other foreign community give the Yogyakarta special character in
architecture, such colonial heritage of Gedung Agung (President
Palace), Vredeburg Fort, Nilmij Building (now BNI Building),
Natour Garuda Hotel and china town around Ketandan District,
Gandekan District. Bekalan and Pajeksan District.
Tugu-Kraton-Panggung Krapyak axis basically is an
urban area that have spme significant component for the peoples.
Historicaly that place also grown and develop in the certain
sustain interaction with the culture. That imaginary axis also
creating image for the whole people with significant urban
component such as paths, edges, district, node and landmark.
Historic-cultural values, phylosophy and architecture of imaginary
axis become the urban identity which have strong character and
potention, these environment should protect, actualized and
strengthen thus certain strategy should create to preserve this
uniqueness axis remain monumental and magnitism for
Yogyakarta.
135

Source: http://www.tembi.org/keraton_yogja/index.htm
Figure 1. Kraton Yogyakarta Map
Urban Review of Panggung Krapyak

Panggung Krapyak is 2 Kilometres away from Alun-alun
Selatan (South Square Palace) there are some major street
around Panggung Krapyak, such as Jalan (Street) Jogokaryan,
Jalan Mangukuyudan and Jalan Tirtodipuran, these three street
dominated with Tourism Service Industry such Caf, Guest
House, and centre of Batik Industry (paint and printed). Trace of
this area as centre of Batik Industri can be found on former large
Batik Store in corner of Tirtodipuran Street that now had changed
to grocery store.
136

Figure 2. Krapyak Map
Main problem in conservating this urban area is strong

cultural transformation that bring there by culture of tourism,
although technically; tourist existence would race the urban
conservation by their culture that more appreciate to heritage than
local people itself but cultural conservation as integral part of
physical conservation would give a specific challenge.
Some principal case that can be use as starting point for
conservating Panggung Krapyak is this main potention described
as:
Philosophical concept of imaginary axis Merapi MountainTugu (pillar)-Kraton (Palace)-Panggung Krapyak-South
Ocean (Hindian Ocean) as cosmological structure of
Javanesse culture.
Local potention of Krapyak as batik artistan.
137

Imaginary axis would use to preserve linkage continuity

between Keraton Yogyakarta objects in urban structure and
local potention of Krapyak peoples would purpose to emphasize
Krapyak as heir of javanesse cultural values.
Keraton (Sultan Palace)
Merapi
Mountain
Tugu
(Pillar)
Laut Selatan (South Ocean)
Panggung Krapyak
Figure 3. Imaginary Axis of Yogyakarta (shown in clockwise direction)
Conservation Strategy of Panggung Krapyak Area

Conservation strategy of panggung Krapyak covered two
strategy: Macro Strategy (Urban) and Micro Strategy (District) in
order to give the comprehensive result of urban conservation, can
be described as:
Macro Strategy (Urban)
Panggung Krapyak existence can not separate by
imaginary axis of Merapi Mountain-South Ocean (Hindian
Ocean), thus the macro strategy to conservating this area is
preserve urban-linkage continuity , urban linkage continuity
embracing cultural, history and soul and spirit of the whole urban.
Concrete implementation of this Urban Linkage Continuity is reempasize D.I Panjaitan Street axis as main entrance to Krapyak
direction, factual condition of this street show a discontinuity
between Kraton to Krapyak, thus Panggung Krapyak as a whole
system of imaginary axis seem alienated from its axis. Reemphasize the discontinued of cultural axis Tugu-PalaceKrapyak will give back the soul and spirit of Panggung Krapyak
as significant element of urban features. Some important
elements that can be used to preserve continuity are: pedestrian
system in D.I Panjaitan Street, former large Batik Store in corner
of Tirtodipuran Street, and Plengkung (gate) Nirbaya.
Micro Strategy (District)
138

Micro strategy would include people around the

Panggung Krapyak because the effort of conservation mainly is
how the conservation could increase prestige, dignity and
economic status people around the conservation object?.
According the district potention as artist of Batik (printed and
painted) thus the conservation object (Panggung Krapyak)
appropriate to adaptive re-use as a show room and batik course.
This new function is rather different with the original use of this
building, thus need some space consilidation and alteration to
accommodate for a new fuction.
New function of building as a batik course and show room is
appropriate according this district potention as batik industry area.
Tourist from other country would taste a cultural nuance of
cultural heritage in Krapyak but this is not the basic aims of
conservation, the increase of economic status for people around
the conservation object is basic consideration of this effort.
Building rehabilitation to a state utility through repair or alteration
should be done in minor changed of the main building, some
interior alteration can be use with knock down system, and
exterior change extremely prohibited while entails minimal
alteration may be acceptable
Source: www.yogyes.com/panggung-krapyak accessed June 14th 2007

Figure 4. South elevation of Panggung Krapyak
139

Conclusion:
1) Major aims of Pangung Krapyak conservation is re-empasize
linkage continuity of imaginary axis Merapi Mountain-Tugu
(pillar)-Kraton (Palace)-Panggung Krapyak-South Ocean
(Hindian Ocean, urban linkage continuity embracing cultural,
history and soul and spirit of the whole urban.
2) Concrete implementation of this Urban Linkage Continuity is
re-empasize D.I Panjaitan Street axis as main entrance to
Panggung Krapyak that seem discontinued. Re-emphasize
the discontinued of cultural axis Tugu-Palace-Krapyak will
give back the soul and spirit of Panggung Krapyak as
significant element of urban features.
3) Meso strategy would embrace people around the Panggung
Krapyak, the increase of economic status for people around
the conservation object is basic consideration of this effort.
According the district potention as artist of Batik (printed and
painted) the appropriate level of conservation is rehabilitation
which is adaptive re-use of building as a show room and batik
course. Adaptive re-use basically base on an effort to
increase economic level of people around the building.
4) Completed aim of urban conservation of Panggung Krapyak
would embrace values of conservation: which is cultural
value that reflected in cosmological aspect of urban form,
emotional values that reflected in buildings continuity form
as part of urban identity and use values that reflected in an
effort to increase economic status of people around the
conservation object proportionaly.
References
Feilden, Bernard M., Conservation of Historic Building,
Butterworth Scientific, London, 1982.
Shirvani, Hamid, The Urban Design Process, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1985.
Web Site Source:
http://www.tembi.org/keraton_yogja/panggung_krapyak.htm
http://www.tembi.org/keraton_yogja/index.htm
http://www.tembi.org/keraton_yogja/plengkung_nirbaya.htm
http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0507/12/nas03.html
http://www.go_archipelago.com/
http://www.joglosemar.co.id/jogyakarta.html Accessed June 14th
2007.
http://www.yogyes.com/id/yogyakarta-tourism-object/places-ofinterest/panggung-krapyak/ Accessed June 14th 2007
http://www.yogyes.com/id/yogyakarta-alternative-tourism/batikshort-course/ Accessed June 14th 2007
http://www.yogyes.com/id/yogyakarta-alternative-tourism/wayangbatik-course/ Accessed June 14th 2007
140
Part Three:
CITY AS A SPIRITUAL
MANISFESTATION
141
142

CIVIC BUILDINGS AND PUBLIC PLACES

AS REFLECTION OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT
OF TOGETHERNESS
Teguh Utomo Atmoko
Department of Architecture, faculty of Engineering,
University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
tiua@eng.ui.ac.id
Abstract
Understanding the spiritual dimension of built
environment development is essential for providing suitable
places for present and future use. However, we have to be careful
about the kind of spirit we adopt for our present and future cities.
We ought to respect our past and be proud of it, but not just
blindly copy it to use as a model for our future. The spirit we
chose should be compatible with our present and future needs.
This applies to a city or any built environment development. Built
environment development, including cities, should be created to
provide an optimum quality of life for all citizens.
Towns and cities always have public places. This paper
investigates the role of public places in towns and cities over time.
Understanding the spiritual dimension of built environment
development is essential to providing suitable places for present
and future use.
In the past, public places were often associated with the
culture and civilization of the respective society. Their beliefs and
philosophy, as well as the things that had meaning in their lives,
were reflected in the physical form of the built environment.
Accordingly, public places were developed to meet the physical
and non physical needs of the people.
Today, development of public places is more pragmatic
and tends to focus on providing for the physical needs of the
society. However, there is a similarity to the past that exists: the
reflecting of the human spirit of togetherness.
The morphology of Medan Merdeka, now Taman Monas, reflects
the utilization of a public place over time that has maintained its
function as a place for people.
The spirit of past togetherness continues today and will
continue on into the future. It is only transformed physically in
response to what kind of society we live in. We have the
obligation to realize this spirit of togetherness in the architecture
of our cities, in civic buildings and public places.
143

Civic buildings and public places of the past

Agriculture was the backbone of our ancient civilization
and our ancient settlement patterns. Settlements often began as
villages, often with one of these controlling the others as a
kingdom or city-state. Based on the old towns and cities that still
exist today, such as Jogyakarta and Kotagede, as well as a
number of small towns or villages in Bali, we can determine the
forms taken by Javanese towns and cities of the past, before
westerners colonized the Indonesian archipelago.
The center of power in these settlements was often
merely a compound, often walled, where the ruler resided. The
walled compound often adjoined an open field, where ceremonies
and other important public gatherings took place. This center of
power, which representing the center of the universe, surrounded
with settlements, was called a town or city (Soemardjan, 1978). It
is possible that such settlements consisted of densely populated
villages, predominantly residential, surrounded by agricultural
lands or jungle. This kind of settlement form is still in existence
today.
The form of such settlements was often subject to the
cultural beliefs of the period, and was suitable for the societys
preference for tightly knit communal living. Thus, the built
environment served its purpose. Towns and cities were laid out
accordingly, as were the public places and important structures
and buildings. The entire built environment was laid out with
respect for the societys cosmic beliefs, for example alignment
with the central force of the universe, often requiring an axis
attuning the center to important elements of nature, such as the
mountains and the sea.
As an agricultural society, public places and important
structures and buildings were likely used only several times each
year, typically during big ceremonies. Often public spaces,
especially in the villages or in the subdivisions of the cities, were
created and existed only during a special occasion, defined with
the help of non-permanent objects such as penjor [a bamboo pole
decorated with palm leaves or fabric] or other traditional
ornaments. Besides the market, which was often made of
makeshift structures occupying some part of a public space, the
daily life of the old settlements took place primarily within the
agriculture lands and housing compound, which often additionally
served as a space for the processing and storing of agricultural
goods before they were sold.
It is concluded that the utilization of public places in the
past was only occasional, when the activity involved tended to be
more communally oriented. The other significant built
environment of the past were structures dedicated to the gods
and goddesses, often built with the best and most durable
144

building materials. That is why these structures still exist today,

while the rest of the built environment has disappeared.
Civic buildings and public places of the present and the
future
In the present globalized world, urban environments tend
to be similar everywhere. But there is some attempt to make
places different from each other, and this should be a priority.
Sense of place is becoming increasingly important. To create and
achieve a sense of place, architecture plays an important role.
Pragmatic approaches to meet the need for space, especially
public space, have today been embraced, either by recycling old
places or using the past as a precedent. Often, the use of the
past as a precedent has been commercially motivated and
misleading. For example, the case of branding a place as the
dragon head and the like.
Public places of today are often created not as true public
places but merely as part of the architecture of the building on it.
These kinds of public spaces tend to be dull, uninviting and
deserted, and often become lost space (Trancik, 1986). There are
also many public places, thriving and full of life, which were
developed before the introduction of modern architecture.
Attempts to fix the problems of lonely public places are underway,
with the introduction of good urban design and place making.
Public places of today need to accommodate present and
future lifestyles, where people like to be among other people
when they are not in the situation of working or engaging in their
routine activities (Oldenburg, 2000). The happenings in the public
places of today are more intense than in times past. Public places
are not used merely for special purposes at specific times, as in
the agricultural society of the past. They are used constantly,
because todays people have more time for relaxing and need lots
of breaks from their daily routine and opportunities to meet in a
non hierarchical environment.
The public place of today has become like a living room
of the city, where people come in and mingle and are proud of it.
At the same time it serves as a location for civic activities. The
public place needs to be strategically located, accessible, and
supported by facilities that support the people and a variety of
activities.
Medan Merdeka in Jakarta
Jakarta, when it was known as Batavia, used to have two
city centers, one in the older part of the city, which became
downtown, and one in the newer part of the city, where most of
the government buildings and cultural establishment were located
(Voskuil, 1997). The latter area centered on Lapangan Banteng
145

Square. Not far from there, there was a bigger open space that
consisted of an exercise field and parklands (see fig. 1). Since
most of the cities in Indonesia were created during the Dutch
colonial time, as administrative cities, they often consist of
administrative or power center located around a grass field called
an alun-alun, a traditional nucleus comprised of the authorities'
offices and administration buildings grouped around the alun-alun
square (Rutz, 1987) (see fig. 2).
Figure 1. Koningsplein and Waterlooplein in the new heart of Batavia
In modern times, under the Sukarno Government, Jakarta

became a classic dual city (McGee, 1971; Hasan, 1999).
Attention became focused on the symbolic and elitist elements of
city structure, while conditions in much of the rest of Jakarta
deteriorated. Rapid growth and massive in-migration led to the
overcrowding of many older structures, as these were used as
way stations for persons seeking work or a more permanent
situation. An elite spine of planned and paved streets, a grand
central square, regularized lots, and various services were
located in the centre of Jakarta. Immediately beyond this spine
were located the kampung areas, consisting of makeshift lanes
and houses with few services. Many kampung were sacrificed,
and people displaced, to create the modern city and to make way
for new developments. More kampung filled in the areas
immediately behind them (Ford, 1993).
146

Figure 2. Typical center of a Javanese Colonial Town
When the new nation emerged, it needed to show the

world who it was. The spirit and form of the past, influenced by
other great urban spaces from cities around the world, such as
the grand avenues and boulevards of Paris, The Mall in
Washington DC and Red Square in Moscow, to name a few, was
adopted and created. The new grand square or alun-alun utilized
the old exercise field and parkland and was called Medan
Merdeka, with the National Monument situated in the center of it,
surrounded by vast grassy fields (see fig. 3). The grand square
became the main center of the city and the development of the
city radiated from it; as it became the center of a Mandala. The
most important functions of the nation, associated with power and
culture, were located or planned around it. The new square
served a purpose similar to the alun-alun of the past, both
physically and functionally. Residents and visitors were entranced
by its grandness and it was best enjoyed from its periphery by
simply just looking at it.
147

Figure 3. Medan Merdeka (Merdeka Square)
When the new order emerged, the symbols of success

and greatness seemed no longer associated with culture and
civilization; commercialism took center stage. Grand huge
buildings and tall commercial buildings became the new spirit.
The Medan Merdeka gradually was encroached upon by other
development such as entertainment and amusement parks. Trees
were planted and grew inside the then grassy fields. Physically it
was still the center of the city, as two dimensionally it was still one
vast green open space in the middle of the city. However,
architecturally, it was just another large plot in the city, filled with
numerous mature trees and shrubs and serving as a city park
(see fig. 4).
As time went by this utilization of the grand square as a
park became greater and greater. Trees became even more
mature and overgrown, tall fences were erected around the
square, and the National Monument became nearly invisible from
the avenues surrounding the park, then Medan Merdeka. The
grand square had become a vast park, like Central Park in New
York City. The National Monument was reduced to being merely a
statue in the middle of the park, and people start calling the area
Taman Monas, while Medan Merdeka was hardly mentioned,
except in the names of the avenues surrounding the park.
148

Figure 4. Taman Monas in the middle of Jakarta today
Nowadays the city is becoming a city with many

commercial centers, a city without a true center, unprecedented
the world over. Public activities are centered inside commercial
buildings that are mostly inward looking, while public gatherings
outside in the open take place in some open space not really
intended for such activities, for example the Bundaran HI
roundabout. The older open spaces, including Taman Monas,
now are less accessible to the new commercial centers of the
city, which limit its utilization by the people working in and visiting
the new center.
The spiritual dimension of built environment
Understanding the spiritual dimension of built
environment development is essential for providing suitable
places for present and future use. The question is what kind of
spiritual dimension is suitable for the present and the future? Is
the spiritual dimension of the past still applicable?
To answer these questions we should look at the relationships
between the built environments, especially the urban form, and
particularly its public spaces and civic buildings, and how the
people live in and utilize them.
149

Built environments from a particular time supported and

served the society of that period. It is understood that the built
environments of the past are a reflection of how the people lived.
However, often those built environments are recycled and used
by subsequent people and societies, without any alteration to the
space. Unfortunately, copying built environment patterns or forms
from the past does not always work.
Urban public space is created for a particular purpose,
according to its time. However, with the passage of time, new
generations of people can still utilize this space, as long as the
physical form of the space can meet their needs. For example, a
sacred square of the past can be utilized as a vibrant public
space for today and the future. Sometime an alteration of the
space is required, and when this change is substantial, a drastic
change of use and interpretation is inevitable.
Today, as in the past, public spaces serve as a gathering
place for people. The hows and whys of the gathering taking
place may change over time, but the need for such spaces to
support the human spirit of togetherness has never changed.
References
Ford, Larry R. (1993). A model of Indonesian city structure. The
Geographical Review, Oct 1993 v83 n4 p374 (23)
Hasan, Arif (1999). The informal city, Regional Development
Dialogue. Vol. 20, No. 1, Spring 1999 pp 168-179
McGee, T.G. (1971). The Urbanisation process in the third world.
London: G Bells and Sons LTD.
Oldenburg, Ray (2000). Celebrating the Third Place: Inspiring
Stories about the "Great Good Places" at the Heart of Our
Communities. New York: Marlowe & Company.
Rutz, Werner (1987). Urbanization of the Earth: Cities and Towns
in Indonesia. Berlin Stuttgart: Gebruder Borntraeger.
Soemardjan, S. (1978), The Kraton in the Javanese, in Social
Structure, Soebadio, H. and C. A du Marchie-Sarvaas,
Dynamics of Indonesia History, Amsterdam, New York,
Oxford: North-Holland Publishing Company
Trancik, R. (1986). Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban
Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Voskuil, R.P.G.A. (1997). Batavia: Beeld van een stad.
Purmerend: Asia Maior.
150

TRANSFORMATION OF CLASSICAL
CHINESE CITY PLANNING
Case on Surakarta and Bandung
Dhani Mutiari1
Architecture Department
Engineering Faculty of Surakarta Muhammadiyah University
dhani_mutiari@yahoo.com
Nurtati2
Architecture Department
Engineering Faculty of Itenas Bandung
Nts@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper presents city planning principal of classical
Chinese city and its transformation in Surakarta and Bandung
China Town. Architecture is a product of human activity as a
reflection of human life. City is a part of architecture product.
Taoism and Confucianism are . thought of Chinese culture. Both
are stressing on living harmony and balance with natural and
social environment. Characters of classical Chinese city are
mentioned, such as enclosed by walls, axial symmetry with the
palace located at the center, all major building facing south
forming a checkerboard grid and square plan.
The method of the research are a verification from the
city-planning principal of classical Chinese city on Surakarta and
Bandung
Chinatown and study from historic to find the
background of the transformation .
The research finding shows that both transformation of Chinatown
from city-planning principal of Chinese classical city have
happened on both city. Ttransformation of Surakarta Chinatown
was affected by the power that bigger than Chinese community.
They are the victory of Kasunanan Surakarta and Dutch Colonial
in the past. Transformation in Bandung Chinatown happened
because it was a city Dutch Colonial planning.
Keyword: transformation, classical, city planning
I. Introduction
Chinesewijk ia a name that used for call the district to
Chinese habit in Dutch colonial order. The district is one of Dutch
1
2
S3 Student of Architecture Department, Yogyakarta Gadjah Mada University

S3 Student of Architecture Department, Bandung Parahiyangan University
151

policy product for Chinese segregation in Indonesia. Core of the

district policy are Wikjstelsel and Passenstelsel. Most of
Indonesian Cities have a Chinesewijk that the characteristic
related to historic background. Surakarta Chinesewijk hypothesis
before Surakarta kingdom moves from Kartosura to Sala village.
When Dutch colonial empower in Surakarta all of Chinese in the
city habit on the district. The historical background affects
Chinese in 3 powers. The powers are Chinese themselves, when
they choose their location, Surakarta Kingdom and Dutch
Colonial. Different from an other city , Bandung Chinesewijk is
Dutch Colonial product . The differences will describe in the
paper. How Chineswijk in Surakarta and Bandung applied the
concept of classical Chinese city planning and how they transform
the concept to make adaptation related to government policy.
II. Reference
Chinese city planning was closely linked with ideas of real
and ideal social order, and structure vision of the universe.
Builders aimed at making the city a true image of the universe as
an ordered whole, a symbol of power, order and attune to nature.
From the above , it is clear that the characteristic feature of
ancient cities were as follows :
a. All cities were enclosed by walls
b. Cities exhibit axial symmetry, with the palace located at the
center.
c. All major building face south . The roads were laid out running
north- south and east-west, forming a checker board grid.
d. Cities were designed with a square plan and gateways open
to all four direction.
(Liu, Laurence.G, 1989).
III. Analysis
A. Chinese Settlement in Surakarta
1. Classical Chinese City Planning
Figure 1. The transformation of Classical Chinese City Planning in

Chinesewijk Surakarta. (Analisis,2007)
152

Chinese settlement in Surakarta as reflection from

Chinese classical planning. The settlement habit in Surakarta
hypothesis before Surakarta kingdom moves from Kartosura to
Sala village. The situation make freedom to Chinese that most of
they are traders to planning the district. Pepe River as boundary
the district that change walls in the Chinese classical planning.
Center of the district is an empty land as babah mayong himself,
a government in Chinese settlement. Symmetry form and square
as base of Chinese classical city planning.
2. The Transformation of Chinese Classical City
Planning in Era of The Surakarta Kingdom and Dutch
Colonial
a. The linier axial of Surakarta Kingdom Palace
In the past temple of Chinese ( Vihara Alokiteswara) was
hypothesis as place temporary visitation for Chinese who make
trading in Sala Village. When Pakubuwono II moved the palace
from Kartosura to Sala Village it was to be a temple. In the past
Chinese settlement that place on north of the Pepe River. The
location has not been a Surakarta district and the linier axial of
Surakarta kingdom just stop on the river. Sala village was stand
on the era of Pajang Kingdom . After the time until Kartasura
Kingdom, Sala village always be bustling town . Sala vilage was
guess good to place a palace because it was near the river that
make trader transportation from Gresik and Surabaya.
Although Chinese Settlement in Surakarta has found on
north of Pepe river but Surakarta Kingdom district has not arrived
on the Chinese settlement. Linier axial Surakarta kingdom did not
show arrive the district. In 1900 shown linier axial extension
cross the the Pepe river to the Chinese settlement by bridge and
it was related to Chinese .
The good classical Chinese city planning all of the house
face to south, north, and southeast. Extension of Surakarta
kingdom linier axial that cross to Chinese settlement affects the
new Chinese houses that face east and west. The situation
makes opposition with the core of Chinese principal.
b. Wijkstelsel dan Passenstelsel (1841-1915)
Wijkstelsel is settlements zone policy related to ethnic
integration. The policy also manages that Chinese must life in
their neighborhood and placed that special to them.
Passenstelsel is police about the street pas , that manage some
one special Chinese must have it before they make trip to an
other city. The policy has relationship with district bounder and
Chinese identity.
153

Figure 2. The Transformation of Chinese Classical City Planning in Era

of The Surakarta Kingdom and Dutch Colonial. (Analisis,2007)
3. Culturestelsel 1830-1870
Culturestelsel as idea from Van den Bosch (1780-1844
M) that goal to make Dutch can carries the big benefit from
tropics area (Ricklefts,2005). Culturestelsel never have explicit
description, but have simple principal. The simple principals are:
Java villages borrow land tax (lend rent) from Dutch
government that calculation from 40 % main land product. Van
des Bosch plan that every village save part of their land to export
154

commodity like coffee, sugar cane , and nila to sell to Duthc

Colonial with the clear price.
Although Culturestelsel not applied in Vostenlender
(Yogyakarta and Surakarta) , but the policy affect to rivers
transportation , because part of the water loose from the river .
The situation indirectly affects to change water transportation to
highway. (Shiraishi, Takashi , 2005). Highways change waters
transportation start to build together in all of the cities in Java. In
Surakarta land transportation also support by train path and
station. Born of NIS and SS in north of Surakarta Chinesewijk
affect Dutch to made highway from the district. The highway
dispends the Chinesewijk to be 2 districts. The center of the
Chinesewijk dispend 2 districts. The classical pattern of Chinese
city has loose.
4. Born of The Big Market as Economic Support in
Surakarta city (1893-1930).
Transformation from tanah lungguh (land for lieutenant
de Chinese) for big market as support to economic development
in Surakarta changes concept of Chinese classical city to modern
. Centre not to palace or government again but it changes to
market or economic support. The event simultaneously with the
ethic era (1912-1924) that Dutch Colonial changes tanah lungguh
system to salary.
From the analysis before can be conclusion that
transformation of Chinese Classical City Planning in Era of The
Surakarta Kingdom and Dutch Colonial was happened because
of event:
a. Extension of linier axial of Surakarta Kingdom that crosses to
Chinesewijk. The situasion related to transformation of house
face (orientation)
b. Changing of water transportation to highway. The situation
loose the center of Chinesewijk.
c. Born of The big market in Surakarta. It was change center
that place to palace or government to be economic support.
B. Bandung Chinese Quarter
1. Historical Background:
Bandung is the capital city of West Java province, about
180 km Southern from Jakarta, the capital city of Republic
Indonesia. Bandung had developed by Dutch Colonial
Government in 1810 along with the development of the Great
Post Road, which passed Bandung. Alun-alun as the city center
located at the South part of Great Post Road close to
Cikapundung River where the native people already live at the
bank and surrounding area of Cikapundung River. The grid
pattern, which establish at the city center had divided land into
155

some blocks where every block has inner and outer part which
called ring and sack3. The native people who had lived there keep
stayed and occupied inner part of block as their village while outer
part of block gradually occupied by Colonial Government and
changed into business district.
Alun-alun also functions as the front yard of the
Kabupaten, where Bupati and his family live while commercial
area located at the Western part where shop buildings develop
alongside toward the West. The establishment of railways which
also located at Western part of the city centre pushed further the
establishment of the Western part as a commercial area as well
4
Chinese quarter .
The beginning of Chinese settlement in Bandung was
closely associated with Daendels in order to promote commerce
in the city. Daendels allocated some lands for Chinese Kampung
in several towns, such as Cianjur, Parakanmuncang, Sumedang
and Bandung5. The Chinese was not easily enticed to live in
Bandung and then Daendels forcefully transferred some Chinese
from Cirebon to facilitate his economic vision. In the very
beginning the Chinese most likely to stay with native people at
strategic location for commerce, close to market before the
6
quarter system established .12
At the very beginning Chinese people live at tenement
around Alun-alun and Pasar Baru (new market) and work as
trader, labor and artisan. Gradually they could control and
dominate the economy which made Colonial Government worried
and there was a need to control them. 12 August 1835 the
Colonial Government establishes the quarter system for foreign
Oriental to separate with the native and there was a Chinese
quarter in Bandung at the time which located close to Pasar Baru.
On 2nd March 1881, Oey Bouw Hoen was appointed to
be the first know Chinese lieutenant who represented the
increasing of Chinese people in Bandung. One lieutenant
controlled some wijkmasters or neighborhood wardens where
7
each wijkmaster controlled one wijk or neighborhood . There
were two wijk in Bandung, they were Citepus wijk and Suniaraja
wijk. The first temple, Xietian Gong or Hiap Thian Kiong was
erected in 1885 with the supports from 85 benefactors of whom
39 resided in Bandung. This also represented the increasing of
wealthy Chinese people in Bandung at that time 8. The temple
3
Siregar, Sandi A, 1990:

Siregar, Sandi A,; paper in Historical Cities
Tunas, Devisanthi, 2007: Historical Overview of the Chinese of Bandung at the
Turn of 20th Century, unpublished paper and on going research at Department
History, National University of Singapore.
6
Ibid, p.12
7
Ibid, p.30
8
Ibid p.24
4
5
156

located between two markets, Pasar Baru and Andir market and
in the area of Citepus River bank or in the area of Citepus wijk. At
present time the temple still exist and the area called Kelenteng
district (kelenteng means temple in Indonesian).
2. Jap Loen Quarter:
There was no specific boundary of Chinese quarter in
Bandung because they live together with native people in native
village but there was a housing complex close to Andir market
which had developed by Jap Loen. Jap Loen was apparently the
wealthy trader and landlord in the 1930s9. The complex could be
called as the first Chinese settlement in Bandung which had been
planned.
Native village
Andir market
Jap Loen complex
Figure 3. Jap Loen district at present time. (Analysis ,2007)
This housing complex consisted of some blocks where

each block was design for one unit row shop houses which
encircling the blocks. Unfortunately not all blocks could occupied
by Jap Loen and designed as row shop house, some of the
blocks still occupied by native people as a village till present time.
This housing complex was design for low class Chinese trader
with simple architecture style, design and material. The house
was made from plank as wall and palm fiber as roof.
Fig 4 : The encircling row shop house. (survey,2007)

9
Ibid, p.24
157

At present day this housing complex still exists and

represent as a busy commercial area with specific merchandise;
dry sea food such as salt fish, dry prawn, prawn chip etc so that
the aroma of this area tends stinky. The merchandise was
transported from some coastal town in West Java or other
province. The original row shop houses still exist till present time
but some of them have been changed.
Figure 5. The changes of building material, shape and function.

(survey,2007)
Most of the roof material already changed into tile roof as

well wall, most of the house use brick. Some of inhabitants still
live there but some already moved and use the building only for
commercial activity during day time and left empty at night time.
There is also a shop house which already changed into cold
storage so the dry food could keep longer than usually. They
named the street in with the fish name, such as teri, kakap etc.
3. Type of Transformation:
Teri Street Block
Well design block.
Figure 6. Situation of Jap Loen complex at year 1988. (Analysis, 1988)
158

The principal of block design was develop the outer part

of block as shop house and keep the inner part empty as inner
court for service area and social space between the inhabitants.
At present time almost all the block already changed, mostly no
more inner court left, turned into buildings. There is some
transformation which could be seen from the building shape, such
as vertical building, new buildings type and new faade.
Figure 7. The new style and shape of row shop house buildings
(Survey,2007)
One example, which could be seen, is in Teri Street

block. According to data in the year 1988 there were still vacant
lands at the Teri Street while in year 2001 all the block already
developed even the inner part also have been developing. The
present situation represents an unplanned development
especially at inner part.
Figure 8. Morphology of the district. (Analisys,2007)
The potential location and good business opportunity

need some more space while location limited so that the shop
house owner try hard to get this opportunity. The only possibility
to enlarge their building is toward inner part of the block. Tight
competition could be seen from the way the building expansion
and caused the dense of block, no more space between building,
inner court and tend to become slum.
159

Figure 9. Situation of Teri Street block at year 1988 and at 2001 till
present time. (Analisys,2007)
Fig.10 : The transformation of buildings lots. (Analisys,2007)
After succeeding to expansion lots, the owner tends to

enlarge the building by adding some more room and some more
floors mostly for commercial need. This situation caused the
building change both shape and style. This is mostly happening to
commercial building at the city center. Other effect of this
transformation is lost of living area at the shop house, all for
commercial and force the owner moved out so that the building
could maximal use as shop and storage. This situation caused
less maintenance of building and surrounding area.
160

C. Conclusion
Case in Surakarta and Bandung present that background
of historic affects to transformation of classical Chinese city
planning. The differences of them are related to pattern of city.
Chinesewijk in Surakarta changing the pattern of the classical
Chinese city planning but in Bandung the pattern does not
change. In Bandung more to morphology of the house. The
morphology affect to loose the open land and transformation of
the faade.
References
Shiraishi, T, 2005, Zaman Bergerak, Radikalisme Rakyat di Jawa
1912-1926, Kreatama, Jakarta
Liu, G, L., 1989, Chinese Architecture, Rizzoli, New York
Siregar,sandi,1989,Continuity and discontinuity in Urban
transformation, proceeding in Symposium and Workshop
on Historic City in Islamic Societies ,UGM
Tunas, Devisanthi, 2007: Historical Overview of the Chinese of
Bandung at the Turn of 20th Century, unpublished paper
and on going research at Department History, National
University of Singapore.
161

TRANSFORMATION OF SPIRITUAL
CONCEPTS IN URBAN SPACE
Widiastuti
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technology, Udayana University
Abstract
Origin of the town formation is related to many factors
among others fertility of land, population, economy, and religion.
Of those factors, religion is the first factor forming the town. The
town in this context is viewed as the center of the ritual ceremony.
The center is manifested by cosmic symbol. Transformation of
those concepts applied to geometric form or schematic of space
forming the morphology of the town.
Space for the Balinese is an imitation of the Cosmos. It
represents at once macrocosm (the world/ universe) and
microcosm (mankind). This concept is transformed, for each
traditional village, into cosmological form of scared and profane
spaces. Pempatan Agung is the center of the cosmos where the
division of space is initiated. It unites all facilities of religion,
politics, economy, and socio-cultural life. All religious ceremonies,
socio-cultural activities, the center of power are all united in this
center point because the whole divine power is centrally located
here. It underlies the whole of Hindu-Balinese life as far as its
behavioral pattern and in its relation to the environment because
it is believed that the concept of Pempatan Agung will bring
welfare and everlasting life (moksa). This study attempts to find
out the spirit of Pempatan Agung and how this spirit is
transformed on urban space. Is there a spirit related to Pempatan
Agung, which could preserve the traditional space division in the
modern development?
The presentation of the result of this study used
qualitative and quantitative method. This shows that 86% of the
27 traditional villages under study applied the cosmologic
concepts of Pempatan Agung. Variations appear due to the fact
there is the desa-kala-patra (place, time, and situation) concept in
its application. However cosmologically, values are well
transformed.
The development of traditional village and the growth of
population unite one village with another. The blurring of
cosmological borders, the decrease of the significance of
Pempatan Agung, the mixture between sacred and profane
values, occurs in contemporary Balinese towns. However,
Balinese life is growing to be more and more religious in order to
keep respecting the religious and socio-cultural values. Spatial
162

adaptation has been made to enhance the cultural life but it is

necessary to think how cosmologic values of Pempatan Agung
are kept being preserved in the dynamic of modern development.
Key word: town, culture, urban design, public space,
conservation, cosmology, Pempatan Agung, Hindu,
traditional village, Bali, Indonesia.
INTRODUCTION
Physically Pempatan Agung is a big cross-road orienting
from east to west, from north to south. It is localized in the center
of the Balinese traditional cultural village. It is the zero point of the
Balinese traditional village where a Balinese traditional cultural
village starts to be built. Certain Balinese cultural villages become
the center of a town due to its strategic position both politically
and geographically.
To the Balinese, this cross-roads is a sacred place. It is
born based on the concept of Catur Patha which is understood as
the center of four directions (East, Soth, West, and North). This
concept originates from two cultures developing in Bali, that is the
culture of Bali Aga which developed the concept of Nyegara
Gunung (from the mountain to the sea) or Ulun teben
(mountainous direction is the most sacred direction as symbol of
birth, God, life, the reverse to the direction to the sea), and
Balinese Hinduism using the direction of the sun to determine the
value of a land. According to this concept, the direction of rising
sun is the most sacred direction symbolizing life, God, and birth
as opposed to the direction of the sun setting).
Typology and morphology of towns in Bali are not
separable from the center of kingdom and traditional village that
had existed since the dynasty of Warmadewa (913-1343).
Traditional villages were built according to the tradition and belief,
value system, and life pattern. Generally there are three types of
traditional village, they are: linier, Cross-road, and the
combination of the two. In the first type, public facilities are placed
on the main road in a traditional village spreading from the
mountain to the sea. In the cross-road pattern, public facilities are
placed in the center of the village where there is intersection of
two main roads of the village spreading from eat to west and
north to south (sea Figure 1).
163

Linear Pattern
Combination Pattern
Great Crossroad Pattern
Figure 1. Pattern of Balinese Traditional Vllage

(Source : Sularto, 1987 ; Gelebet, 1986 ; Budiharjo, 1985)
The location of the facilities is determined according to

the cosmological concepts having certain significance depending
upon the final purpose of the kings holding the highest power in
the area. Its application varies based on the concept of desa,
kala, and patra (place, time, and situation). However, generally,
the function of Pempatan agung as the center of the village
energy remains the same, neutralizing positive and negative
power.
SPIRITUAL CONCEPT OF PEMPATAN AGUNG
The development of Balinese traditional village is based
on philosophical and cosmological insights which consider
harmony in the relationship between man and God, between man
and the environment, between one man and another adapted
based on the place, time, and situation. The traditional rule that
serves as a basis to form the morphology of the traditional village
(Salain, 1996) among others:
Thought of Wiswakarma, a Hindu priest in Java coming to
Bali in the tenth century regulating procedures to be an
undagi (traditional architecture).
Asta Bumi: a book describing about the organization of house
and village.
Asta Kosali: explaining the process of building houses both in
the dimension of material and its process.
Asta Kosala: describing the procession of building Temple
and building construction for death.
As mentioned previously, direction to a mountain, to the
Balinese, is a scared direction in which gods/ goddesses dwell.
Mountain as sacred orientation is Mount Agung , the highest
mountain in Bali, around 3,142 meters. This mountain determines
164

the cosmological value of settlement area and village. Balinese

people place all spirits in the cosmological balance so that
harmony is created even in the opposing spirit. They are very
devout and cleanse evil spirit in religious ceremonies that will
bring them to the four goals of life (Catur Purusa Artha) and finally
lead them to reach perfection (moksa).
Based on this belief, Balinese community keep one
cosmological philosophical principle, Rwa Bhineda or Semara
Ratih meaning reconciliation between two poles, elements,
norms, and opposing values. They always try to realize the unity
between individual (microcosm, Bhuwana Alit) and nature
(macrocosm, Bhuwana Agung) that will lead them to perfection.
The second principle is Tri Hita Karana meaning three
causes of perfection. In this belief, everything consists of three
elements, they are soul (Atman), body (Sarira), and power or
capacity (Trikaya), individual is created when athma integrates
into Sarira. From there three physical qualities are created, they
are, physical power (kaya), capacity to speak (wak) and
psychological power (manah).
Manik Ring Cucupu is a principle explaining the
relationship of fetus which is still within the body of its mother as a
symbol of the relationship between nature, God, and man. Such a
relationship must be created to produce good architecture.
Dewata nawa sanga is nine powers that safeguard the
balance of nature. In this principle, every direction has its own
significance symbolizing the safeguarding god, goddess, color,
number and good days, scared writings, metal, and the weapon
of gods (see Figure 2).
KAJA (DIRECTION OF MOUNTAIN)
KAJA KAUH
KAJA KANGIN
PUSEH
KAUH
KANGIN
KELOD KAUH
KELOD KANGIN
( Centre)
Combination
Stable
Kliwon
( I, YA)
8
Mixture
Uma
Ciwa
KELOD (DIRECTION MARITIME)

Figur 2 Dewata Nawa Sanga
165

The example of mountainous direction (north) is the

dwelling place of the god Visnu, goddess ri symbolized with
black color, with the sacred letter A, lucky number 4, the lucky
day is Wage symbolizing fire and silver.
1. Hierarchy of space Tri Angga/ Tri Loka. This concept divides
space in three zones; they are Utama (holy, height, pure,
head), Madya (central, neutral, body) and Nista (below,
impure, foot). Based on the direction of the rising sun there
are three hierarchies of space in one site, they are: the most
sacred one in the east, and the reverse for west direction.
Based on the axel of mount-sea direction, mountainous
direction is the most sacred one, plane area is neutral and
sea direction is the most unsacred place.
2. The division of cosmology Nawa Sanga or Sanga Mandala
means nine directions with its center. This conception is the
combination of the use of the axle of the sun and
geographical axle (mountain sea)
3. Balinese traditional villages pattern. From the use of the sun
and geographys axle, there is a tendency of rural patterns in
Bali; they are linier pattern, in North Bali, Pempatan Agung
pattern in South Bali, and combinatory pattern that can be
found in all parts of Bali.
4. Scale and proportion of man: balance is decisive of a
building, therefore the measurement of the human body is the
scale used to determine the dimension of the building. The
measurement of Temple building, for example, uses the
measurement of its priest. In doing so, there are not
traditional buildings that have the same dimension.
5. Process of development. To build a house, Balinese
community must follow the process fixed by undagi both in
the process of its development and its religious ceremonies.
6. Court (natah) is cosmological orientation in which all the
activities of the family, social, and religious activities are
centered.
7. The clarity of structure has to be noticeable in the building.
8. Ornaments: every ornament has its own place related with
the values of the Tri Angga concept.
As part of the Balinese traditional village, the creation of
Pempatan Agung also follows the above regulations. The creation
of Pempatan Agung then undergoes the same process as the
concept of the creation of man and the universe. In this concept,
there are two worlds, macrocosm and microcosm, each of which
has soul. In the hereafter world (macrocosm), there are nine
powers; the main spirit is symbolized with a sacral letter of God
(Ongkara). Here resides the religious power. It is shown in eight
powers from eight directions. In the microcosm,, land is divided
into two axles, the sun and geographical axle as explained above.
The intersection of the axles results in the stratification of spatial
166

values. The first one which is based on cosmic axle is

hydrosphere (bhur loka), lithosphere (bhuah loka) and
atmosphere (swah loka). The second one is the religious axle,
that is, the direction of the rising and the setting of the sun
(Kangin Kauh). The third one is the mountain sea axle. The
nine spatial values are applied in the pattern of Balinese
traditional village where Pempatan Agung lies in the middle (see
Figure 3). Pempatan Agung is the symbol of the center of all
magical powers (Sutarto, 1985; Glebet, 1986; Meganada, 1990;
Anindya P., 1991; Sugiantara, 1996).
The development of Balinese Traditional Village is started
by the selection of the appropriate location according to the
religion. Avoiding the taboo things can prevent the community
from the adverse impact. Places which are considered taboo are
karubuhan, sandang lawe, sula nyupi, kuta kubanda, teledu
nginyah, gerah, sandang lawang, and boros wong. Related to the
geographical condition, places which are considered taboo are
seri sedan, gelagah, siwaboja, sigar penyalin, and singhameta.
These places are very much related with color, smell, and taste.
For example, black, bitter, and fishy land is taboo land. On the
contrary, good places should be sought such as the one having
manikmulia value, indraprasta, dharmalungid, danarasa,
srinugraha, wisnumanitis, endragana, srimangepel such as green
land, sweet and fragrant or red, sweet and fragrant. (Suandra,
1996: 3-4; Tohjaya, 1982: 16; Simpen AB.: 96-97; Putra, 1998).
Panca Aksara
Dewata Nawa Sanga
Panca Brahma
Tri Aksara
Ongkara
Paraatma
Macrocosme
Microcosme
Kaja
Utama
Madya
me
Kauh
Nista
Kelod
Nista
Tengah
Madya
Kangin
Utama
Sanga Mandala
Figure 3. Konsep kosmologis Pempatan Agung

(Sources: Sularto, 1985 ; Gelebet, 1986 ; Meganada, 1990 ; Anindya,
1991 ; Sugiantara, 1996)
167

Then the sacral point of Pempatan Agung is determined.

Starting from that point, the location of every public facility is
determined in four corners based on the value in the traditional
rules. The north east has the value of ersanya, good location for
living because it represents main intersection from goodness
(raksautama), the south east has the value of gnyan representing
apah, destruction element, a bad location (raksa gni), south west
is neriti representing kala raksa, intersection of togetherness
(yasa), a good location. North West is wayabaya representing
heat, a bad location (Putra, 1998: 83).
The kind and location of public facility found around
Pempatan Agung also determines the type of Puri. Puri with three
facilities such as market, square and bancingah is Puri Utama,
the one having two facilities is Puri Menengah (Madya) and the
one having one facility is kanista. Pura desa lies in the southeast
corner, the most prestigious place. The location of the Puri
determines the future of a country. In the manuscript of Asta
Kosala-Kosali, Puri must lie near market, banyan tree, Wantilan,
Pura Desa and Bale Banjar. This place is called Bancingah
meaning a place to find freshness or a place to get together.
According to the manuscript of Eka Pratamaning Brahmana Sakti
Bujangga (Putra, 1998: 33), the values of the location are North
East is the main location for Puri. South east is the symbol of fire
causing destruction of the country. South west is the main
location that will give welfare, wealth, development for the people.
North west is the bad location because it is a place for fire (see
Figure 4).
Pure
Up
Front
Live
Back
Dead
Impure
Down
Note :
North
Good lacation for the Palace/Puri
Bad location for the Palace/Puri
Figure 4. Cosmology value of Pempatan Agung
(Source : Putera, 1998 : 34)
168

From that description, cosmologically, good space

system in Pempaan Agung is presented in Figure 5.
The location from the market is dependent on the location
of Puri. If a Puri is located in the south east then the market is
located in the south or North West from the Puri. With the location
like this the king has the opportunity to see the activities of the
kingdom and daily life of the people. Because traditional market
commonly is not a permanent place so the function of its location
can be multifunction because it can be used by the armies of the
kingdom to have a drill in the afternoon time o for the need of
religious ceremony.
Banyan tree is a sacral tree for the Balinese. In the
context of Pempatan Agung, banyan trees are magical boundary,
the safe guarder of the Puri spirituality. Every location has
significance. Banyan tree which is placed in the north east is
called butha adiraksa, in the south east butha satriaksa, in the
North West butah gajahraksa, and in the south west butha
paduraksa.
Figure.5 Space Organization of Pempatan Agung
After the cosmological procedure is followed, it is then

continued with religious ceremony before construction is started
aiming to strengthen the unity (pasupati). The traditional village
since then has been considered to be a living organism having
soul like a human being. The rules are adapted according to
place, time, and situation creating different variants in each
traditional village.
169

SPATIAL TRANSFORMATION OF SPIRITUAL CONCEPT IN

PEMPATAN AGUNG
Bali Province comprises 8 regencies and 1 municipality.
The nine areas develop out of ancient kingdoms which do not
exist any more. The centre of the city is the centre of the kingdom
so that Pempatan Agung of a traditional village changes to be the
centre of town. Application of various cosmological concepts
above is shown in the morphology of town centers in Bali in 1990
(see Figure 7). Out of the examples, the majority of the Puris lie in
the corner of North East. Only Puri Klungkung is in the North
West so that the cosmological concept is applied most (not all) in
the centers of Balinese traditional villages.
More in-depth study was conducted in the 27 traditional
villages with urban, semi urban, and rural characteristics shows
that the variation of the first tendency is the composition of
Pempatan Agung. 50% of 27 Puris are located in the North East,
36.36% in the North West and 36.64% is in the North West and
only 13.64% in the South East (see Figure 6).
The composition shows that north east is the most
favorable for the palace while square, market, and temple are
most localized at south east. Bale Banjar and Wantilan are placed
at North West, banyan trees are mostly in the North West.
Normally banyan tree is in the square and the market while
Wantilan is placed in the three possible locations (North West:
35.29%, South East and North East are respectively 23.53%).
The conclusion is that the transformation of cosmological concept
and Pempatan Agung is marked by the position of Puri in the
North East (Ersanya), the unity of market and square, the planting
of banyan trees, and the construction of a Pura in the South East,
the position of Bale Banjar and Wantilan and in the South East.
The location of Bale Banjar explains, especially in the rural
Pempatan Agung in which the Palace is absent, how the need to
get together with other villagers become important. In this
composition, the cosmological concept of Pempatan Agung is
truly transformed.
170

1. Palace/Puri
2. Market
3. Square
4. Wantilan
Fig.6 : Types of Pempatan Agung in City centers in Bali
(Source : P2R Bali, 1990)
North
Palace : 13,64%
Wantilan : 23,53%
Square : 23,53%
Temple : 5,26%
Market : 15,79%
Beringin : 42,10%
Bale Banjar : 12,5%
West
Temple
:5,26%
Palace : 50%
Wantilan : 17,65%
Square : 5,9%
Temple : 26,37%
Market : 15,79%
Beringin : 5,26%
Bale Banjar : 12,5%
East
Palace : 36,36%
Wantilan : 35,29%
Square : 29,41%
Temple : 26,37%
Market : 21,05%
Beringin : 21,05%
Bale Banjar : 50%
Palace : 0%
Wantilan : 23,53%
Square : 41,17%
Temple : 36,84%
Market : 47,37%
Beringin : 26,37%
Bale Banjar : 0%
South
Fig. 7 Spatial application of cosmology conception of Pempatan Agung
171

The underlying change is in the location of temple

because theoretically temple is in the north east as the most
sacred location at Pempatan Agung. The location of North West
is a question. The possibility f this space is made an alternative
for the unity between square, temple, market, and banyan tree.
Traditional location and its transformation show very well how the
political power can determine its territory exceeding the religious
power.
IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT IN SPATIAL HIERARCHY OF
PEMPATAN AGUNG
The emptiness in the nil point which is conceptually in
Pempatan Agung has been applied since the tenth century in the
ancient kingdom of Bedulu. The emptiness symbolizes neutral
space where the positive and negative mystical cosmological
power is neutralized. This emptiness also accommodates the
need of ritual ceremony of Ngaben or Mecaru that requires large
space. The addition of tugu in the middle which was begun in the
Kingdom of Klungkung in XVII century pushed changes in most of
the faade of Pempatan Agung. Consequently, ritual ceremony
must be adapted in the spatial change. The first one is Ngaben
(see Figure 8).
Bade
Bade is turned on it self
Tugu
Bade
Bade is turned around of Tugu
Fig 8 : Adaptation of Ngaben in the Pempatan Agung modified
Commonly, Bade is rotated to the left in the point of

Pempatan Agung so that the soul is purified and united with
macrocosm. The existence of the tugu in this point makes it
difficult for the ritual to be carried out. So some adaptation is
made, the rotation of the bade is made to circle the tugu to the
left. The same adaptation is made in the Ngerupuk ceremony,
Ogoh-ogoh must also circle the tugu before it is carried to grave
yard and be burnt.
Second adaptation is in the Macaru ceremony done every
Balinese New Year. All traditional villagers will be present to
participate in the ceremony so they need more spacious area.
The existence of tugu lowers the breadth of the space so that the
location of the ceremony is changed to another location. For
172

example, in the traditional village of Denpasar, they changed the

location of the ceremony from Pempatan Agung to the front part
of Puseh temple in one location with Pura Desa or in a square.
Temple
N
Square
Square
Fig. 9 Adaptation of ceremony Mecaru in Pempatan Agung
Compromise is made in Pempatan Agung of Mengwi

where tugu was built not in the central point but on a lane of a
street. So the significance of Pempatan Agung is till kept and the
community can conduct ritual ceremony as usual.
Tugu
Fig. 10. Pempatan Agung Mengwi
In the conception of traditional cosmology, village center,

Pempatan Agung, and its public facilities constitute the center of
energy (Mandala Utama). The second mandala is the
composition of the housing of the aristocrats and the officials of
the kingdom and priests. The last mandala is peoples settlement.
The running of government from kingdom, colonization era, up to
today it has changed the existing facilities in the Pempatan
Agung. According to spatial cosmology, the change of political
power has changed spiritual power of Mandala. Development has
taken a lot of space around Pempatan Agung where all or part of
the function changes. New mandala appears but as economic
power, administrative power (Denpasar), center of cultural
conservation (Klungkung). Socio-cultural life loses its spirit.
173

Third Mandala : people settlement

Centre of Mandala : Pempatan
Agung, palace, market, wantilan,
beringin, square, temple
Second Mandala : Habitation of
aristocrats, royal officials, and prtres.
Chinese Habitation, Arabs and autres ethnic.

Colonials office, Square, Pempatan Agung.
Europeens Habitations.
Balinese habitation.
Now : Office (Gouvernemental, Commercial)
Now : Center of Administration.
Figure 11 The Change of cosmologic value in urban Balinese

Traditional village
Vertically, the change also changes the sacral profane

value of Traditional Village. Conceptually the higher the place, the
holier it is. As a result of development, Temples become lower
that buildings beside them so that their sacred values become
lower.
Horizontally, spatial unity of one traditional village to
another causes the loss of the sacral values of a traditional
village. Traditional village that reflects macrocosm and microcosm
is divided into three levels: Utama (reflecting the head,
atmosphere, God world); Madya (representing body, lithosphere,
man world): Nista (representing foot, hydrosphere, world of Satan
and evil spirits). This conception clearly is transformed in the
division of space in Balinese Traditional Village. That is why there
is always some distance between one village and another.
Development which needs a lot of land, so intermediate land is
also used. As a result, spatially one village and another becomes
united and losing its cosmological value. This phenomenon
occurs in all urban villages. What remain are physical traces,
Temple, Wantilan, and grave yard as the outer boundary.
174

More high more sacre
Paling utara pada sudut, makin suci

Temple
Commerce
Fig. 12 Perubahan secara vertikal (kiri) dan horisontal (kanan)
Utama,
Temple of origine
Madya,
Habitation
Nista
Cimetery and temple of dead
Direction of
development
New
Buildings
???
???
Utama,
Temple of origine
Madya,
Habitation
Nista
Cimetery and temple of dead
mort
Fig. 13 Tendency of new developments : change of cosmologic value
175

CONCLUSION: CULTURAL APPROACH IN URBAN SPACE

Studies on modern cities are made with technological,
economical, hygienic, and esthetical approach. For traditional
cities, approaches are made in cultural, religious, and social
structure aspects, and values contain in them. Modern cities
produce spatial compositions according to its function grouped
into public/ private strata, and orientated in the opposition values
of front and back or outer and inner space. Traditional cities very
much consider symbolic spaces distinguishing man from woman,
sacral and profane are orientated in high low. Although in the
morphological scale some similarities are found but traditional
cities have hidden values related to cultural and social system.
This fact needs to become the consideration in the practice of
urban planning that tends to ignore these dimensions.
In a study about Pempatan Agung above, it shows that
the majority (88.36%) of traditional village (that has become city
centre, center of sub-districts, and center of administrative village)
still consider good location for Puri (palace) which is considered
to give welfare for the country. This constitutes manifestation and
the power of the kingdom over social life, culture and religion of
the Balinese community. Although the strata of power, the
position of Puri according to cosmological value is essential. All
the placement of public facilities is very much dependent upon
location of Puri. Although there is a change in the administration
system, the role of Puri remains its importance. Responsibility, a
model of good behavior, and social system give the opportunity
for Puri to keep their role in the life today. Cultural legitimacy of
the power of Puri is important because it contains the spirit of
togetherness for traditional village that can become the power in
the decision making for development, exceeding the authority of
the administrative. Inclusive in them is the preservation of the
cosmological values of Pempatan Agung.
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in cultural context, Boston : Allen & Unwin, 1984. 299 p.
BUDIHARJO, Eko. Architectural conservation in Bali.
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ELIADE, Mircea.
Images et symboles : essais sur le
symbolisme magico-religieux. Paris : Gallimard, 1952.
239 p.
ELIADE, Mircea. Le sacr et le profane. Paris : Gallimard,
1965. 192 p.
GARNHAM, Harry Launce. Maintaining the spirit of place : a
process for the preservation of town character. Mesa,
Ariz. : PDA Publishers, 1985, 158 p.
GEERTZ, Clifford C. Bali : Interprtation dune culture. Paris :
Gallimard, 1983.
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GELEBET, I Nyoman. Arsitektur Tradisional Daerah Bali. (

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Denpasar
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Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Proyek
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ambiance, architecture. Bruxelles :
P. MARDAGA,
1981. 213 p.
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arsitektur : studi budaya kasus puri Tabanan. Tesis
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penataan
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perumahan
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Seminar
Regionalisasi Penyebarluasan Produk , Bali, februari,
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SUGIHANTARA, I Ketut. Model Penataan Kawasan Pusat Kota
di Bali dengan konsep Catus Patha .Tesis S2
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177

THE EXISTENCE OF BALINESE

TRADITIONAL CULTURE VALUE
ON DENPASAR CITY DEVELOPMENT
Ngakan Ketut Acwin Dwijendra
Lecturer of Engineering Faculty, Architecture Department,
Udayana University Bali
Email: acwindwijendra@yahoo.com
Abstract
The development of urban in Bali especially Denpasar
City, as the city capital of Bali Province, is growing rapidly in all
fields such as: economic, population, tourism, etc. This creates
some issues like: urbanization, limited land, social problem, traffic
congestion, etc. Some factors which has influenced to those
development, are the growth of economic, the adequate of
facilities and utilities, the comfortable, the safety and the cultural
value system of Balinese traditional as well.
The cultural value system of Balinese traditional is a solid integrity
between culture and religion which is as the root and the base for
all Balinese community life. The existence of Balinese cultural
value has still kept well, although some values are starting to
change but so far, not out of the basic norm and value. In fact, the
strength of Balinese traditional culture value system is influencing
the development of Denpasar City.
This article will explore the aspects of Balinese traditional cultural
value such as: Balinese traditional spatial pattern, traditional
community system and religion system and then, how those
aspects have strongly induced to the development of Denpasar
city especially on city spatial and land use.
Key words: traditional cultural value, city development, city
spatial.
INTRODUCTION
The scene of city is an implementation from the strength
of organisation or social-community network. The city is formed
by accumulation of many efforts which have been conducted by
all city actors for several periods. This creates the city having
identity or characteristic which has a value pattern and norm
related to culture and technology which has been used from the
past.
The existence of value pattern and culture heritage of the
city will present the rich of visualisation both physical and non
physical whereas its existence on the city development that is
178

been legitimated by the decision of society. Through keeping the

value pattern and culture heritage, the process of city life, in the
past, now and future will be kept and sustained strongly.
The Denpasar City, as the capital of Bali Province, is
growing rapidly in term of demography, economy, governance,
tourism, etc. The development of technology has also caused the
growth of the city. In addition, this is supported by the openness
of community and the facing of a global era, so those factors have
influenced on physical development of the city.
The potential strength of Denpasar city with the adequate
of facilities, services and infrastructures has produced the height
of human mobilisation, investor, etc. that push the growth of
urbanisation and enhance the rapid development of the city. The
development has affected the change of traditional pattern of the
city from the cosmology and concentric to the multiple nucleus.
Denpasar City has developed from the centre of kingdom with
crossroad pattern (Pola Catus Patha) as implementation of
concept of Balinese traditional spatial. The concept has plentiful
meaning of philosophy as the control of city development in the
future. So it requires obviously the adjustment in order to be able
to adopt the need of modernism without lost of meaning and
characteristic of the local culture value.
Denpasar City, like other city in Indonesia, is based on
the strong concept that is an ancient heritage such as: harmony
relation between universe and human being (Buana Agung Alit
concept), harmony relation with three main causes: God, human
being and environment (Tri Hita Karana concept), up-down
concept (Konsep Hulu Teben), etc. Those concepts have given
guidance to the spatial pattern in house scale, housing settlement
and city scale as well.
The development of modernism is also influencing the change of
Denpasar city, appearance and modern activities especially in city
centre also has driven to movement of traditional value and local
culture. Yet, the strong influence of Balinese traditional culture
value that have been done from time long ago and obligation of
community to conserve the culture, give impact to face the
conservation areas in the city (self conservation) such as:
kingdom palace, Balinese traditional settlement, community
village, etc. The other hand, the influence of Balinese traditional
culture value has also given impact to the extended of city area.
The research question is how the existence of the Balinese
traditional culture value on Denpasar City development,
especially on city spatial development. Moreover, the research
question will be extended into some conceptual frameworks, as
follow:
1. Historically, the development of Denpasar City has started
from the centre of kingdom and through its strength and
potency, it has developed very past.
179

2. The rapid growth of city both in economic and population has

generated the influence of modernism coming to the city
centre, those have produced the high price of land, the land
limited, social problem, traffic jam, etc.
3. Many factors that influencing on development of city are
economic factor, the adequate of facilities and services, a
comfortable and secure place and has been caused by the
existence of the Balinese traditional culture value as well.
4. The system of Balinese traditional culture value that is close
to the culture and religion which has been as basis in society
life. Its existence is still keeping, although there is some
change, yet it is not out from the based norm. The strength of
the existence is strongly inducing in development of
Denpasar City.
5. The existence of culture value in Balinese traditional society
in Denpasar city development can be seen in term of a spatial
pattern of Balinese traditional, social system and system of
religion and traditional village, etc.
6. In term of building development context, it has some local
rules that are controlling the development of city to be the
urban extended area. Those rules are: the limitation of
building height just less than 15 m, the self conservation
areas, forbidden for fly over bridge and highway road as well.
7. Considering the strong of Balinese traditional culture value, is
needed to take strategy and policy in controlling the growth
and development of Denpasar city, especially in the use of
land and space.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
A. The Development of Denpasar City
Denpasar is the capital of Bali Province, growing from the
heritage of the kingdom city whereas the spatial pattern and
society life are organizing through the traditional culture system
that is basis on Balinese culture. The development of Denpasar
City can be seen from the growth of population and economic
sector. The total of population in Denpasar City in 2000 is
522.381 inhabitants which consist of 264.377 inhabitants of man
and 258.004 inhabitants of woman. This total of population shows
that Denpasar City categorized as the big city (category 500.0001.000.000 inhabitants). The growth of Denpasar City over last
decades is around 2,21% per year. While, on the same time the
growth of Bali Province population is only 0,94% per year
(Bappeda, 2000). So we can concluded that the population
growth of Denpasar City is produced by the high of migration
coming into the city. Regarding to economic growth, Denpasar is
raising around 4,65% per year (1994-1999) while Bali is just
180

4,34%. The dominant of economic sector in Denpasar is trade,

hotel and restaurant as well.
The fast growth of population and economic sector in
Denpasar has affected to the need of land to carry all activities, in
the meantime land is fix and limited. This can be seen from the
area of Denpasar city around 12.778 Ha, the built area is around
5.197 Ha (41% of the city area) in year 1998 by average built
area is around 100 Ha per year. So, the development of
Denpasar City has been categorised as big city. City can attract
strongly to face many activities, sources and investment from
other region and the dominant factor is caused by the migration.
This can be seen from the number of population growth in year
2000 that is produced by the migration factor around 29.909
inhabitants (75,60%) while caused by the factor of birth rate is
around 9.651 inhabitants (24,40%).
Table 1. Development of Built Area and Density
of Population in Denpasar City
Year
1948
1960
1970
1980
1990
1998
Number of
Population
(Inhabitants)
Width
Area of
City
(Hectare)
137.041
167.490
215.873
271.969
320.597
382.555
12.398
12.398
12.398
12.398
12.398
12.778
Density
(Inhabitants/H
ectare)
Built Area
Width Area
(Ha)
1.000
1.200
1.600
2.137
3.694
5.197
%
8
10
13
17
30
41
Netto
Brutto
137
140
135
127
87
74
11
14
17
22
26
30
Sumber: RTRW Kota Denpasar, 2000.

Netto Density = the number population divided into the built area.
Brotto Density = the number population divided into the width area of city.
This can be seen that the development of built area in

Denpasar City from year 1948 to 1998 is a rapid growth. While till
year 2000, the growth is relatively constant, this is caused by the
remind land can be used to develop very small, merely 4.371 Ha
(34,20%) and remind just 874 Ha (20%) can be allocated to the
urban activities. The scarcity of the land is producing the
competition among demander and it has created the impact to the
high price of land. The fact is that the urban activities which is
able to use the land, is just the commerce activities.
The rapid growth of population and the scarcity of land in
Denpasar City have caused the press of physical, social and
economic on limited city spatial so that the development of
Denpasar city tends to extend in sub urban area. This is facing
the new activities centre which has characteristically as city
activities (sub urbanisation process). The extended urban area
will create the unity of spatial among city (city agglomeration) and
181

will form as metropolitan region (Sarbagita which consist of

Denpasar, Badung, Gianyar and Tabanan City).
The development of Denpasar City with the high growth
of population and the limited land is not just influenced by the
main factors such as: economic, adequate of facilities and
utilities, security and comfortably of the city as well but also is
caused by the existence of Balinese Traditional values.
Balinese traditional community culture is integrity between culture
and religion which has been as basis in Balinese community life.
Balinese traditional culture values are based on three frames in
Hindu Religion: Tattwa (philosophy), Susila (ethic/behaviour) and
Upacara (ceremony). The realisation of those frames in Balinese
community culture a in:
1. Balinese traditional spatial pattern (spatial orientation
direction, city and village environment, house parcel and
building code).
2. Social Community system (family/relatives system and
custom village, organisation system).
3. System of religion, religious ceremony and custom ceremony)
Those realisation will influence the spatial pattern both
micro and macro area. How is the realisation of three aspects of
culture value pattern especially in spatial aspect in Denpasar city
development? This will be discussed on the following session.
B. The existence of Balinese Culture Value versus Denpasar
City Development
The realisation of spatial in Balinese traditional spatial
pattern is in spatial orientation, city and village environment,
house parcel and building code. The realisation of Balinese
traditional culture value in spatial pattern and housing settlement
will effect as follow:
a. Housing and settlement pattern in Balinese community such
as: Pura Khayangan Tiga (three temples) with the spatial holy
radius, public/community building, and traditional open space:
alun-alun (open space), campuhan (water sources),
pempatan agung (crossroad pattern), setra (grave), natah
(house space), and city with community attribute,
morphology, function and symbolic.
b. The rules and forbidden in placement of land use, a basic
dimension of building and the distance between two functions
so that the placement and arrangement of functional activities
are able to be completed only with consideration of economy,
a strategic location, etc.
c. The concept which has arranged the zone and the function of
land use such as: concept of Tri Hita Karana, Tri Mandala,
Sanga Mandala, Luan-Teben so that the placement and
arrangement of zone and function of land use have to follow
182

those concepts both micro (house parcel) and macro (village,

region and city).
d. The rules in measurement of house parcel and building
placement (concept of Hasta Kosala Kosali and Hasta Bumi)
will require directly wider space for building of house.
1. Balinese Traditional Value Pattern in Housing Settlement
Development
The culture of Balinese community which is based by
Hindu religion, has rooted and unified in community daily life, so
the existence of culture values in spatial pattern has tended to be
kept, although there has been some change, but it is only
adjustment and not out from its basic norm. The strong culture
causes the Balinese community conducting the housing
development based on a spatial concept of Balinese traditional.
This development requires relatively wide area, minimal wide of
land is needed by Hindu community to build the house, is 150 m2
900 m2. This is caused by still using traditional measurement
(sikut karang) which is written on Building Balinese manuscript
(Hasta Kosala Kosali and Hasta Bumi). Balinese people believe
that if the Balinese measurement is applied, they will get
harmony, happiness and prosperity in their family, and they also
will be far from bad things in their life. So, the Balinese Hindu
community tends to follow the rules starting from choosing the
land, building of foundation till placement of house roof.
However, the land condition in Denpasar city is limited and its
price is so high, this seems that it is very difficult to apply the
Balinese rules in the centre of city, so people tend to apply in
fringe of city or in sub urban. The effect is the development of
housing and settlement moving to the fringe of city (hinterland). In
the future, this will be hard to apply the strategy of housing and
settlement which is using the Balinese traditional rules.
2. Limitation of Building Height Maximum 15 m and
Forbidden of Underground Development
The Balinese culture values have also realised on the
limitation of building height not more than the height of coconut
tree (15 m or 3-4 level of floor), This banned has already written
down on Government Rule and influencing to not optimal in land
use of Denpasar city. The effect is that the city development can
not be done intensively while the adequate of land for the city
activities becoming limited, scarce and the price is growing so
high.
Some reasons for the existence of Balinese traditional
culture value pattern related to the limitation of building height
are:
a. To consider the appreciation of Balinese Hindu community to
the God and ancestors who are a holy body. This implies that
183

if the building is built high, it means the house of God and

ancestors have to be built higher while the rule for building of
temple in Bali must tap the land.
b. To consider the realisation of Tri Hita Karana concept. Tri
Hita Karana is the concept of Balinese community to three
things which causes the harmony of life such as: harmony
between human being and their God (parhyangan), harmony
between human being and human being (pawongan),
harmony between human being and their environment
(palemahan). The concept implies that the limitation of
building height is reflection of Balinese community harmony
with environment in order to keep the balance of nature, to
conserve Balinese spatial pattern, as magical power of
Balinese religious and to realise the Balinese community in
culture and human beings.
c. To conserve the atmosphere of Balinese land and nature.
Green concept by using coconut tree as limitation is
realisation of Balinese community unified with nature and no
disturbing atmosphere of land. Coconut tree is perceived as
the ideally tree and growing dominantly in Bali, and also
coconut tree as orientation of nature. if the building height is
more than coconut tree, it means that the harmony of nature
and building will be eliminated and even will be lost.
In addition, the existence of Balinese community value
pattern has given the limitation to development of underground
because of:
a. Concept of Tri Loka (three cosmoses) where is nature divided
into three parts: sky/God place (swah loka), earth/land/human
place (bhuah loka) and underground/devil place (bhur loka).
This implies that if we dig up to underground means that we
live in devil place. This concept also means that the
underground space needs to be kept from development
because Balinese people believe that it will destroy
environment.
b. Balinese Hindu community has strongly connected to the
land/underground especially in religious manner such as: to
bury of dead people, bury material of ritual ceremony, etc. So
that if the development will be allowed to underground, the
process of ritual ceremony of Hindu will be difficult to be
applied.
The existence of Balinese culture value pattern to the
limitation of building height is in fact dilemma in Denpasar city
because the land is the main difficulty to apply those culture
values. The effect is that it is occurring the expansion of housing
and settlement development to out of the city where the price of
the land is still affordable by both community and developer.
184

C. Social System versus Development of Denpasar City

In Balinese social system, community has strongly
related to relatives forms (nyama, braya, soroh, warga) and other
forms of family bond which is structuring unit of community
alliance as the ancestors bond. Regarding to the ritual ceremony
as form of social system is the present of community together in
all kind of ritual ceremonies.
The belief of Balinese Hindu community is that the God is
everywhere. This implies that the God has to be bestowed place
every space of life, so every house requires to build the sacred
area/holy place/praying place as a place for praying and as form
of respect to the God. This has affected to the highly demand of
space to build the holy place.
The relatives system also tends to form the strong relation with
the original house because the ceremony/religious activities have
often conducted in the origin house and this make that people
have also often come back home. This culture values are caused
by:
a. The value of religious feeling, there is bond of deeply relative
with member of village custom in original village, bond of
ancestors at original village custom (physiology spiritual),
place of grave (setra), so that if we move from our village
custom, it means that we move our burial place.
b. The Bond with original source (kawitan), it causes that people
is afraid to be excluded by among community, if there are not
be member or part of village custom.
c. The Bond of ancestors and place of ancestors praying still
locate at original house (original village). Where the belief of
Balinese people is that the soul of their ancestors has still
lived in village custom.
d. The strong solidarity of Balinese community and the bond
with their birth land. This solidarity is happening because
there is bond of emotional from a long time ago (as heritage)
so these figure out the strong relation of relatives (desa
pekraman). Balinese people has bond with religion, village
custom and those cause Balinese people not want to go out
from their village custom of origin birth place.
Those reasons above will effect to the alternative of
location selection for house place. This tends to choose location
which always orientates to original house, and also consider other
factors such as: economic, facilities, amenities and security and
comfortable.
D. System of Religion, Religion Ceremony, Village Custom
versus Development of Denpasar
Religion system which is implemented on religious and
custom ceremony by completing ritual and custom activities
namely five ceremonies (Panca Yadnya): Dewa Yadnya (God
185

ceremony), Rsi Yadnya (Priest ceremony), Pitra Yadnya

(Ancestors ceremony), Manusia Yadnya (Human ceremony) and
Bhuta Yadnya (Devil ceremony). In term of spatial aspect, those
ceremonies will need definitely space for activities. Those spaces
in Bali are called as the radius of holy space such as: holy radius
of water sources (river, lake and other water sources), the
meeting between two rivers (campuhan), crossroad pattern
(pempatan agung), coastal area for ceremony (melasti), grave
(setra), garden on pathway in Balinese houses (telajakan), etc.
Implementation of Balinese community culture in system
of religion, religion ceremony and village custom will effect
indirectly to the bond of culture which causes the appearance of
self conservation area such as: Balinese traditional houses Bali
(umah, griya, puri, jero, sanggah/merajan, telajakan, lebuh and
natah), holy place such as: Sad Kahyangan temple, Dang
Kahyangan temple, Kahyangan Tiga temple including radius of
holy area, open space for ritual ceremony, etc.
The strength of the existence of cultural spatial affecting
the heritage areas is difficult to move or to change the land use.
This norm or rule is believed by Balinese people as part of their
life (as living culture). In Denpasar city, these areas can be seen
such as: in open area of Puputan Badung, crossroad pattern
(pempatan agung), temple of Jaganatha, Pengrobongan, Satria,
Pemecutan, palace of Jero Kuta and Pemecutan, Art Centre,
traditional houses, etc.
Related to Balinese traditional houses (umah, griya, puri,
jero termasuk sanggah/merajan, telajakan, lebuh and natah) as
one of self conservation area which are very difficult to move or
relocate, are caused by some reasons (regard to Balinese culture
value) as follow:
a. Bond with ancestors (sangkan paraning numadi) and bond
with the village custom as birth place. Balinese community is
uniting with their original house location. House for Balinese
people is the spirit of their life. Although they are so poor,
they will never sell their house. Selling their house means that
they leave all bond with their ancestors and birth place. They
believe that it will give bad effect to their life and even in their
future life.
b. Bond with the praying place (sanggah merajan). The praying
place can not be sold or lease. Balinese people believe that
this will affect unhappiness in their life. If the praying place
have to be moved because of some dangerous reasons so it
has to be completed by removal ritual ceremony to move their
ancestors spirit and the God to the new praying place.
c. Bond with the original birth place as uniting for Balinese
community relatives. This is caused by all the process of
religion ritual (born till dead ceremony) has to be conducted in
186

the original house. This means that it is very difficult to them

to sell their original house.
d. Bond with culture law in Balinese community namely: norm
religion and village custom law. If they try to ban these rules,
they will get bad penalty and be excluded by community. So,
original houses and praying place in Bali will be kept by the
owner.
The facing of self conservation area in Bali has a good
effect as conservation of culture heritage but the other side has
problem on the limited land to accommodate the growth and
development of Denpasar city.
The existence of Balinese community culture in system of
religion and ritual ceremony is also affecting to the consideration
not to allow building the high way and crossing bridge (flying over)
where these is as alternative to overcome the transportation
issues in Denpasar city. The effect is that happening in Denpasar
is the high ratio of traffic jam and decreasing the security and the
comfort of transport in Denpasar city. The system of religion has
some reasons as follow:
a. Factor of religion (holy reason) related to the process of
religion ceremony ritual such as: process of melasti, melis,
cremation (ngaben) and other ritual process that brings some
holly materials/tools of ceremony. These actually require
going outside and these are not allow through under the fly
bridge or the fly road. Balinese people believe that if those
materials are going under the bridge, it will cause the
decreasing of the holy of material ceremony.
b. Hindu community in Bali believes strongly with the concept of
down-foot (sor) and up-head (singgih) or concept of sorsinggih. Balinese people will not want to go under peoples
foot and also for their God who they believe as holy person.
As mention above, the existence of culture values has
also affected the problem in Denpasar city development
especially on transportation matter. So, the development of city
tends to spread out the fringe of city where the land is still cheap
and affordable.
E. Findings of Study
The finding of the study based on the analysis above is
that the existence of Balinese traditional culture values pattern in
development of Denpasar city in a spatial aspect as follow:
1. The Concept of Balinese Traditional Spatial Value versus
Denpasar City Development
a. The existence of Balinese culture values spirit by Hindu
Religion has united and rooted in daily life of its community.
Although some aspects have changed but those are more as
adjustment and not out of the norm or the basic principle.
187

b. The strength of bonds and rules of culture have caused that

the Balinese community has still developed strongly the
housing based on Balinese traditional architecture and spatial
concept where these require the wide area of land. This
matter gives the effect to development of Denpasar city to the
out of city (fringe of city) where the land is still affordable.
c. The existence of Balinese culture values related to the
limitation of the building height, maximum the height of
coconut tree (15 m or 3-4 floor) and the limitation of
underground development have given the impact to
inefficiency of land use in Denpasar city and the land is
becoming limited and very expensive.
2. Social System versus Development of Denpasar City
The existence of Balinese culture values related to the social
system will generate strongly the bond with original house
(birth village place). This matter gives the Balinese people
tending to choose location for living close to their original
house. They tend to buy the land at the fringe of city because
close to the original house and this also creates the impact of
expanding the city to the urban fringe.
3. System of Religion, Religion Ceremony, Village Custom
versus Development of Denpasar
a. The existence of Balinese culture values related to system of
religion, religion ceremony and village custom has strongly
the bond of culture and ancestors which is producing the self
conservation areas in Denpasar City. Those areas are difficult
to move or relocate because Balinese people have a strong
relation with it. They believe that this is as part of their life and
they have to keep as culture heritage. The other hand, the
self conservation areas has effect to the less of land supply in
the city to accommodate the growth and development of
Denpasar city.
b. The existence of Balinese culture values related to system of
religion, religion ceremony and village custom is also
influencing the consideration to not allow the development of
fly bridge and flying road as alternative to solve the problem
of traffic flow in Denpasar city. This consideration has
affected to the high rate of traffic jam and decreased the
traffic secure and comfort in Denpasar city.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
A. Conclusion
The existence of community traditional culture value is
one a significant factor influencing in forming the pattern and
structure of the Denpasar City. Aspect of culture value also give
188

limitiations to the use of city spatial. The implementation of culture

value is: the traditional spatial pattern, social system, religious
system, and customary village as well. Those are influencing to
not optimally capacity of Denpasar City so that those cause the
trends of city development to urban fringe area, so culture value
pattern has presented the big influence to the use of land and
development of urban extended area.
B. Recommendation
1. It is needed the study more accurately and deeply to analyze
the existence of culture values in the future so that the
decision can be taken wisely and definitely as strategic step
in solving the city issue related to the culture value pattern of
community.
2. It is needed to define the real steps to formulate strategies in
developing areas more accurately, efficiency, integrate and
comprehensive before the areas growing uncontrolled by
considering the aspect of Balinese community culture value in
land use of Denpasar city.
3. It is needed the legal aspect to keep the self conservation
areas in Denpasar city so that those areas can not be
relocate or changed the use for other city activities.
4. It is needed to expand the new area out of the city to
anticipate the growth and development of Denpasar city.
5. It is needed to keep the current traditional rule of building
height limitation and development of underground as
conservation to the Balinese traditional values and to strength
the identity and characteristic of Denpasar city.
REFERENCES
Adhika, I Made. 1994. Peran Banjar dalam Penataan Komunitas,
Studi Kasus Kota Denpasar. Bandung: Tesis Program S2
Jurusan Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota ITB.
Astika, Sudhana Ketut, dkk. 1986. Peranan Banjar pada
Masyarakat Bali. Denpasar: Departemen Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi
Kebudayaan Daerah.
Bappeda Tingkat I Bali dan Universitas Udayana. 1982.
Pengembangan
Arsitektur Tradisional Bali untuk
Keserasian Alam Lingkungan, Sikap Hidup, Tradisi dan
Teknologi. Denpasar: Bappeda Tingkat I Bali.
Budihardjo, Eko. 1986. Architectural Conservation in Bali.
Yogyakarta: Penerbit Gajah Mada University Press.
189

190
Part Four:
CITY AS A HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT ECOSYSTEM
191
192

AN ORGANISM NAMED SOLO

(THE CONCEPT OF CITY AS GENETICS)
Qomarun
Student of Architecture Doctoral Program
School of Postgraduate, Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta 55281
Lecturer of Architecture Department
Faculty of Engineering, Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Indonesia
Jl. A. Yani Tromol Pos 1, Kartasura, Surakarta 57102
Phone: 0271-717417 Ext 225; E-mail: qomarun@ums.ac.id
Arya Ronald
Lecturer of Architecture Doctoral Program
School of Postgraduate, Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Jl. Grafika 2, Yogyakarta 55281
Phone: 0274-580092; E-mail: aryaronald@ugm.ac.id
Abstract
This study will explore the city of Solo as a human
development ecosystem. The objective of the study is to find the
main element of Solo and to know its expression, transmission
and variation. The study has focused in the urban growth for the
last 500 years old in Solo, one of the oldest towns in Java. The
research was approached by a rationalistic inquiry. The
rationalistic research was carried out by a-three-archive strategy:
primary files; secondary files and physical files. The primary files
referred to the old Javanese archives (parintah, piyagem,
undang-undang, pranatan, serat, kakancingan, gugat, penget).
The secondary files referred to the research documents
(historian, sociologist, geographer etc). While the physical files
referred to the field survey that was conducted by interviews and
collecting the artefacts. The analysis was conducted by the theory
of genetics. The research found that the new organism named
Solo was born in 1550s. In the early period, the merging activities
of the native people on along River Bengawan Solo and the
government of Sultanate Pajang were the source of its entity,
while in the next period (1750s-1950s), the mixture activities of
Mataram Surakarta Kingdom with the foreigner (Dutch, Chinese
and Arab) were the source of its growth, and afterwards in the
latest period (1950s-2000s), the merging activities of the
government of Republic Indonesia and the province of Central
Java were the source of its sustaining. Furthermore, the research
193

found that the main element of city was coded by H, L and B. The
compound of those elements will provide a new substance coded
D1, D2, D3, Dn. Afterwards; the new organism can be arisen by
merging those substances through T process. The variation of T
process (T1, T2, T3, Tn) is the main identity of city as genetics.
City as an organism, has the same character as biological life as
follows: birth, growth, sick, reproduction, dead etc. What, why and
how the city can be coded, identified and specified, this paper will
explain it.
Keywords: Organism, City, Genetics, Ecosystem, Solo
A. INTRODUCTION
Solo (also known as Surakarta) is originally an ancient
city which grows into one of the modern cities in Indonesia while
maintaining its cultural heritage (Qomarun, 2007: 6).
Geographically, this town is located at 110 45 15 110
45 35 East and 0 70 36 0 70 56 South. Laid between the
mountain Lawu and Merapi-Merbabu, Solo is a lowland area (92
meters above sea level). There are three main rivers in Solo:
River Bengawan Solo, River Pepe and River Jenes (see fig. 1-2).
Solo has 44 km square area and 552,542 citizens in 2005.
Solo as a human development ecosystem, has appeared
and developed in the middle of Java since 1500s. Being one of
the oldest cities in Indonesia, it has an extraordinary of urban
development and architecture. There were not only from
Javanese and the Dutch but also from Chinese and Arab. Solo,
known as the spirit of Java, had become the one of the most
popular tourism cities in Indonesia. Having been specified as anew-entity, a-growth-substance and a-spirit-material, Solo
actually had some characters of organism.
194

6 5
7
a
a
Notes:
1. 1500s-Kampung Laweyan
2. 1550s-Kampung Pajang
3. 1550s-Kampung Solo
4. 1600s-Kampung Cina
5. 1600s-Kampung Arab
6. 1750s-Kampung Baluwarti
7. 1750s-Kampung Kauman
8. 1750s-Kampung Eropa
9. 1760s-Kampung Keprabon
Figure 3. The Artefacts of Solo in 2007 (above)
B. RESEARCH QUESTION
1. How can the city as organism in Solo be explained?
2. How can the genetics of Solo be coded?
C. GRAND CONCEPT
City is the largest and the most complicated product that
ever been created by the humankind (Golany, 1995: 65). City can
be defined as the place that contains buildings, land and people
195

(Cohen, 1999: 155). City can be found either by organic or

artificial patterns (Kostof, 1991: 43). The structure of the city, as
well as the organism, can most simply be identified as skeleton
(street, railways, duct, etc.), meat (buildings) and blood (the
activity of citizen) (Leitmann, 1999: 28). After genome had been
discovered by Craig Venter (Human Genome Project, 19982004), the terminology of organism changed into: whatever that
used the resource of the world to recover or duplicate themselves
(Ridley, 2005: 6). According to this paradigm, cities even used the
human and the environment resources to make them alive. The
theory of genetics shows that there are four elements of organism
to send and create the heredity (Bateson, 1906): (1) the genetic
material; (2) the genetic expression; (3) the genetic transmission;
and (4) the genetic variation. Gene, the raw material of organism,
like genome in human, has a specific character. It can be sent
from generation to generation (heredities) to make them be
duplicated and sustained. Accordingly, evolution, involution and
mutation can be happened to an organism from time to time. The
process of change of an organism is also known as morphology.
Morphology in urban architecture, like in biology, is to identify the
modification of form and structure for along period (Rose, 1976:
1). Otherwise, morphology is the process of stand, rise and open
to the environment (Schulz, 1984: 117).
D. METHOD
The research was conducted by rationalistic inquiry. The
rationalistic method focusing in the past was carried out by ahistorical-study. The object of the research is the urban
settlements which are growth in the last 500 years old and
approached by benchmarking map. The method of the research
was carried out by a-three-archive research strategy: primary
files; secondary files and physical files. The primary files were
collected from Javanese documentaries: parintah; undhangundhang; pranatan; piyagem; kakancingan; etc. They were mostly
found in the library of Kasunanan, Mangkunegaran and Radya
Pustaka. The secondary files were collected from historian and
researcher documents: Ricklefs; Houben; Lombard; Nas;
Vorstensteden; Pakubuwono XII; Muljana; Notosusanto;
Kartodirdjo; Sajid; Ngadijo; Ronald; Ikaputra; Adishakti etc.
Besides, the physical files were collected by field surveys. Having
collected those documents, the research was continued by
analyzing these data. It is actually the most important process of
196

all. The strategy of analyzing was conducted by analogy of

genetics, agreed with the concept of organism.
E. DISCUSSION
1. The History of Solo
The entity of Solo is begun in 1550s (Qomarun, 2007: 9).
Solo stems from the Javanese word: Ki Soroh, meaning chief of
laborers (Sajid, 1984: 16). He lived and worked with his workers
for Pajang in near river Bengawan Solo, on the north of port
Nusupan. Based on this data, the process of stand, rise and open
of urban settlement in Solo was equal to the period of Kadipaten
Pajang, the part land of Sultanate III Demak. According to
pranatan (kings regulation) no. 4 (PB-II, 1726), kadipaten was the
land which was occupied by the vice of king, known as adipati
(Margana, 2004: 10). While according to pranatan no. 84.1 (HBV, 1847) adipati was the leader of: wadana (chief of regencies);
bupati (regent); rangga or tumenggung (chief of villages); and
demang or bekel (village chief) (Margana, 2004: 34). According to
the secondary files (Qomarun, 2007: 28), the early settlement in
Solo was established in Kampung Laweyan (1500s), Pajang
(1550s) and Solo (1550s). Afterwards, the Chinese and Arab lived
in Solo in 1600s. The Chinese lived on along river Kali Pepe, near
port Pepe, while the Arab lived an along river Kali Jenes, near
port Jenes. Solo became a city when the Mataram kingdom
moved to Kampung Solo in 1745. To protect and to serve the
king, Kampung Baluwarti and Kauman was built in surrounding
the palace. Afterwards, the Dutch began to build some houses in
1750s, around the Vastenburg. After the Treaty of Salatiga (1757)
had happened, Solo had a-two-kingdom, Kasunanan and
Mangkunegaran, and afterwards, Kampung Keprabon was arisen.
After Independence Day (1950s), Solo or Surakarta was divided
into five districts as follows: Kecamatan Banjarsari; Kecamatan
Laweyan; Kecamatan Serengan; Kecamatan Pasar Kliwon;
Kecamatan Jebres. The first district was Mangkunegaran exterritory, while the four latest districts were Kasunanan exterritories. According to primary files, Banjarsari has 16 subdistricts, Laweyan has 11 sub-districts, Serengan has 7 subdistricts, Pasar Kliwon has 9 sub-districts and Jebres has 11 subdistricts (www.surakarta.go.id, 2007) (see fig. 3-5).
197

6 5
7
a
a
Notes:
1. 1500s-Kampung Laweyan
2. 1550s-Kampung Pajang
3. 1550s-Kampung Solo
4. 1600s-Kampung Cina
5. 1600s-Kampung Arab
6. 1750s-Kampung Baluwarti
7. 1750s-Kampung Kauman
8. 1750s-Kampung Eropa
9. 1760s-Kampung Keprabon
Figure 3. The
Artefacts
of Solo in
2007in(above)
and the Urban
Figure
3. The Artefacts
of Solo
2007 (above)
Development of Solo in 1500s-1700s (below)
(Source: Photo Field Survey, 2007 and Map Reconstructed from
google.earth.com, 2007)
198

Keterangan:
1. Port Nusupan
2. Port Kabanaran
3. Port Jenes/Kampung Arab
4. Port Pepe/Kampung Cina
5. Port Dutch/Kampung Beton
6. Fort Vastenburg
7. Palace Kasunanan
8. Kampung Eropa
9. Palace Mangkunegaran
10. Sriwedari Park
Figure 4. Morphology of Solo (1500-2000)

(Source: Qomarun, 2007: 28)
199

Mangkunegaran
Ex-Territory
Kasunanan
Ex-Territories
Figure 5. The Districts of Surakarta in 2000s

(Source: Reconstructed from www.surakarta.go.id, 2007)
2. The Genetic Material of Solo

According to Cohen (1999), the structure of the city is
divided into 3 elements as follows: (1) human; (2) land; and (3)
building. Otherwise, according to Leitmann (1999), the city can
most simply be identified as skeleton (street, railways, duct,
etc.), meat (building) and blood (the activity of citizen).
Comparing both concepts of Cohen and Leitmann, they have a
similarity as follows: human similar to blood; land similar to
skeleton and building similar to meat. Urban space has
changed from time to time but it always has the same elements
as follows: element of human (H), element of land (L) and
element of building (B)
The sub-element of H in Solo, which has been explained
in History of Solo above, can be identified as follows: Javanese,
Dutch, Arab, and Chinese, in the early period (1550-1750).
Afterwards, the sub-element of H was developed by Madurese,
Sundanese, Minang and Banjarese in the next period (17501945). On the other hand, some of the sub-element of H, which is
being exist in the early period, has disappeared or decreased
(examples: Dutch and Arab) in the last period (1945-now).
However, the new sub-element of H, which is coming from the
Indonesian, the foreign or the assimilation of both, has also
appeared in Solo since in the year of the independent day. In the
200

meantime, the sub-element of B in Solo has developed to the

house, palace, office, school, market, hotel, hospital, college, mall
and the other building. Afterwards, the sub-element of L has
changed from river, street, railway and airway. Besides, the urban
utility has growth from the manual system until electrical and
mechanical system.
Like DNA (deoxyribo-nucleic-acid) in
organism, HBL (human-building-land) is the main structure of the
city. To know the substance of organism, scientist usually has a
microscopic strategy, while the urbanist usually has a
macroscopic strategy. The City as an organism can be identified
by HBL structure as follows (see fig. 6-8):
Figure 6. The Main Element of Urban Space: H, B, L

(Photo Source: Mangkunegaran Archives, 2007)
Figure 7. HBL: The Genetic Material of the City
201

Figure 8. The Same Place in the Different Time (1930s-2000s)

In The Urban Space of Solo
(Source: Mangkunegaran Archives, 2007 and Field Survey, 2007)
Having identified to all of the sub-elements, the structure

of city can be coded by adding 3 characters. For examples, the
sub-elements of H are: Hjav; Hdut; Hara; Hchi; etc. While the subelements of B are: Bhou; Bpal; Boff; Bsch; Bmar; etc. Afterwards, the
sub-elements of L are: Lriv; Lstr; Lrai; Lair; etc. According to this
concept, the genetic material of Solo can be identified as HBL
within their sub-element. Classification and specification of these
elements is the key to identify the city as organism (taxonomy).
3. The Genetic Expression of Solo
Like chromosome in organism, some of the HBL created
a specific unit in the city, known as district. It usually appears
within a specific expression in the city, for examples: central
business district; urban settlement district; office park area;
industrial park; government district; green area; agriculture area;
etc. Similar to the system of organism, every district of the city
shares its function accordingly. District, constructed by HBL, is
always appearing in the city. Having identified to all of these
202

districts expression, the structure of city can be coded by: D 1 for

CBD; D2 for government area; D3 for settlement area; D4 for
education area; D5 for green area; D6 for mixed use area; etc.
District, as chromosome of the city, has a specific function to
make the city process.
Figure 7. District: The Genetic Expression of the City
4. The Genetic Transmission of Solo

The city as an organism physically can most simply be
identified as a tree. Like the city, the tree can grow horizontally,
vertically and interstitially. Otherwise, it always stands
permanently above the land, as well as the city. Both of the city
and the tree, they have almost the same process of standing,
rising and opening (morphology) in the environment. City as an
organism, like human, animal or plant, has a transmission system
which is delivered from generation to generation. The element H,
as the main factor of the transmission (T process), is also
depending on the resources of another element (B and L).
Through T process, city can be continued or even be duplicated
to another place by the next generation which is using the
resource of human (H), building (B) and land (L). T process is the
most powerful of the meaning of the city as an organism, agreed
with the last terminology of organism: whatever that used the
resource of the world to recover or duplicate themselves. The T
process will be including how to build, how to maintain, how to
recover, how to sustain, etc., which is actually using the element
of HBL in the city of Solo.
203

5. The Genetic Variation of Solo

According to the analysis above, Solo has some variants
of H, B, L, D and T. The variation of those substances will make
the city be different. The specification and the classification of H,
B, and L; the quantity and the quality of D; the velocity and the
capacity of T; are the genetic variation of the city as an organism.
It is believed that there are 100 billion cells, 80,000 genes and 23
chromosomes in the human being. By analogy, there are
thousands of buildings in Solo, 600,000 of citizens and tens of
districts in the city of Solo. To find the identification of
specification, classification, quality, quantity, velocity, capacity,
etc. is out of the focus in this paper.
F. CONCLUSION
The city as a human development ecosystem is
absolutely depending on the relationship among the main element
of the city: human (H), building (B) and land (L). These elements
are being the genetic material of the city as an organism. The
compounding of these elements will construct a district (D). Like
chromosome, the district is being a genetic expression of the city
as an organism. In the meantime, to operate and to sustain the
daily activities, the city needs T process. T process shows that
the city is actually the same as organism, agreed with the last
terminology of organism: whatever that used the resource of the
world to recover or duplicate themselves. Like photosynthesis, T
process is being a genetic transmission of the city as an
organism. Afterwards, the variation of H, B, L, D and T is actually
the identity of the city.
H. REFERENCES
Qomarun. Morfologi Kota Solo: Studi Kasus tentang Kualitas
Lingkungan (Proposal
Penelitian untuk Disertasi Program Studi Teknik Arsitektur UGM),
Yogyakarta, 2007: 6.
Golany. Ethics and Urban Design: Culture, Form and
Environment, 1995: 65.
Cohen. Urban Conservation, 1999: 155.
Kostof. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through
History, 1991: 43.
Leitmann. Sustaining Cities: Environmental Planning and
Management in Urban Design, 1999: 28.
Bateson. Genetika: Ensiklopedia Bahasa Indonesia
(http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/genetika.html, 2007).
Rose. Morphology in Architecture: Etymology and Commentary,
1980: 1.
Schulz. The Concept of Dwelling: On the Way to Figurative
Architecture, 1984: 117.
204


Sajid. Babad Sala, 1984: 16.
Margana. Kraton Surakarta dan Yogyakarta 1769-1874, 2004: 10.
Margana. Kraton Surakarta dan Yogyakarta 1769-1874, 2004: 16.
205

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL SENSITIVITY

TOWARD HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ECOSYSTEM
Astuti
Researcher, Research Centre for Human Settlement, Public Work Department
Corresponding author: sasti@bdg.centrin.net.id
Abstract
Urban areas in the worldwide have change from industrial
cities become cultural capital. Cities designing facing to several
cultural reference such as commodity culture, global and local
culture, the culture economy, the culture industry, cultural capital,
cultural planning, cultural policy and cultural heritage. Cultural
industries as one indicated above is a new wave of urban
innovation. Base on information and communication technology it
required to have attention to the degradation of local context in
the new cultural industries. Preserve effort to local identity is
become an important reason.
The paper asks whether cultural strategies for urban area
changes as symbolize by the concept of a creative city meets the
condition of sustainability. That is, whether such strategies
indicate long-term revitalization and genuine benefits for a range
of urban publics, or trade instead on a rhetorical statement that
culture is of universal value. Physically design for cultural urban
area related on social problem with human dependently on
territorial behavior as a kind of relationship between space and
human behavior.
Key Words: cultural sensitivity, ecosystem, people and space,
sustainable.
1. Introduction
Culture is main aspect in the global era since urban
identity become essential. Urban area usually consists of
residential, industrial and business area together with
administrative function. There are inter connected through
network of culture, economic, trade or history. The influence of
cultural sensitivity toward human development is developed while
cultural sensitivity to ecosystem shown because cultural products
most directly map the landscape is architecture and urban form.
Former lead mining in Dabosingkep of Riau Archipelago,
physically, socially and economically found only prosperous has
remained. The remains landscape has shown how pit found as a
danger open lake without hand over after mining close.
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2. Methodology
This research develops a descriptive research method
through field observation concerning the settlement condition,
environmental and culture of particular society. Data collected
through observation guidance such building function and
condition, infrastructure condition, effect of former lead mining
toward the community socially, economically, and culturally, and
building pattern.
Data are gathered and considered toward urban design
guidelines that appropriate to commercial area which has change
from shop house become shop and swallow bird nest breeding.
Artificial condition of swallow life was developed as a reason of
economical profit.
3. Culture
Culture generally refers to the patterns of human activity
and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance.
Anthropologists understand culture to refer not only to
consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce
such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationship
and practices, thus it mean that culture includes technology, art,
science as well as moral and system of belief. (Wikipeda
Encyclopedia).
Urban area in reality is a melting pot where cultures
mixed and grow to be new culture. Urban live style could be
derived from multiculturalism of several ethnic groups that move
from other city or rural area to gain higher income, or higher
study. Maintain their cultures and settled in a group with
automatically develop into a name of kampong, such as Pecinan
or kampong China, kampong Melayu, kampong Java, kampong
Bali, and many other ethnic due to condition that Indonesia has
many great and smaller ethnic group. Groups of cultures interact
one to another, settled by a number of other culture such as
European, Indonesian, Chinese and other Asia people grow to be
multicultural city. Dabosingkep has multi ethnic nature of city,
such as populate of Malay, Java, Minang, China, Bugis that has a
long acculturation, a process by which continuous contact
between two or more distinct societies causes cultural change.
Acculturation as a result of married also found as example many
Malay people married to Bugis, Java,
and China.
The origin of Dabosingkep as the former largest lead
mining since 1812 in the Dutch era and transfer to Indonesia
since independence until 1992, shown that cluster pattern in
Dabosingkep is different, each ethnic group live in the same
complex. Actually Dabosingkep and Bangka had a same lead
mining, but it grow differently.
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Historically Tionghoa society introducing mining technology in

Bangka and it still be recognized up to now as vocabulary "Ciam"
(or Jian in Mandarin) for driller, "sakan" or sieve for tin sand, until
"Kolong" as terminology of the name of big mining hole from
dialect Ke Jia ethnic. Some of Tionghoa traditions also still hold
out up to now in Dabosingkep without separation. China
communities and Minang also has a great role in economic factor,
since Dutch handle mining production.
4. Human Development
The indicators of development are economic,
environmental change, food, health, knowledge, natural resource
and ecosystem, population and settlement, value and culture.
After lead excavation closed, Tionghoa society in Dabo
develops swallow farming besides commercial activity, while
Malay and other ethnics mostly became rubber and coconut
farmer, and more than 5% are fisherman. The settlement cluster
became changes as followed as lively hold condition.
Kolong a big mining hole as a picturesque of lead mining
excavation, added now by high form of tall building changes from
one floor shop house shape town become high building with three
or four floors represent the shop and nest of wallet building.
Digging sounds become electric of swallow sound pollution invite
bird to build a nest is a typical of everyday atmosphere live in
Dabosingkep.
Young generations try to get higher income or other
employment by leaves Dabosingkep, the impact of this condition
is ghost town since only unproductive people, children and oldest
generation in the town. Uncreative or have no capital to
developed new job as substitute of lead mining cultivation activity
represent needed local government help to promote new job
opportunity.
5. Ecosystem
Environmental impact of cities growth can be approach
from population impact, ecological footprint and sustainability
assessment. High density has connotation as unsustainable
although rural or low density land uses not always
environmentally friendly. Human must maintain an adaptive
relationship with their ecosystem in order to survive, and address
poverty and in equity if wont face greater damage to ecosystem.
The mining industry is the process of extracting mineral resources
from the earth so they can be made into essential products
required by our society. The world's ability to support its
population is sustained by the many minerals provided by mining.
Almost all of mankind's material needs must be dug from the
earth, grown in the soil, or taken from the sea.
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Regulation that undertaking plan for the construction of a mine,

must considered government and community is requirements to
protect air, water, land and wildlife in the area. Mining is only a
temporary use of the land. The land has a specific use prior to
mining and it will have another specific use after mining. The
anticipated future use of the land must be planned before.
Local government as well central government need to
ensure that reclamation will be completed after mining activity
finished. The reshaping of the land for future uses is called
reclamation.
There are several efforts to reclamation such as shaping
the landscape, a key element of land reclamation effort is the
reshaping and contouring of the land disturbed by mining so that
it "blends" with the surrounding area. Ground preparation and
planting requires preparing disturbed areas become good ground
which will minimize erosion, hold moisture and protect emerging
seedlings. Seed mixtures are often recommended sometimes live
plants or trees are planted rather than seeds.
Figure 1a. Hole ex- mining excavation. Figure 1b Re-vegetation. Figure

1c Wildlife reclamation.
When mining and mineral processing are complete,

building and equipment must be removed and the area left in a
clean and safe condition. A significant part of closing a mineral
processing operation is the removal of any chemicals that may
later cause problems in the environment. Reduce chemicals
concentrate must be rinsed until the water passing through the
heap meets safe water standards established by the standard.
Monitoring of a reclaimed mining area continues for many
years after the operation has shut down. Groundwater and
surface water are analyzed and the success of re-vegetation
efforts are evaluated over time to ensure the site has met and
continues to meet reclamation objectives. The performance bond
is released only after government regulators are certain the site is
stable and re-vegetation success criteria have been met.
Successful mined land reclamation, shorter loss of habitat
while mining takes place will provide future wildlife habitat.
209

6. Dabosingkep Area
The area of Singkep Island is 757 km2 have two district
that are Singkep Barat district and Singkep district. Singkep is
surrounded by Posik island to the West, Serak island to the South
West, Lalang island to the South and Selayar island (Fig.2).
Singkep
District
Figure 2 Dabosingkep in Singkep Island, District of Singkep, Lingga

Regency, Riau Archipelago Province.
Source : http://www.singkep.com
Singkep is an island in the Lingga Archipelago, the most

southern of Riau Archipelago, while Dabosingkep is the main
town in the island. The town itself is quite small and has some
beautiful beaches. There are many tourism objects, the white
sandy beach Pantai Batu Berdaun a nice place to swim in the
sea, a sight more land inwards is the waterfall of Batu Ampar
(Fig.3), still has to be developed as cultural recreation activity all
at once it initiate employment opportunity.
Figure 3 Tourism object, beach and waterfall

Source: http://dabosingkep.files.wordpress.com
Singkep has two ports, Dabo near Dabosingkep and Jago

near Sungaibuluh, that connect another island by high speed
ferry, or chartered local small boats to Lingga Island. As small
archipelago, many activities very much depend on climate and
weather such as sea port easterly or zephyr that change
periodically. Arrival ships at Dabo port during 2005 are shown in
table 1.
210

Table 1 Arrival ships at Dabo during 2005

No
Month
1.
2.
3.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Arrival ship
(Times)
178
156
170
146
145
150
177
198
192
165
159
188
Singkep also has a small airport, capable of handling 40

passengers. The airport was active during the lead mining
operation, and is currently used by charter flight and the
government patrol aircraft.
Up to 1980s, lead mining brought prosperity to the island.
Dabosingkep as capital of sub district Singkep have been known
as lead town". The mining corporation invested in the welfare of
its employee for example by changing the city square into a
garden like park, complete with trees and fountain, have left the
infrastructure which now become the local government asset and
technical department like airport, sea port, roadway, electrics
infrastructure, drinking water, telecommunications, hospital, bank
building, white collars of lead company, unit of office buildings,
employees housing. After the lead market collapse, the mining
corporation left the island and Dabosingkep turn into a sleepy city
or a ghost town waiting for better times.
Indonesia in fact has big mining potency and it become
the economic contribution. The problem is that mineral represent
the nature resource which un-substitute, unhandled used up and
environment can generate distress. For example in Dabosingkep
today, discontinue of economics activity generate the
unemployment, and social uneasiness.
Figure 4 City centre grow up become swallow nest breeding.
211

7. Scenario of Dabosingkep become cultural sensitive toward

human development and ecosystem
a. Development and preservation of tailings piles become
historic artifacts
The scenery feature of former lead mining is remaining
the decay architecture of mines, pound and smelters that
outsiders might see as ugly and meaningless. But locals people
like the sight of tailings because that has historical landscape.
They family mined for more than a hundred years, from
grandfather was a miner and so was father and themselves
before it closed in 1992. They always telling about the prosperity
when the mining still active. Revitalization program is one
scenario of developed into achievement another success story.
When all mine shut down as environmental protection
reason, came in 15 years ago there never found managed to
reduce pollution from old mines draining into a river, surface
water or activity direct to big hole as former mining excavation,
but its also never read information to preserve location, and
crucial lead residue in neighborhood soil, or water and how
dangerous it for children. Cleanup need expanded to include the
entire town and place around lead residue.
The condition of open water dump in Dabosingkep today had
variation of colors, many different levels and steep slopes,
showing how the miners operated before. Some of big hole with
water as wide lake is very dangerous because it suck something
to the deep.
As natural mining landscape museum with some
attractive developed, made from their own contours, and covered
it all with artificial situation as much as history of lead mining
firstly it need safety with reducing pollution hazard. Trying to
preserve as much of the history estimates the cleanup will costly,
but it need visitor secure from whatever threat and toward
environmentally save.
Constellation of small islands Dabosingkep located far
enough from mainland it have seaport and airport a potential
access to take this place, indicate that mining museum need to
developed in order visitor satisfied and come all over again. Carry
up the success of revitalization need support from local
government because their disagreement between preservation
and clean it up and change to another marine, industry and
tourism function.
212

Figure 5 Dabo position in the contalation of Lingga Regency
b. Economic condition and develop new function

Missing heard about effect of lead mining pollution
recognized as malaria disease a result of filling water in former
excavation place and not flowing and the inundate become place
for malaria mosquito larva because only 80 60 cm deep
possible for freshwater fish.
When the glorious time as mining city is offer there
nothing substitute urban economic factor as subsistence in
Dabosingkep it just supporting daily needs. Many of them take out
to another island, although unmoving inhabitant with productive
age decided living in Dabosingkep. A small population in Singkep
district are 26,678 people (2005) of land area 491,90 Km2 while in
Dabo sub district are 15,848 people (2007) of land area 137.520
Km2, make it known as the Ghost city (Table 1).
Table 2 The Population of Sub District Dabo, in Singkep District
(Source: Lingga Regency in Figures 2005)
No. Age (year) Total
1.
4-6
1,612
2.
7 - 12
3,191
3.
13 - 15
1,673
4.
20 - 26
2,705
5.
27 - 75
6,667
15,848
Table 3. Type of income of people in Dabo Sub District, Singkep District
(Source: Lingga Regency in Figures 2005)
No. Type of income earning Total (person)
1
Entrepreneur
1,481
2
Farm worker
1,090
3
Farmer
815
4
Trade
672
5
Retired
593
6
Fisherman
479
7
Worker
207
8
Service
198
9
Reuse Picker
10
Total :
5,545
213

According to total person of type of income earning, 42%

of total population is in the primary sector such as farmer worker,
farmer, fisherman and the rest 58 % in secondary sector. Another
sector not yet develops are marine, industry, tourism, swallow
nest that all of them is a potency of this island.
c. Local government and community responsibility
Development programmed focuses oriented on mainland,
not to small islands and direction to sea water and small islands.
Low awareness, commitment and political will (but now it is
better) from government to developed and carry on small islands
that have high potencies.
Effects of local government low awareness to manage small
islands are below.
[i] Growth of Social and Economic Disparities
Location and geographical position of small islands
scourge disparity of social, economy growth and spread
population among mainland as centre of spatial development and
its small islands surround.
[ii] Limited Infrastructure
Small islands difficult to reach because of limited access,
and cause by the location that usually are remoteness from
mainland. Limit of infrastructure such as road, seaport, school,
hospital,
market,
electricity,
limited
information
and
communication media, as a basic of level quality of live
development, level of healthy, level of prosperity and amount of
low income people in small islands.
Revitalization needs support by complete infrastructure
vice versa it also needs supporting economic from real potency
and creativities character to develop this area.
Figure 6 existing condition of seaport with its parking area and design of
Jago seaport in Dabosingkep equipped with recreation area.
214

[iii] Conflict of Interest

Small island management determines the impact of
environment positively or negatively often expectation to be
minimizing the negative impact through regulation, rule, and
standards. Another problem of little island management cultural
conflicts emerge through tourism industry in spite of the fact that
several contradiction to local culture; and it emerge limited or no
access to local community usually it happened in little island has
carry out by investor.
[iv] Environmental Degradation
Utilization of additional unfriendly environmental resource
caused by inadequate central as well as local regulation, and low
of community prosperity has implicated to increase environmental
damage.
8. Conclusion
Revitalization of Dabosingkep is specific because the
culture as result of prosperity has been leaving behind. Change to
another profession is not easy for people live in small islands. It
shown that push factor is needed to make people going to
develop again former privileged conditions Dabosingkep through
consideration of small islands ecosystem toward a sustainable
urban islands. The influence of cultural sensitivity toward human
development ecosystem mostly related on urban economic sector
contains development of:
Economic base on nautical factor, that have large multiplier
effect to push another urban economic.
Develop public private partnership concept.
Increase value added of local product which as specific of
Dabosingkep mark.
Increase Dabosingkep strengthening capacity that has been
hold as a central of trade distribution and service activity local
and national scale for surround area.
Increase an economic infrastructure physically and moreover
it needs to support by rule, standard and regulation.
Figure 7 Economic prospective developments
215

There are several sectors could be developed in Dabosingkep

areas are:
[i] Culture, related on tourism sector:
Tourism object could be developed are natural landscape
of beach, natural forest sanctuary, culture tourism regarding lead
mining museum. This case still need develop by management of
tourism track to another object around Dabosingkep area.
[ii] Human development
Crisis of confidence cause by former lead mining
prosperity need human development more related to economic
such as Industrial sector that regards on production of marine,
fish, rubber, and supporting tourism industry.
Sea food industry and other marine sector related on fish,
seashore or beach tourism, research on marine and nautical,
aquatic touring, diving and other water sport, object tourism such
as landscape and water recreation.
Agriculture ad plantation sector plant and farming, including cow,
poultry, swallow, goat Trade and service sector.
[iii] Ecosystem awareness
Activity related on small islands ecosystem such as
taking of timber as building material, sand, granite, gravel,
limestone, quartz, stone, and coral.
References
Cuthbert, Alexander R (2003) Designing Cities: Critical Reading
in Urban Design. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publisher.
Dwitri Waluyo (2007) Lingkungan. Gatra. No. 40 Indonesia.
Ferianto H Djais, cs (.....) Perencanaan Tata Ruang Pulau Pulau
Kecil. Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Ferianto H. Djais, cs (.) Regional Marine Planning Book 1.
Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Ferianto H. Djais, cs (.) Regional Marine Planning Book 2.
Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan.
Jon Lang (2006) Urban Design: a Typology of Procedure and
Product. Great Britain: Elsevier Ltd.
. (2005) Lingga Regency in Figures 2005. Bappeda
Kabupaten Lingga dan BPS Kabupaten Lingga
Http://www.kompas.co.id/kompas-cetak/0506/15/jendela/1818292.htm
Http://www.hcn.organization
Http://www.singkep.com
216

CITY AS A HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ECOSYSTEM:

EXPLORING THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF AN ENTREPRENEURIAL REGION
Izaidin Abdul Majid, Dr.
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Mohd. Taib Dora, Prof. Dr.

Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Kamariah Ismail, Dr.

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Huzili Hussin
Universiti Malaysia Perlis
Abstract
It is commonly agreed that entrepreneurial activities is
crucial in generating economic development, creating new jobs,
promote innovative and creative ideas that will eventually
contribute to human development and the economic growth of a
country. Economic growth, especially at the regional level and
specifically in the formation of regional clusters of industrial
innovation, is generally thought to have very close connections
with entrepreneurship and new firm formation. In order to help
spur entrepreneurial activities, supportive environment for
business start-up or entrepreneurial regions should be designed
and established. Entrepreneurial regions are perceived to display
characteristics that are consistent with economic prosperity and
growth. Some of these characteristics are high levels of business
start-up, often of high quality ventures and an adaptable and
flexible indigenous population of firms that are innovative and
trade extensively outside the region as well as creating new
economic opportunity within it. On the human or entrepreneurs
perspective the issue of culture is an interesting area to be
explored. The extent to which a culture of entrepreneurship
exists and the extent to which individuals experience enterprise
and observe entrepreneurial activity in others around them is an
indicator of entrepreneurial potential within the region. This paper
therefore, explores and highlights some of these issues pertaining
to entrepreneurial region and human development in terms of
their entrepreneurial culture.
This study reveals that the
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia fulfills the entire underlying
criterion (as proposed in the research framework) of an
entrepreneurial region.
217

INTRODUCTION
Entrepreneurial activities have been recognised by many
researchers as a major player and substantial catalyst to the
economic growth of a country (Birley 1987). This is based on the
fact that it is commonly agreed that new business formation is
crucial in generating economic development and creating
numerous new jobs (Birley 1987; Kirchoff and Phillips 1987;
Reynolds 1987; Chandler and Hanks 1993). As reported by The
Global Entrepreneurial Monitor (GEM 2002), about 286 million
individuals, or 12 percent of 2.4 billion adults, aged 18 to 64 in the
37 GEM 2002 countries were either actively engaged in the startup process or were managing a business less than 42 months old
in the spring of 2002. Since these countries represent 62 percent
of the world population, the GEM estimated that about 460 million
people were involved in entrepreneurship worldwide. Thus, it is
commonly agreed that entrepreneurial activities is crucial in
generating economic development, creating new jobs, promote
innovative and creative ideas that will eventually contribute to
human development and the economic growth of a country.
Economic growth, especially at the regional level and
with entrepreneurship and new firm formation. In order to help
spur entrepreneurial activities, supportive environment for
business start-up or entrepreneurial regions should be designed
and established. Entrepreneurial regions are perceived to display
characteristics that are consistent with economic prosperity and
growth. Some of these characteristics are high levels of business
start-up, often of high quality ventures and an adaptable and
flexible indigenous population of firms that are innovative and
trade extensively outside the region as well as creating new
economic opportunity within it.
To this end, it is of paramount interest of this study to look
into these entrepreneurial regions characteristics with regard to
Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) Malaysia. In addition, this
study is also investigating the product of a government policy
initiative, i.e., the establishment of MSC Malaysia. This policy
initiative is seen as advancing the country to the 2020 vision and
the specific measure is to create cluster of firms in related
technologies with a view to developing something like the Silicon
Valley of Malaysia.
Research Framework
In trying to understand and determine the intended quality
of an entrepreneurial region, this study adopts the research
framework that was forwarded by Atherton and Frith (2005) which
was used in examining entrepreneurship in the East Midlands.
The framework is based on three propositions that provide a
218

coherent and comprehensive consideration of entrepreneurship

and entrepreneurial activity. The three propositions as suggested
by Atherton and Frith (2005) are:
Proposition 1: Entrepreneurial regions have a culture that
recognises, encourages and supports entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurial ways of working (Culture and Experiences of
Entrepreneurship).
Proposition 2: Entrepreneurial regions have a dynamic
business population that is
based on: (1) a healthy start up rate; (2) improving levels of
survival amongst newly established firms; (3) a large and rising
proportion of entrepreneurial firms that are growing; (4)
agglomeration effects that speed up regional growth through
clusters, clustering and the geographical concentrations of
businesses (Components of an Entrepreneurial Economy).
Proposition 3: The institutions and infrastructure of a
region explicitly support and enable entrepreneurial activity, and
the wider regional and national macro-economic conditions
enable it (Enablers of Entrepreneurship).
Entrepreneurial Region and New Firm Formation
The reasons for new firm starts are complex, and a
combination of factors will often contribute to venture creation
(Birley and Westhead 1994). However, studies have shown
unemployment to be a major factor behind new firm formation in
the 1970s and 1980s (Storey 1982; Mason 1989; Westhead
1990; Baker 1995), a trigger which stimulates new venture
creation.
There is a range of motivational factors which contribute
to an understanding of the formation of small firms. Mason (1989)
identified reasons for establishing new firms, in descending order
as; independence, dissatisfaction with previous employment,
business opportunity, to make money, unemployment,
achievement/to use skills, part-time interest/hobby, tired of
making profits for others, insecurity in employment and no wish to
relocate. Feldman (2001) following Porter (1990) pointed out that
huge market demands, a network of supporting industries and
supportive government policy provides a set of factors that
increases firms activities.
Bahrami and Evans (1995) in their observation of the
Silicon Valley as an ecosystem of institutions attributed the
growth and success of Silicon Valley to it being a well-defined
geographical business context. This environment provides the
necessary facilities and support for firm formation and success
such as abundance of venture capitalists, a pool of knowledge
professionals and expertise from all over the world, universities
and research institutes, a sophisticated service infrastructure, as
219

well as many customers, lead-users and early adopters of new

technologies.
Feldman (2001) following Malecki (1997) acknowledges
the central role played by venture capital in helping the formation
and success of a new venture. Besides providing funding,
venture capitalists were also perceived to contribute in providing
management expertise and are also considered as an important
indicator of the innovative potential of a regional economy
(Feldman 2001). Cooper (1973) suggested among other factors
that influence the decision to found a new business is a complex
set of external factors which include the availability of capital and
general societal attitudes towards entrepreneurship.
Economic growth, especially at the regional level and
with entrepreneurship and new firm formation (Feldman 2001).
The role of entrepreneurial expertise or support services is
recognised as an important factor that assists and promotes firm
formation especially in a designated business or industrial region
(such as the MSC). Entrepreneurial expertise or support services
provides new firms with information about issues such as
intellectual property, business formation and legal requirements,
as well as routine accounting and business compliance issues
since it is understood that small firms are typically not able to
engage these resources in-house (Feldman 2001). In the MSC
the role of facilitating the development of technical entrepreneurs,
start-ups and existing ICT companies is shouldered by the MSC
Technopreneur Development Flagship within the administration of
the Multimedia Development Corporation (MDeC).
Support
services are also facilitated by this flagship such as exploring
business opportunities, providing technology labs facilities,
establishing partners and markets and providing access to
funding facilities such as venture capital, grant, debt financing and
business angels (MDeC Technopreneur Development Flagship
http://www.technopreneurs.net.my/cms/AllProduct.asp?CatID=15.
The success of Silicon Valley has frequently been
attributed to factors such as the presence and role played by the
two great universities within the valley, the availability of financing
for high-risk projects by venture capitals and the concentration of
high-technology companies (Sherwin 1998). Stanford University
and the University of California were two established university
located within the Silicon Valley that played an effective role in
creating the nucleus of the high-technology industry, which
attracts top technical talent from around the world. It has been
identified that the presence of institutions such as universities or
research establishments plays a multidimensional role in
encouraging and supporting new enterprise development.
Institutions acts as sources of entrepreneurs and of ideas on
220

which firms are based and support innovation through the

provision of specialist technical help to companies (Cooper 2000).
The business environment established by the Malaysian
Government in the MSC is geared at attracting leading ICT
companies worldwide as well as encouraging the local
entrepreneurs to establish or relocate their firms in the MSC. This
is done through the development of highly advanced
infrastructural
facilities,
such
as
high-capacity
global
telecommunications and logistics networks within the MSC region
and supported by a range of financial and non-financial incentives
for investors (http://www.mdc.com.my/msc/msc.asp).
These
facilities are viewed as important factors in providing conducive
business environment that helps accelerate the birth-rate and
attracts the relocation of high-tech multimedia firms in the MSC
which is consistent with the related literature in this area.
It is clear from the above discussion that explores the role
played by the MSC in spurring the growth and development of
entrepreneurial firms in the region has manage to address to
Proposition 3 of the research framework. Thus, it may be
concluded at this point that the above descriptions of the
development of MCS Malaysia supports one of the components
of the research framework (Proposition 3; the institutions and
infrastructure of a region explicitly support and enable
entrepreneurial activity, and the wider regional and national
macro-economic conditions enable it) as identified in the previous
section of this paper.
METHODOLOGY
Both types of data, the secondary and primary data, were
incorporated in this study. Secondary data were obtained from
journal articles and books to provide a firm foundation in
structuring the underlying theory for the study. Another form of
secondary data used in this study is data obtained from the
MSCs official website and data that were provided directly by the
officials of the MDC upon request by the researcher. Huge
amounts of information were obtained through the MSCs official
website in the form of updated facts and figures pertaining to the
progress of the MSC project.
In addition, a series of impact
surveys conducted by the MDC officials which were made
available by them in their website serve as a very useful source of
material that helped the researcher in terms of understanding and
determining the research population for this study.
Primary data were collected through postal and email
surveys and were used in the data analysis process. As this
study is aimed to cover the whole population of the Malaysianowned MSC status companies and the respondents were the
owner-managers, CEOs or other senior management of the firms,
221

a survey method using postal, self-administered questionnaire

was deemed practical.
To address to Proposition 1, in trying to determine the
level of entrepreneurial culture and experiences of
entrepreneurship
perceived
by
the
respondents
the
Entrepreneurial Management (EM) theory approach was adopted.
The EM construct of the instrument was adopted without any
modification from a comprehensively developed research
instrument by Brown et al. (2001). This research instrument is
the result of a series of research studies (Brown, 1998; Brown et
al., 2001) tasked at operationalising Stevensons (1983) concept
of EM. The major theme underlying Stevensons concept of EM
is a management approach that has at its heart an all-consuming
passion for the pursuit and exploitation of opportunity without
regard to resources currently controlled (Stevenson, 1983). He
introduces the perspective of looking at firm management
inclination from the point of view of how it falls on the
entrepreneurial behaviour (EB) to administrative behaviour (AB)
continuum. This theory of EM as adapted in this study comprises
of five dimensions namely Strategic Orientation (SO),
Management Structure (MS), Entrepreneurial Culture (EC),
Growth Orientation (GO) and Resource Orientation (RO).
RESULTS
Overview of the Population under Study: MSC
This section attempts to address Proposition 2 of the
research framework; entrepreneurial regions have a dynamic
business population.
Rapid growth in the number of approved MSC-status
companies over a relatively short period of time since the
introduction of the MSC in 1996 (Figure 1) suggests that the MSC
has the ability to contribute to economic growth and development
of Malaysia. The MSC Impact Survey 2004 reported that the
MSC companies employed 19,061 in 2003 of which more than
16,000 were classified as knowledge workers, with 82 percent of
these being Malaysians.
The economic impact as revealed by the survey shows
total sales of 5.86 billion Malaysian Ringgit (RM Malaysia
currency), i.e. about 88.4 million and total expenditure recorded
at RM4.63 billion (about 0.7 billion), while market reach
according to the MSC Impact Survey 2003, extends
internationally to regions and countries such as the ASEAN
(Association of South East Asian Nations), Hong Kong, USA,
Europe, China, Japan, India, and the Mid-East.
The technology impact as reported in the 2004 Impact
Survey also has displayed an impressive achievement of the
MSC. This can be seen from the range of technology clusters
222

created, huge expenditure on R&D and personnel, and from the

encouraging number of patents and copyrights filed (MSC Impact
Survey 2004). Generally, the MDeC as the governing body of the
MSC has pointed out that growth in the number of MSC-status
companies seven years since the launch of the MSC in 1996 is
considered as outstanding. As of February 9 th 2006 there were
1,439 MSC status companies, of which 1,049 were Malaysianowned, 351 foreign owned and 39 joint ventures (Figure 1).
Source: http://www.mdc.com.my/xtras/fact_figures/msc.asp
Figure 1. MSC-status companies as of 9th February 2006
Prevalence of EM and Its Dimensions

This section attempts to address Proposition 1 of the
research framework; entrepreneurial regions have a culture that
recognises, encourages and supports entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurial ways of working.
It is also in the interest of this study to investigate to what
extent is the EM approach adopted by the Malaysian-owned
MSC-status firms. Based on the global measure of EM the
results of the descriptive statistical analysis suggest that a large
majority of the firms, 90.5 per cent and a mean score of 6.66, may
be classified as entrepreneurial as their score on the EM
continuum was 6 and above on the 10 point Likert scale.
223

On further investigation on each dimension of the EM construct,

mixed results were found on the prevalence of EM. MS, SO and
EC dimensions show high prevalence in firms with strong
entrepreneurial propensity. For MS, 63.5 per cent (mean score is
6.12) of the sample firms scored 6 and above on the 10 point
Likert scale, for SO, 77.7 per cent (means score is 6.87) and for
EC. 94.1 per cent (mean score is 7.97). This indicates that the
firms tend to be more entrepreneurial with regard to the MS, SO
and EC dimensions. However, for the GO and RO dimensions
the results show that the sample firms tend to be on the average
scores (45.9 per cent with mean score of 5.42 and 50.6 per cent
with mean score of 5.47 respectively) on their level of EM
propensity.
The explanation for high prevalence of the global EM
amongst the firms may be that since the majority of the firms are
young firms they tend to be highly entrepreneurial. As for the
individual sub-dimensions of EM some possible explanation may
be suggested as to why there are some differences in the level of
EM practiced by the firms. In terms of the MS dimension, a
relatively high prevalence of EM may be associated with the fact
that the majority of the firms are small in size which makes it less
likely for them to have a rigid form of structure in their
organisation, like a bureaucratic firm. Thus, their fair and
practical choice of firm organisational structure could be one that
is flat and in terms of organisational control would be loose and
informal as suggested by the EM approach.
The firms also show high entrepreneurial propensity on
the SO dimension which may be related to the assumption that
these firms were putting high priority on opportunities rather than
resources in steering the direction and speed of their business
strategies. This may be understandable as these firms are young
and they tend to be more proactive in recognising and seizing
opportunities. This is also supported by the fact that market
demand for technology and ICT-based products and services is
still relatively new and strong within the MSC and with regard to
government contracts these firms have to be proactive in seizing
these opportunities. Another potential explanation for this could
be that as the firms are small, which means that they tend to own
limited resources; this could lead them to prefer opportunities
rather than resources (i.e. human resources) in formulating their
business strategies.
The EC dimension receives the highest score with 94.1
per cent of the firms indicating scores of 6 and above on the EM
scale. This may be associated with the fact that the majority of
the entrepreneurs are young and may be assumed to be more
enthusiastic and energetic in exploring new markets and
opportunities and have lots of ideas that may be converted into
profitable product or services. As argued above, since these
224

firms are small, therefore, their organisation structure tends to be

flatter with loose and informal control system. This situation tends
to promote the easier flow of ideas within the firm helping
innovation, stimulated by new technology the firm is developing
and a strong domestic market in the early stages which seeks
new products and services.
The RO dimension seems to be receiving the lowest
scores with only 45.9 per cent of the firms being at the
entrepreneurial end of the EM continuum. A potential explanation
could be that since the majority of these firms are small not many
of them have an excessive amount of resources in terms of
human and equipment resources to be shared or rented amongst
the firms. It could also be disputed that as these firms are
competing with each others in the same market they might be
reluctant to share their resources especially their human
resources for fear of expertise drain.
Another possible
explanation for the lack of a significant result with the RO
dimension could also be related to the wording of the two RO
items themselves as used in this study which is a full adoption of
the original version by Brown et al. (2001). The first item of RO
read as We like to employ resources that we borrow or rent (on
the entrepreneurial end of the continuum). This item may pose
some confusion over the use of the word employ which may
means to take on or hire while what was intended of the item
in this context is use the services of. The second item reads as
In exploiting opportunities, having the idea is more important
than just having money. This statement may also invite some
confusion as just an idea may not means a lot to an
entrepreneur unless it is spelt out clearly in the statement, as for
example a workable or promising idea which has high potential to
be converted into a profitable product or services.
The firms also show low entrepreneurial propensity on
the GO dimension. However, in reality these firms are in fact
growing steadily. This is reflected by the fact that 76.6 per cent of
the firms registered a 100 per cent and above overall growth rate
in the previous three years or about 33.3 per cent annual growth.
Thus, they may not be explicitly focused on rapid growth but they
are growing. In addition, in order to grow faster and bigger
entrepreneurs will need to seek for external funding which may
results in them to surrender their equities in exchange. As
suggested by Oakey (2003) involvement of external actors might
cause a dilution of the entrepreneurs control over the firms which
often is not an attractive option. Therefore, they tend to have
mixed thoughts on this dimension of the EM approach.
225

Summary of the prevalence of EM

A summary of the prevalence of EM and its various
dimensions among the sample firms is displayed graphically in
Figure 2. This is to assist in making comparisons between the
various dimensions of EM in terms of the level of propensity to
adopt the EM style of managing a firm amongst the ownermanagers and CEOs of the sample firms.
Number of firms
40
35
EM
MS
SO
EC
30
25
20
15
10
GO
RO
5
0
1
9 10
Scores on the EM scale

Figure 2. Summary of the prevalence of the global EM measure
and its various dimensions
CONCLUSION
By applying the framework of a regional economy to MSC
Malaysia and taking into consideration of the various proposition
set in this study, it may be concluded that this paper has
managed to provide a broad characterisation of levels and
dynamics of entrepreneurial activity in the region.
Both
secondary and primary data gathered pertaining to the study have
provided a substantative basis for applying the framework. What
may be considered as the basic elements of an entrepreneurial
region, namely entrepreneurs starting and running businesses
that survive and grow, appears to be relatively strong in the MSC
Malaysia.
Based on the related findings revealed from this study, it
can be concluded that the MSC Malaysia region has a healthy
start-up rate and good prospects for survival amongst new firms.
Enabling institutions within the MSC appear to operate in ways
226

that are increasingly entrepreneurial and the general economic

environment is broadly conducive for entrepreneurship.
It is evident from this study that the Malaysian
Government has played a crucial role in ensuring the
development and success of the MSC project which is reflected in
three major aspects. First, as acknowledged by Ramasamy et al.
(2004), the primary role of the government is in setting policies for
the development of the MSC, its companies and its required
resources. This is done through the development of highly
advanced infrastructural facilities, such as high-capacity global
telecommunications and logistics networks within the MSC region
and is supported by a range of financial and non-financial
incentives for investors. Secondly, the Malaysian Government is
also perceived to act as the primary user of MSC outputs or
products, i.e. in meeting government demand through its various
flagship project (Ramasamy, et al. 2004). Among the projects
under the Multimedia Development Flagship Applications include
Electronic Government, Multipurpose Card (MyKad), Smart
Schools, Tele-Health, R&D Clusters, E-Business and
Technopreneur
Development
(http://www.msc.com.my/msc/
flagships.asp). Thirdly, the government acts as financier of
research and early system development (Ramasamy, et al.
2004). The MDeC that was established as a one-stop centre for
the development of the MSC has a wholly-owned subsidiary
venture capital organisation, MSC Venture Corporation which
manages RM 120 million in funds. These initiatives by the
Malaysian Government contribute substantially to the progress of
the MSC project.
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Region: Exploring the
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EMDA, Enterprise Research and Development Unit
(ERDU), LBS, Lincoln.
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entrepreneurship,
California
Management Review, 37, 3, pp. 62-90.
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asymmetries, International
Journal
of
Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 1, 1, pp. 8-25.
Birley, S. (1987) New ventures and employment growth, Journal
of BusinessVenturing, 2, 2, pp. 155 165.
Birley, S. and Westhead, P. (1994) New producer services
business: Are they any different from
new manufacturing ventures?, The Service IndustriesJournal, 14,
(4), pp. 455-482.
227

Brown,
T.
E.
(1998)
Operationalizing
Stevensons
conceptualization of
entrepreneurial
management:
Defining the opportunity-based firm, Frontier of
Entrepreneurial Research, pp. 303-317.
Brown, T. E., Davidsson, P. and Wiklund, J. (2001) An
operationalization of Stevensons
conceptualization of entrepreneurship as opportunity-based firm
behavior, Strategic Management Journal, 22, pp. 953 -968.
Chandler, G. N. and Hanks, S. H. (1993) Measuring the
performance of emerging businesses: A validation study,
Journal of Business Venturing, 8, pp. 391 - 408.
Cooper, A. C. (1973) Technical entrepreneurship: what do we
know?, R & D Management, 3, 2, pp. 59-64.
Cooper, S. Y. (2000) Technical entrepreneurship, pp. 220-241 in
S. Carter and D. Jones-Evans
(eds.), Enterprise and Small Business: Principles, Practice and
Policy, Essex, Pearson Education Limited.
Feldman, M. P. (2001) The entrepreneurial event revisited: firm
formation in a regional context, Industrial and Corporate
Change, 10, 4, pp. 861-892.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2002 Executive Report, Babson
College, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation.
Highlights:
Smooth
Sailing
For
Technopreneurs.
http://www.msc.com.my/mdc/today/html/20020217_fhp_tcd
_01.asp
Kirchoff, B. A., and Phillips, B. D. (1987) Examining
entrepreneurships role in economic growth, Frontiers of
Entrepreneurship Research, pp. 57-71.
Multimedia Super Corridor Impact Survey 2003
http://www.mdc.com.my/download/impactsurvey/MSCImp_Survey
_2003.pdf
Multimedia
Super
Corridor
Impact
Survey
2004
http://www.msc.com.my/download/impactsurvey/MSCImp_
Survey_2004.pdf.
Multimedia
Super
Corridors
official
website
http://www.MSC.com.my.
Multimedia Super Corridor MSC Cybercities: Facts & Figures
http://www.mdc.com.my/msc/Fac&Fig.pdf
Multimedia
Super
Corridor
Progress
Updates
http://www.mdc.com.my/xtras/fact_figures/msc.asp
Ramasamy, B., Chakrabarty, A. and Cheah, M. (2004)
Malaysias leap into the future: an evaluation of the
multimedia super corridor, Technovation, 24, 11, pp. 871883.
Reynolds, P. D. (1987) New firms: Social contribution versus
survival potential, Journal of Business Venturing, 2, 3, pp.
231 246.
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Sherwin, E. B. Jr. (1998) The Silicon Valley Way: Discover the

secret of Americas fastest growing companies, Rocklin,
CA, Prima Publishing.
Storey, D. J. (1982) Entrepreneurship and the Small Firm,
London, Croom Helm.
Westhead, P. (1990) A typology of new manufacturing firm
founders in Wales: Performance
measures and public policy implications, Journal of
BusinessVenturing, 5, 2, pp.103-125.
229

INVALUABLE CULTURAL HERITAGE AT RISK:

AN APPEAL FOR THE CONSERVATION OF
IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AT
KOTA CINA & DELI TUA
E. Edwards Mckinnon
Introduction
This paper is an appeal for the conservation of two
important, indeed unique historical sites that embody the spirit of
urban development in the Medan region. The first, Kota Cina, is
an important early trading settlement located a short distance
northwest of Labuan Deli and dates from between the eleventh to
the fourteenth centuries C.E. The second is Deli Tua, the
erstwhile site of the power centre of the former important
historical Malayo-Batak polity of Aru.
The name Kota Cina suggests that it may once have
been a Chinese settlement the equivalent of China Town.
There is, however, an alternative explanation in that the name
may once have been Cinna Kotta, the Tamil name for a small
settlement, the Tamil word cinna meaning small, and thus a
small, but nevertheless important, node in medieval inter-regional
trade between the Middle East, southern India and Sri Lanka in
the west and eastwards to Java and to southern China in the
northeast. Kota Cina is perhaps the earliest known urban
settlement in this part of northern Sumatra and as such would
have had its own special spirit.
The second site is Deli Tua, old Deli, in all probability
once the former capital of the Malayo-Batak polity of Aru. The
name Aru derives, in all likelihood, from the ethnic name Karo
which appears to have been occupied, perhaps continuously,
between the twelfth and early seventeenth centuries. Although
completely different from the riverine harbour settlement
established at Kota Cina, it is also urban in nature and reflects the
early spiritual expansion of an indigenous north Sumatran
settlement.
Far from there being nothing here before the Dutch
came a remark made by a rubber planter to the author on his
arrival on the Begerpang rubber plantation in 1960, the Medan
region of northeast Sumatra has a long and interesting history.
The first mention of this region in ancient Chinese texts appears
in the Chu-fan-chi, A Description of Barbarous Peoples, a
thirteenth century geographical account written by Zhou Rugua
published in 1225, where the toponym Batta is mentioned along
with a number of other Indonesian locations. Batta, which may
have referred to the whole of the coastline of north eastern
230

Sumatra was already of economic importance as the source of

various valuable forest products. The Batta coast was also known
to Tamils and Sri Lankans, s well as to the Chinese and to
numerous other traders that sailed the seas of southeast Asia
during the medieval period.
Medans Unique Archaeological Sites: Their Immense
Cultural and Historical Value
A nations roots are in its history. It is history that provides
one with a sense of awareness of ones roots and indeed of
purpose. The two ancient sites that I have mentioned above, Kota
Cina and Deli Tua are both in their own way unique. Both played
important, but different, roles in the development of the modern
culture and history of northern Sumatra.
Kota Cina.
The existence of Indianizing influences among the Karo
Batak peoples of this region, and indeed of the other indigenous
peoples in Indonesia is well known, and indeed admitted by
numerous ethic groups in various folk tales and legends. How
and when these influences actually would appear to have come
about is much less known. It seems likely that scientific
investigation of the Kota Cina site, along with other sites such as
Lobu Tua near Barus on the western coast of Sumatra and sites
in the Padang Lawas region can help to answer many of the
questions of the erstwhile Indianization of this region.
From this point of view, Kota Cina is invaluable as a
potential source of archaeological and historical data. The broad
outlines of what took place at Kota Cina are now known: it was
occupied as a port of trade, most certainly by a group of Tamil
merchants who were members of the Ainnurruvar or some such
guild, and possibly, either at the same time or later by Chinese, a
event that according to local legend, seems to have given rise to
the name Kota Cina, the Chinese kota.
The Malay term kota suggests a fortified settlement,
surrounded, or partially protected by either a pagar or fence of
bamboo, or perhaps some sort of defensive walling or ramparts
and ditching. There is, as far as could be ascertained during the
work undertaken at Kota Cina, no sign of any defensive works.
Although limited controlled excavation work has been
undertaken at Kota Cina, both by the Puslit Arkenas under the
late Dr Hasan Muarif Ambari of the National Research Institute of
Archaeology, Jakarta and myself in co-operation with Tengku
Luckman Sinar some thirty years ago, much of the site still
remains to be examined. Kota Cina has not, to my knowledge,
been fully surveyed. What was the adjacent harbour area,
formerly located at Paya Pasir, has been almost completely
destroyed by the sand-winning operations undertaken to provide
material for the Belawan-Tanjung Morawa toll road in the early
1980s. Paya Pasir has returned to what it formerly was, an
231

expanse of water, though in earlier times it was a tidal riverine

harbour area.
Much of the settlement at Kota Cina was formed of pile
dwellings, that is wooden houses constructed on piles in a tidal
area, much as many Malay riverside settlements were in the past
and still are. Traces of two types of wood from piling supports
were recovered in the excavation from waterlogged levels, which
on scientific examination were found to be kayu dungun (Heritiera
littoralis Dryand) and kayu nyireh (Xylocarpus spp.). The former,
kayu dungun is a tree that normally grows along river banks but
can endure immersion in tidal water and is possibly the toughest
of all Indo-Malaysian timbers. Kayu nyireh is usually found at the
inland fringe of mangrove (bakau) belts near tidal rivers. It also, is
of great durability when in contact with the ground (Miksic 1979,
136, 148). This information is both interesting and valuable as it
gives one an insight into the selection of timbers used by the
former inhabitants of the settlement.
In addition to the timber dwellings of the inhabitants which
are known only from post holes and the surviving fragments of
wood remaining in them, the modest religious edifices of Kota
Cina have actually survived in recognisable form. In 1977, there
were no less than three different brick-built constructions
comprising foundations and some parts of the lower walling. No
mortar was used in these constructions, but bricks were laid
directly on top of each other. One small rectangular construction
that appears to have had a timber superstructure is located in the
northern part of the settlement and may be identified as a Siva
temple, a koil or candi, one of the very few such ancient buildings
to be found in the Medan area. A distinctive stone Siva linga in
the Tamil Polonarruva style of Sri Lanka was found in close
proximity to this construction and a yoni base was also found
elsewhere in Kota Cina.
A second, larger, and possibly more
substantial building at a site now known as Keramat Pahlawan
appears to have been a Visnu temple, for a headless image of
Visnu and a sakti or consort were found close by to this site. Both
images are in the provincial late Cla style of Tamilnadu, the
Mabar coast of southeastern India and may be dated to the tenth
to twelfth centuries C.E..
The last brick structure to be mentioned comprises a low
brick-built wall that appears to have contained a courtyard in
which were one or more small brick-built pendopo that formerly
housed images of the Buddha. Two Cla Buddha images were
found accidentally by villagers in this immediate area. The first
was found as long ago as 1943. The second, along with the
headless Visnu and the lower portion of the sakti, representing
either Sri Laksmi or Bhu Devi, that came to light in 1974, are to be
232

seen along with other local antiquities in the Musium Negeri

Sumatera Utara at Tanah Abang in Medan.
Coincidentally, it is interesting to note that a Buddha
image, in all probability of Tamil origin was recovered from the
Lubo Tua site near Barus where an inscription in Tamil script,
bearing a date equivalent to the year 1088 C.E., was recovered
almost a century ago. The image is now lost, but the inscription
may be seen on display in the museum Negara in Jakarta.
The religious affiliations of these buildings, though of
modest construction, are of interest as they reflect the religious
beliefs of the former inhabitants of Kota Cina during a period
when a syncretic Brahmaninical-Buddistic cult, linked to the
erstwhile Tamil trading guilds flourished in south India and Sri
Lanka. Buddhism began in India and spread into Southeast Asia,
China and Japan and was a major instrument in the development
of early trade between India and Southeast Asia. It appears to
have failed in part in India as the Buddha was regarded as an
avatar of Visnu, but also due to the sangha or Buddhist church
failing to develop rituals that directly involved the laity and
consequently the Hinduistic aspects of faith eclipsed those of
Buddhism (Ray 1994). Interestingly, religious ceremonies
conducted by Tamils merchant communities in Sri Lanka and
Tamilnadu would have been in Tamil rather than Sanskrit and it is
some of these words that appear to have been taken up in the
Karo language vocabulary.
It may have been that the erstwhile Karo merga
Sembiring death ceremony, the Pekualuh, conducted until about
one hundred years ago at Siberaya on the plateau, had it origins
in the relationships with the Tamil inhabitants of Kota Cina and
the local population of what is now Deli, Serdang, Langkat and
the Karo plateau.
Among the archaeological recoveries from Kota Cina
were amounts of domestic rubbish, broken earthenware pots,
high fired ceramics from China, sherds of glass, fragments of
metal, copper coins from Sri Lanka and China, animal and fish
bones and the shells of several different varieties of shellfish, as
well as fragments of damar. Examination of this rubbish gives a
useful insight in the lifestyle of the erstwhile inhabitants of the site;
what utensils and weapons they used, what food they ate, how
they spent time hunting, or gathering shell fish from the mudflats
along the shallow creeks of the Belawan estuary. Among the
more fascinating finds was a single grain of carbonized rice,
traces of condiments including nutmeg, and lime for betel
chewing. Among the metal finds, the tip of a javelin (as distinct
from a spear head) is of some significance. The javelin was one
of the favourite weapons of the mercenaries who contracted
themselves to Tamil merchants during the period that the guilds
played a significant role in medieval inter-regional trade.
233

From an assessment of these finds one can recreate a

picture of the lifestyles of the former inhabitants of Kota Cina.
Admittedly it is difficult to define ethnic origins from archaeology,
but the art work and in particular the earthenware used on a dayto-day basis strongly suggests that the inhabitants were of south
Indian or Sri Lankan Tamil origin. One can thus make a linkage to
the folk memories of the Karo people of the plateau, of how they
were intimidated by a Keling merchant who appeared among
them with a well-armed force of followers. Moreover, Numerous
southern Indian and Sri Lankan records indicate that merchants
as members of the various guilds, were rich, and powerful and of
high social status. They could well afford the services of wellarmed mercenaries.
One final point about the importance of Kota Cina is that
it was an emporium, a trading settlement that fed valuable forest
produce such as benzoin and camphor from the Bukit Barisan
hinterland of Medan into the mercantile shipping lanes of the
Selat Melaka, from whence such produce was carried to north
eastwards to south China or westwards to Aceh and thence
across the Indian Ocean to Sri Lanka, the coasts of southern
India or the Persian gulf.
Deli Tua
The Deli Tua site, on the other hand, although not
specifically called a kota, appears to be a somewhat later, but
significantly extensive settlement that is visibly protected by a
series of ramparts and ditches, that have made intelligent and
effective use of the natural features of the surrounding terrain,
strengthening some or augmenting others. It is protected on the
northern side by the Deli river, at this point known by its Karo
name the Lau Petani which rises on the slopes of the Sibayak
volcano in Tanah Karo. Other important features of this strongly
defensive position are the surrounding lowlands, now used as
seasonal rice sawahs. Taken as a whole, it is a unique type-site
of a late medieval and early historical settlement, contemporary
with the former Malay capital of Melaka.
Deli Tua was briefly surveyed by Miksic in 1977 but no
controlled or scientific excavation work has ever been undertaken
there. Surface collections of ceramic sherds have been made and
a range of materials dating from the fourteenth through the
nineteenth centuries have been recovered. These include
Chinese stonewares from the Yuan (1290-1365) and Ming (13651644) dynasties, as well as wares imported from Burma,
Thailand, and Vietnam, suggesting that this region was in
vigorous commercial contact with other parts of Southeast Asia
and China over several centuries. A single Chinese coin of the
southern Song dynasty has been recovered from Deli Tua,
though sporadic finds of small Acehnese dirham have also been
234

made from time to time. As long ago as 1866, a golden keris and
a bronze lela (a type of small cannon) bearing an inscription in a
mixture of Karo and Malay, amanat balon haru, with a date cast
into the body equivalent to 1596 C.E. was discovered lying
imbedded in a rampart at Deli Tua. The keris was presented to
the then Dutch Colonial governor of the Ostkust van Sumatra,
Van Cats, Baron de Raet, by the Sultan of Deli. The lela is said to
be in the collection of the Museum Nasional, Jakarta
Portuguese sources suggest that although Aru fell to the
Acehnese in 1539, the Queen of Aru escaped the ensuing
sacking of the settlement and made her way on the back of an
elephant through the forest to safety, eventually finding her way to
Johore where she married the ruling sultan. He, in turn, assisted
her in retaking Aru from the Acehnese. It was perhaps this event
that gave rise to the legend of Puteri Ijo, a beautiful princess
claimed by both Karo and Malay populations.
According to Karo accounts, Puteri Ijo came originally
from Siberaya, where she lived in a jabi-jabi. She was boru
Sembiring, a woman of the merga Sembiring who claim descent
from south Indian ancestors. According to the legend she had two
brothers, a snake with an insatiable appetite, and a cannon that
eventually overheated and blew up. It is said that the small iron
meriam puntung found at Sukanalu is that same cannon, but the
honour is also claimed for the origin of the stub of a later cannon
now located at the Istana Maimun in Medan.
Other than the brief summary given above there is no
archaeological data available for Deli Tua. Even so, these limited
data are of considerable significance in a world where much of
cultural value is constantly being destroyed. They give an
indication of the cultural, historical and indeed spiritual value of
Deli Tua a site of great importance both the local Malay and
Karo populations in particular but also to all the ethnic groups of
modern Medan that now regard the city as their home.
The Case for Conservation:
There are, of course, arguments against the conservation of
ancient sites in any developing nation the need for optimum utilisation of
land, the ever-increasing competition and increase in the value of land in
proximity to expanding urban centres, the perceived economic value of
opportunities for the development of such areas and the fact that any
conservation act in effect may freeze the physical fabric of an area set
aside for conservation purposes.
As I have pointed out above, however, the longer term
benefit of a nations cultural heritage is priceless and moreover
that it is irreplaceable. Once destroyed, it is lost for ever. There
are several positive points that should be taken into account
amongst which are substantial benefits which can arise from
judicious cultural heritage management.
235

One of the effects of globalization is the increase in

tourism from the so-called developed world to Southeast Asia.
North Sumatra has considerable and varied natural assets in this
respect lake Toba and Samosir, the Karo plateau, with the
scenic landscape around the volcanoes of Sibayak and Sinabung,
the tropical forest wild life reserve at Bohorok in the valley of the
Landat river, etc. to name but a few.
Admittedly, a site such as Kota Cina currently has no
visible, tangible above ground architectural features to display. It
does have, however, important brick foundations of no less than
three sacral edifices mentioned above, the only known koyil or
candi in this part of north Sumatra which were still partly
preserved when I worked at the site in 1972/76 that, with
innovative and judicious management, might well be displayed to
advantage.
The presence of a Siva linga, two south Indian Buddha
images and a statue of the Hindu god Visnu, together with the
lower part of his sakti all go to prove that this was an established
settlement of some economic importance. The imagery is all
executed in a provincial Tamil style and may be dated to between
the eleventh and twelfth centuries C.E. I have reason to believe
that these cultural remains at Kota Cina, though modest, are still
largely undisturbed. There are also the considerable deposits of
cultural refuse, domestic rubbish such as bones and broken
pottery for example from which trained archaeologists can deduce
much about the past.
The case of Deli Tua is different. I believe that Deli Tua
was the seat of the former Malayo-Karo Batak polity of Aru,
destroyed by the Acehnese in 1539 and again, finally, by Sultan
Iskandar Muda in 1612. The destruction of Aru ended the
development of any latent indigenous state-forming tendencies
that may have begun to arise in this region.
But Deli Tua has extensive, well-constructed defensive
ramparts and ditches. These are visible from the air and form an
elongated feature of man-made earthworks that extend for over
one kilometre from end to end. In all probability these defences
were initially constructed in the late fifteenth or early sixteenth
centuries and strengthened with living bamboo fences from time
to time until the settlement was destroyed in 1539. A Portuguese
text describes the fall of Aru, the murder of its ruler and the
escape of its queen through the surrounding forest and ultimately
to Johore.
Both these sites are steeped in local lore and history,
invoking an awareness of the spirit of the past. They can offer
invaluable evidence of the former history of northern Sumatra,
and indeed much more in relation to both external cultural
influences and inter-regional trade. If well managed, they are both
invaluable as potential tourist locations and as educational and
236

recreational features for coming generations of Sumatrans. Once

lost or destroyed, they have no further commercial or cultural
value.
Kota Cina is now semi-urban and much more densely
populated that it was in the mid 1970s. Many of the fruit and
coconut trees that formed an attractive rural setting have now
gone and the surrounding nipah swamps have been turned into
tambak or fish ponds. Its harbour, located in Paya Pasir has been
destroyed by sand-winning operations undertaken for the
construction of the Belawan-Tanjung Morawa toll road. Several
ancient wooden hulks, the remains of sea going ships, the largest
of which may have been some 40 metres in length, were
unfortunately completely destroyed during this operation.
In contrast, Deli Tua is still a relatively undeveloped rural
site, partly occupied by a Karo kampung located within the
confines of the old fortifications and partly under extensive
agricultural use for the seasonal cultivation of peanuts and other
agricultural crops. It is this kind of locality where visitors can come
to marvel at the judicious use of terrain to form a fortification that
was virtually impregnable until, according to legend, it succumbed
due to treachery and trickery.
Some suggestions for future conservation
With intelligent development and conservation, both of
these sites can offer their existing populations and local
government opportunities for future income generation and
employment. The involvement of the local populations in such a
venture is essential for the longer term success of any such
operation. Local people can become guides. Some can learn
foreign languages, such as English, Dutch or Japanese to earn
incomes as tour guides conveying visitors around the site.
Both sites should be fully surveyed to determine there
extent (a task that might be given to the Balai Arkeologi Sumatera
Utara dan NAD). Local governments, the Pemerintah Daerah
Kotamadya Medan and Kabupaten Deli-Serdang should issue
approval orders for the permanent conservation of these sites,
curtailing any further building or development, and where
necessary, providing funds for compensating current occupiers of
parcels of land (the local Heritage Conservation movement and
the university can assist in developing a suitable legal
framework). The local government might also perhaps provide
appropriate grants for the future conservation and management of
both sites that could be managed by an appropriately qualified
non-governmental institution. Local businesses might then be
invited to assist with grants to assist future management until
adequate incomes are generated to make the running of the
ventures self-sufficient.
237

There are many such sites in Europe, India, China and

elsewhere where conservation of ancient remains is able to
generate substantial international and local interest, as well as
income from visitors. Managed and run as well-designed
archaeological parks, and by keeping as much of their natural,
rural attributes as possible, the sites will thus become an
important amenity for local education, as suitable venues for
future school trips and engendering a broad-based interest in
local history. The establishment of a well-managed free enterprise
site, with its own rules and regulations enforced by local
management under the auspices of local government who
provide the legal framework for its operation, can do much to
foster local development and generate local incomes.
Conclusion
We have looked at archaeological evidence, considered
the need for further research and proper surveys and
remembered vestiges of history provided by folk memories and
legends. A holistic approach to the evaluation of the cultural value
of these sites is important to portray their real potential wealth to
the people of northern Sumatra.
Both the Kota Cina and Deli Tua sites are national, if not
regional treasures, with potential futures as extensive cultural
heritage management ventures both in the spiritual as well as the
tangible sense. They can help to bring about an awareness of
the past, and of past life styles can do much to provide a
framework for the present and for the future. I am thus appealing
to local government, to commercial and cultural interests here in
Medan, for the conservation of two unique ancient sites with what
are high spiritual value as the source of future inspiration to the
modern population of the city of Medan, the surrounding region of
northern Sumatra and indeed much further afield.
References
Edwards McKinnon, E. 1984. Kota Cina, Its Context and Meaning
in the Trade of Southeast Asia, 11 th to 14th Centuries.
Cornell University. Ph.D. dissertation.
Husny, Tengku M. Lau. 1975. Lintasan Sejarah Peradaban dan
Budaya Penduduk Melayu-Pesisir Deli Sumatera Timur
1612-1950. Medan: Printed privately.
Miksic, John N. 1979. Archaeology, Trade and Society in
Northeast Sumatra. Cornell University Ph.D. dissertation.
Milner, A.C., E. Edwards McKinnon and Tengku Luckman Sinar.
1978. Aru and Kota Cina, Indonesia, 48.
Ray, H.P. 1994. The Winds of Change. Buddhism and the
Maritime Lands of Early Southeast Asia. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
238

THE RELATION OF URBAN ECOLOGY

OF SYMBOLISM IN MORPHOLOGY (CITY SHAPE
AND STRUCTURE) OF SEMARANG CITY
Ari Rahadini
Department of Architecture, Engineering Faculty, State University of Semarang,
Semarang, Indonesia
Corresponding author: ayik12@yahoo.com
Abstract
Semarang is a unique traditional city that has developing
through long and dynamic process city. The process of city shape
and structure mostly happened because of ecological element
where it naturally occurred. Urban ecology area focus as future by
giving attention to urban criterion that is getting important
nowadays because city was developed for the life that goes on in
it. The natural characteristic will be able to give a contribution of
life description that continues the phase of space city forming.
Symbolisms have close relationship with the Javanese traditional
city forming. This study aims to explore urban ecological and
symbolism in the Semarang city planning that has various culture
ethnics. The city history has proved many times that every culture
is able to form their city and compile exactly and right pattern
according to universal principles applied in context.
Key word: urban ecology symbolism, culture, ethnics, city shape
and structure
Introduction
Semarang is a unique city. This unique traditional city
planning is based on a combination of political consideration and
cosmological beliefs. Semarang has city development history that
has been influenced by nature elements and various ethnics
tradition that are showing many urban symbolic. Firstly,
Semarang was formed of various ethnical kampongs along in the
Semarang riverbank and in the coastal line. The ethnics have
main activity that was trading. The development of those
kampongs had made city unplanned because it had grown
spontaneously.
Based on the theory of City as a process (Madanipour in
Zahnd, 2003) it is said that main parts of the process are natural
environment and socio-culture environment that merged in
development environment (management). In every part of that
239

environment is located foundation of development. In natural

environment is located natural/ecosystem factors meanwhile in
socio-culture environment is located rule/ human idea. If both
environments merged, hence the product accomplished as a new
development from the emerging environment that being involved.
This study use historical and cultural approach. Urban Ecological
of Symbolism study is conducted to support the research of city
morphology change that happened since the early of Semarang
city forming.
City Symbolism: The Spirit City
On Demak Sultanate, there was a prince named Made
Pandan who had a son named Raden Pandan Arang. Prince
made Pandan and his son left Demak to a place in the west
called Tirang Island. They opened forest and built pesantren that
was a place to spread Islam. From time to time, the area was
getting fertile. From the fertility grew Asem Tree that had rare
leaves (Javanese: Asem Arang). Based on that story, the area
was named Semarang. Semarang progressively developed
because of the location near the coast made Semarang as the
city of glorious port at that time. A lot of merchant from Chinese
and Arab traded, visited and finally stayed in Semarang until now.
This story shows the change of place character. The Tirang
Island condition that was fertile time after time was believed as
the most suitable place for the new settlement of all. In this
condition, nature changes into culture. The followed question is
how to determine a location for the first time as the suitable place
for the settlement comparing with other location. Of course, it
connected to natural development procces beside of the growth
of asem tree who had rare leaves (Asem Areng) in the fertility of
Tirang Island. The fertility of one location can be used as symbol
of city showing a kindness.
Symbolism has connection in human as cultural creature.
Human cannot see, find and know the world directly unless
through symbol (Cassirer in Herusatoto, 2005). Cassirer also said
that symbol has element of liberation and view extension.
Symbolism act in Javanese society is used in everyday life in
religion, tradition and art. Furthermore, symbolism is used as
identification character of one person. Symbolism is close to
authority legitimating.
If we evaluate the study of Urban Ecology of Symbolic
(Nas, 2007) that expanded in the year of 1990s hence the social,
culture products and space distribution in symbols and urban
ritual have special role in urban symbolism. Symbols and cultural
rituals have close relationship with city identity. City has spirit.
City has identity to be recognized. In the end ecology of Symbolic
Urban play a part in the important constitutional process of urban
life. This constitutional process is close to city authority who rule
240

city time after time. They use symbolism compatible with the
ecology of the area to strengthen their status in social strata.
Pursuant to above description hence the question constituting to
this study is " how ecological of symbolic urban can assist to
explain growth of morphology of Semarang"
The Orientation Pattern of Semarang Space City Forming
The orientation pattern of the city can be evaluated from
urban symbolic background but this matter is also strengthened
by ecology of the city forming. Kevin Lynch in his book, Image of
the City, applied three concepts. The concepts show about the
city image quality or the readability of city that is identity, structure
and meaning. Lynch suggested conducting the orientation of
element around the city. Those elements are parks, crossroad,
street, railway road, river and settlements. The elements must be
out for recognized as one intact unity than altogether was put into
part that is more complex. Pursuant to the identity and structure,
one would able to depict the city. According to Lynch, Meaning is
assumed less relevant because most people are very different
each other in interpreting meaning of unity of city part. This is also
influenced by cultural education background and the various
ethnics living in the city. City Orientation can be attributed to
socio-cultural characteristic and morphological (Nas, 2005).
Orientation pattern of Semarang city from time to time
has changed. The changing is influenced by orientation pattern of
various ethnics groups which in the end the policy of authority
interference since the Dutch era until Indonesia. It caused urban
morphology expand adapted for people requirement and the
authority desire.
Wijanarka, 2007 mentioned that Semarang forming
based on 1) Semarang River 2) Traditional Pattern 3) Diagonal
Pattern 5) Topography. Ecology and Politic condition has big
influenced in Semarang city forming.
The people with various ethnic groups own big influence
at forming of city morphology. If we see the map of Semarang
since year 900 M until 1946 that is after independence, inferential
hence that forming of Semarang oriented at 1) Coastline; 2)
Semarang River; 3) Traditional Pattern; 4) Diagonal Pattern; 5)
Topography. After year of 1800s, the orientation was influenced
by road axis symbol as center of economic activities.
Coastline Increasing
Semarang had developed its continent because of mud
sediment from Demak through Garang River since ninth century.
Accelerating of mud sediment made new ground sediment
precipitation moved with speed of 8 m per year. This sediment
made continent become broader in year 1695 1719. The
coastline increasing reached 100 m. In the year 1719-1847, the
241

coastline increased until 700 m. In 1847-1892, the coastline had

increased until 700 m more. In 1892-1921, the coastline
increased 300 m more. Moreover, in 1921-1940, the coastline
reached 300 m more. In 1991 coastline increased until 300 m
more so, the total of coastline increased since 1695 until 1991 (in
296 years) reached 2300 m or 2.3 km. The increasing of
continent was also followed by environment degradation that
influenced Semarang morphology. The settlement previously
oriented to water that was river and sea become progressively
away from the coastline
L. A. U . T
J .A. W.A
is
Gar
0
0,45
0,9
991
tai 1
pan
Garis pa ntai 1
i
an ta
is p
Gar
0
94
7
184
303 m
51 Tahun
581 m
93 Tahun
Tawang
Figure 1. Coastline Increasing
Semarang River
Semarang River was the early location of Semarang city
formation. That time the coastline was still in Bergota Hill. The
development of Semarang in Semarang riverbank occurred
progressively in 900 M until in the beginning of 1700s. The early
Semarang city formation in Semarang Riverbank was followed
with the appearance of Chinese settlement, Dutch Fortress,
Kampong Melayu and of course Javanese settlement.
PULAU (BUKIT)
BERGOTA
TELUK
JOMBLANG
Figure 2. Semarang in 900 M (Purwanto, 2005)
242

At the early of 15th century, The Chinese Merchant came

to Semarang, while Portuguese and Dutch were at early of 16th
century. The map of year 1659 premiered the existence of various
ethnics and tradition followed by symbolically in choosing of
location of settlement.
Figure 3. Semarang in 1650 (Purwanto, 2005)
At that time, Semarang was already divided into

settlement concentrations based on ethnic groups that trade in
Semarang (see fig 3). The Dutch and Malay built their settlement
in the Semarang river estuary, the Chinese built their settlement
around Simongan and Javanese lived alongside Semarang
Riverbank. When precisely the Chinese lived in Simongan
(Gedong Batu) was unknown correctly. In a book of Oud
Semarang by J. R Van Berkuum mentioned that the Chinese
might live over there before 1000 M, about 921 M. It became
clear about 15th century when the arrival of Admiral Cheng Ho to
Simongan delegated by Chinese Emperor.
If it was true that Chinese had already lived in Simongan
since 921 M, it meant that time Gedong Batu still reside near the
coastline and in alongside of Semarang Riverbank (see fig 3).
The selection of settlement location had symbolic meaning.
Based on Chinese Cosmology that is predominated by four polar
that is known as White Lion, Blue Dragon, Red Phoenix, and
Black Turtle. White lion in North Pole is associated as form of
winter and water; Blue dragon in South Pole rules the summer
and fire; Red Phoenix in west pole is often associated with
autumn and iron; Black Turtle in east pole represents from spring
and wood. The Houses system is associated with dragon
whereabouts the frontage of the house look towards river so that
the resident can breathe from the river stream. This belief will
bring joy and fortune. Hereinafter they place mountain in the back
intended to prevent wind that can blow boisterously and take
243

away their luck. This tradition represents a symbolic of fortune

and kindliness of life, which will be got if we live in that location.
The coastline increasing significantly time after time, this
made this location no longer compatible with those symbolic of
the selection of settlement location as the beginning. Symbolic of
location of settlement selection make us realize why Chinese
people like to live in coastal area or hills.
In map of Semarang in 1695, the early Semarang city
formation resides in area that now becomes Pasar Johar. Map of
1695 depict the existence of dalem looking towards north, alunalun which is in front of dalem, mosque which is located in area
so called now Pademaran, Pecinan was east side of mosque and
reside in Semarang Riverbank. Meanwhile the Dutch Fortress
resides in north side of Pecinan and Kampong Malayu was in
west side of Dutch fortress.
A. Her Fort
B. De Bazaar
C. Een Huis
D. De kaligawe spruit
E. De dalen
F. De chineeshe kampong
G. De europeshe
H. De malaishe kampong
I. De javaneshe megoryen
J. De Kustlyn van 1695
K. Het tolhuis
L. De weg naar Mataram
N.De Kalkovens
O.De Javaanshe Tempel
P.De Chineeshe Tempel
Q.De Galg
R.De Paseban
Figure 4. Semarang in 1695
In the map of 1695, the mosque was in east side, which

this was not common for Javanese traditional planology pattern.
Pademaran Mosque was built by Ki ageng Pandan arang as the
centre of Islam spreading. Based on that interest, Ki Ageng
Pandan Arang developed the mosque before he developed
dalem. The mosque area became active then Sultan Demak
command to build dalem as following the Java traditional
planology pattern
Cities planology in Java base on much the same always
formed with alun-alun (plaza) existence encircledly by
governance and great mosque. Mosque built by Ki Ageng Pandan
Arang was also surrounded by houses later called Kampung
Kauman (Moslem Kampung) in downtown. Kampung Kauman
came from word kaum sing aman (java) meaning peaceful
society, representing residence of all Islam leaders. In Kampung
Kauman had three axes that divide the settlement into two parts,
eastside and Westside. This axis symbolicly has mosque as the
center. All profane activity ought to be remained to pursuant of
spiritual activities with God as a major axis of life.
244

The Settlements (Chinese, Javanese, and Dutch) were

linked to a market where different ethnic groups met to trade. The
market was located together with the settlement on the east bank
of Semarang River.
The Road of Wind Eye Direction
At Semarang Map of 1719. The development of
Semarang city expanded to follow road pattern that tends to east
west. This road pattern was in west side and east side of
Semarang River. The road in west side now called Imam Bonjol
Street and Wahid Hasyim Street (Kranggan), meanwhile the road
in east side now called Pengapon Street and R. Patah Street.
This road was planned as compass axis, this was Javanese
traditional pattern. This compass axis was a development of alunalun (plaza) that was in De dalem. In the early formation of alunalun, the shape was almost rectangular. The alun-alun side tent
to up at lor, kulon, wetan and kidul. Alun-alun also has function as
a compass for the resident in developing their settlement. In the
structure development of Javanese settlement which is in the
form of road expanded of four wind direction pattern. One of the
identity cities in Java is a pattern road of lor-kidul and wetankulon.
A.Her Fort
B.De Bazaar
C.Een Huis
D.De kaligawe spruit
E.De dalen
F.De chineeshe kampong
G.De europeshe
H.De malaishe kampong
I.De javaneshe megoryen
J.De Kustlyn van 1695
K.Het tolhuis
L.De weg naar Mataram
N.De Kalkovens
O.De Javaanshe Tempel
P.De Chineeshe Tempel
Q.De Galg
R.De Paseban
Semarang 1719
Semarang 1819
Figure 5. Semarang in 1719 and 1819
Semarang in the mid of 18 th century rapidly grew built

many office buildings and social facility. Many streets was built. In
that time, The Dutch moved Chinese settlement from Simongan
(Gedong Batu) to new location near the Dutch settlement. This
was because the Chinese helped Sultan Surakarta to rebel the
Dutch. This settlement now is known as Pecinan Semarang.
If we evaluated from city morphology, pecinan was
formed by street corridor, which shaped linear pattern. The
corridor street now are known as Gang Beteng, Gang Baroe,
Gang Waroeng, Gang Pinggir, Gang Blakang, Gang Besen, Gang
Tengah, Gang Lengkong, and Gang Gambiran. In every road
intersection, there are klenteng. Meanwhile name of the gangway
245

came from the characteristic of those places according to the

activities that took place there or the person who live there.
That time, Kampung Melayu was dwelt by various
ethnics, like Chinese, Banjar and Arab. This variation made this
settlement named Kampung Melayu. In Kampung Melayu, there
were small settlements named: Pecinan, Kampung Banjar,
Kampung Kali Cilik, Kampung Melayu darat, Kampung
Cirebonan, Kampung Melayu Besar and Kampung Peranakan.
Each name settlement represented the characteristic of those
places according to the activities that took place there, the person
who live there.
Semarang 1819
Figure 6. The Development of Kampung Melayu
The Daendels Great Mail Road

Based on his ideas for defending the island, GovernmentGeneral Herman Willem Daendels at the beginning on nineteenth
century connected all the cities on the northern cost of central and
east Java with The Great Mail Road (Groote Postweg) that would
enable him to mobilize troops in a short time. This GovernmentGeneral Great Mail Road had an important influence on urban
growth that before was oriented North-South, according to the
direction of the river. After the construction of the great mail road,
the morphology of the city on Java changed to an East-West
direction. This great mail road replaced the function of the river as
the transportation. In other side that the symbolism of the
traditional city was destructed by this road.
Figure 7. Semarang Map of 1810-1813 and Semarang Map of 1847
246

Semarang initially was a Javanese traditional settlement.

The road pattern tent to north-south and east-west according to
wind eye direction (lor, wetan, kidul and kulon). That road pattern,
north south and east west, was apllied around city embryo
(Kanjengan situs area). However, when Dutch built
Bojongscheweg (now Pemuda Street), the traditional pattern in
Semarang had synchronization with the diagonal pattern.
Bojongscheweg was a connector with Daendels Road.(Wijanarka,
2007).
This street tend to southwest direction of little Nederland.
This road end in, which is now known as Tugu Muda area.
Semarang until early 1900s followed traditional pattern and
diagonal pattern according to Bojongscheweg (Wijanarka, 2007).
Symbolically the Bojongscheweg made little Nederland as a main
axis. This showed that the authority of Semarang who also the
first resident in Semarang was Europeans (Dutch). That time, in
Java had Europeanization in the century of 19 to 20.
Bojongscheweg also made other ethnic axis settlement
destructed. Until now, the Bojongscweg is one of the main roads
in Semarang. In this road, many government offices building,
strategic and important activities buildings for Semarang city.
Symbolically, the symbolization made by the Dutch continued
until now.
Figure 8. Vijfhoek Fortress in 1779 ( Purwanto, 2005)
In the Semarang map of 1800s, little Nederland had

space structure with cross symbol that its position in mid of little
Nederland. It was different from Kampung Kauman, which made
Mosque as a final purpose from circulation axis. Cross on little
Nederland represent the hearth of this area. According to the
most important building in medieval era, the cross symbol showed
247

that the most important building on little Nederland was a church,

what is so called now Gereja Blenduk.
Topography Pattern
Semarang uptown is a hilly place enables to be built as
resort for the Dutch settlement when the Dutch economic grew
progressively in about 1758 (Purwanto, 2005). The housing
estate was villas in Bojongscheweg and Randoesari. The Dutch
made a new settlement near the place they worked. This area
was built because of their consciousness of health settlement and
for health recovery. However, this movement was conducted at
the century turn (from 19 century to 20 century) after java had
strong Europeanization (Gill in Purwanto, 2005). Hilly area
(uptown) in Semarang grew from resort to settlement after little
Nederland had environment degradation time after time.
According to Wijanarka, 2007, In Semarang map of 1941
and 1946 show the development of down town Semarang and
uptown Semarang that is Candi Lama and Candi Baru. Candi
Lama and Candi Baru were made of unique topography that is
hilly.
Until 1946, the pattern of city forming was based on
traditional road pattern and topography meanwhile Semarang
River in 1946 was no longer be used as the orientation because
the water transportation system had no longer through river
(Wijanarka, 2007)
Right now, the urban development of Semarang expands
swiftly toward up town Semarang. It is proved by the increasing of
land use of uptown for settlement and education activities.
Until this moment, the urban development of Semarang expands
swiftly toward Semarang for at the height of use of farm for
settlement and education activity.
The City Imaginery Axis
The three main streets of the city form a golden triangle
of the commercial area. Bojong (street), formely called
Bojongscheweg, extending from the southwest to the northwest is
the most luxurious street. There are governmental buildings in the
southwestern part that compose a civic centre and there are large
shops and shopping centers in the northeastern part. At the north
eastern end of the street there is the regional market of Central
Java. North of this market is the ex-Dutch quarters that was the
centre of the city. Nowadays this quarter is in decline and a few of
the buildings are used for officers.
248

Figure 9. The Golden Triangle

(Pratiwo, 2005)
Second is Randoe Sari (street)- formerly the Pieter

Sythofflaan and Hoogenraadslaan, which are now called
Pandanaran Street and Jenderal Achmad Yani Street. These
streets run west to East passing two squares. The first square at
the intersection of Bojongschweg functions as a civic centre. At
this square one can find the military headquarters, the
governments palace, the Cathedral and a market. The second
and larger square, Simpang Lima is the most attractive palace in
Semarang and it is now the new city center. Along these streets,
there is a rapid change from Dutch colonial style villas before the
Second World War two, offices, hotels, luxurious supermarket.
Third is Pandean (street) - Ambengan (street) - Karang
Toeri (street) - Karang Sari (street) stretches from the North to the
south. These three continuous streets are called Mataram Street.
Along these straight streets, which are occupied mostly by
Chinese people, there are shop-houses on narrow plots. Behind
Mataram Street is a dense urban kampong where various ethnic
groups live.
Pecinan is located inside the triangle, south of the
regional market. Entering the pecinanan, one can hardly find a
piece of open land not already occupied by either temples or
houses. There is no open space formed by large boulevards with
trees on both sides, and a wide plaza. It was not designed but it is
emerged as the result of settlement development. Hence, the
treeless and dusty street, congested area, lack of sewerage and
lack of open space is characteristic of Pecinan in Semarang (Reid
in Pratiwo, 2005). It is different with that in China where open
249

space in a city was designed to have a symbolic meaning as the

axial and orientation. This could be happened because the
Chinese settlement in the beginning was placed in Simongan
(Gedong Batu) than the Dutch moved near Little Nederland
without did any area planning previously. The majority of the
people are Javanese, Chinese and Arab descent in the main part
of the city. The Golden triangle symbolize of the duty function
division of each biggest ethics. In Pemuda Street, represent
government and military sector done by the Javanese ethnics.
Mataram Street represent economic sector done by Chinese
ethnics. Arab ethnics do economic sector with different interest
with the Chinese in Jurnatan area (inside the triangle). Finally, all
comes together in Simpang Lima that is a meeting point of those
ethnics interest.
Beside of that, the imaginary axis can be accomplished
from symbolization made from visual connection. It can be seen
in Mal Ciputra that was built replacing a Sport Hall. The mal
Ciputra try to be the important building by placing the position in
Simpang Lima and as the centered of visual. Mal Ciputra position
become very important because of visual connection that made if
the observers come from uptown will be directed to the top of mal
ciputra building. Visual Conection happened in the end of two or
more objects from the axis will be created distant visual
connection (Wijanarka, 2005). Mal Ciputra position that is in
Simpang Lima remains of symbolization of alun-alun planning in
Javanese traditional. But the alun-alun concept of Javanese
traditional or even when Islam came to Java did not like that. In
old alun-alun, the market will not be in the alun-alun. Simpang
Lima as Semarang alun-alun is not having sacred meaning
among the society. In traditional alun-alun contained a ritual
sacred meaning that people who entered the alun-alun would felt
it. The alun-alun concept was felt before with placing the mosque
that represents the spirit ritual in profane life. Simpang Lima as
Alun-Alun are known as commercial area and important place
among society. It is the place where we can gather with family,
relatives and friends. Many art exhibitions, music performances,
national ceremonies are held in this field.
Simpang Lima is the hearth of the Modern Semarang city.
Conclusion
The city life is often compared with city ecology. There is
strong relation among architecture and ecology. Markus Zahnd
formulated ecology term as a science that is about
interrelationship between creature and their environment. City
ecology involve three main dynamics that is economic,
techniques (-politics) and (socio-) cultural. All components are
representing the city formation dynamics. The dynamics term
shows that economic, politics and culture of city focused to a
250

process. Because of three major things does not static at all. This
study has much focused on socio-cultural and its symbolism
related to ecology but less about economic and politic hence still
need more study in-depth to complete this study.
Refrences
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Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak
Damayanti R. (2005). Kawasan Pusat Kota Dalam
Perkembangan Sejarah Perkotaan Di Jawa. Dimensi
Teknik Arsitektur. 33 (1): 34-42
Handinoto. (2004). Kebijakan Politik dan Ekonomi Pemerintah
Kolonial Belanda yang Berpengaruh pada Morpologi
(Bentuk dan Struktur) Beberapa Kota di Jawa. Dimensi
Teknik arsitektur. 32(1):19-27
Herusatoto B. (2005). Simbolisme Dalam Budaya Jawa.
Yogyakarta: Hanindita Graha Widia
Kusumawijaya M. (2006). Kota Rumah Kita. Jakarta: Boreno.
Nas Peter JM. (2007) Kota-Kota Indonesia Bunga Rampai.
Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press
Purwanto LMF. (2005). Kota Kolonial Semarang: Tinjauan Umum
Sejarah Perkembangan Arsitektur Kota. Dimensi Teknik
Arsitektur. 33 (1): 27-33
Tio J. (2005). Kota Semarang Dalam Kenangan. Semarang
Wijanarka. (2007). Semarang Tempo Dulu Teori Desain Kawasan
Bersejarah. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak
Zahnd M. (2003). Perancangan Kota Secara Terpadu.
Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius
251

THE JAMBINESE MELAYU

SETTLEMENT PATTERN
Soni Pratomo
Dosen Tetap Fakultas Teknik Universitas Batanghari Jambi
Budi Arlius Putra

Dosen Luar Biasa Fakultas Teknik Universitas Batanghari Jambi,
PU Kabupaten Bungo
Abstract
Indonesia is consisted of various ethnic groups with
cultural diversity, in addition for this, the settlement especially
traditional houses are also diversity in the design, from the simple
shape until unique shape, either the building can stand
independently or group, each of them has its own characteristics.
The traditional settlement is the reflection of social and life of
society in one area. Sekoja area, which is part of Jambi City, is a
traditional settlement that indicates aimless development trend.
To anticipate those trends, settlement pattern characters
comprehension at Sekoja is needed. This research is trying to
understand Jambinese Melayu settlement pattern characters and
theirs influence to area establishment. Because lack of time and
expense limitation, this research revealed only a few
phenomenon that what it should be. This study case was taken
because of the methodological motive, due to ease this research
implementation. This research is a qualitative research, using
rationalistically approach method. Data collecting procedure was
flexible based on the researcher observation on data rotation.
Settlement pattern on Sekoja area divided into three, which are
grouping pattern, spreading pattern and linear pattern. Formed
settlement area patterns divide into two, which are linear pattern
on riverside settlement and grid pattern on shore settlement,
oriented toward road surroundings. Building mass and form
divided into two, which are linear pattern developed on
Batanghari riverside settlement, while grid pattern form due to the
building row arrangement a roads intersection on shore.
INTRODUCTION
cultural diversity, in addition for this, the buildings especially
252

The traditional architecture, including to this is the native

inhabitants settlements, each of the regions has its own different
characteristics, even coming from the same principle, it is the
result of thought done repeatedly through the process of trying
and repeating more (trial and error) until it reaches one final form
that it may not become the final one. An architect in one
community of society is as the reflection of life having connection
with certain place and time, if it is compared with the result, which
is its form. Every design is hard effort to produce the form of
building with still concerning to the context of the environment
where the building is existed.
The traditional settlement is the reflection of social and
life of society in one area. Furthermore, of course the value of
social and life of people will be much emphasized as the basic
study. This is as the illustration how the architects creation as the
cultural product has very tight relationship with the condition of
(design) its social life.
To understand a design of architectural space in this case
the native inhabitants settlements can be done with some ways,
there are with using investigation to the meaning of cultural
history, the design of the society order, the typology of its building
in architecture.
The Jambi city morphology has been formed by the
material and spiritual culture from the various types of ethnic,
social stratification, economy, and the system of government in
the past time, that can be seen with the shapes of building with
the atmosphere/setting/color of the environment in the bank of
river as one of the element in forming Jambi city. The time
journey has changed the system of economy, government, and
the development of technology that form Jambi city nowadays,
shows indication and tendency will develop and grow without
direction, with the existence new formations. The necessity of the
settlement and housing is more increased.
Jambi also spelled Djambi, kotamadya (city) and propinsi
(province), southeastern Sumatera, Indonesia. The province is
bounded by Bengkulu and Sumatera Selatan (South Sumatra)
provinces on the south, by Sumatera Barat (West Sumatra)
province on the west and northwest, by Riau province on the
north, and by the Strait of Berhala on the east.
Jambi city of Indonesia is a former palace city was
formed since the presence of Melayu Jambi empire (18th century)
at the Batanghari riverside. The Landscape of Jambi city had
been formed by material and spiritual cultures from various
ethnic, social and economic level, and former government
system, as we can see at the present through many structures,
formed by riverside atmosphere. Batanghari riverside area, which
is part of Jambi city indicates aimless development trend. To
253

anticipate those trends, settlement pattern characters

comprehension at Batanghari riverside needed.
This research is trying to understand Melayu Jambi
settlement pattern characters and their influences to the area
establishment.
METHOD
This observation tries to see the space design of
Jambines Melayu settlement. The result of the invention is not the
generalization from the real situation but the special event
happened in certain case.
Data is gained through the book review and fieldwork. Book
review is literature, maps, pictures, manuscripts, and related
documents. The field data is consisted of explanatory pictures
and the result of interview.
The determining of taking sample used is quality
phenomenological method, namely the taking of sample is not
based on the total of sample but gives attention on the deeper
comprehension for the object.
The definition of representative sample is a sample that
can response to researcher and to its environment either the
physical environment or nonphysical environment.
The action of taking sample procedure shows some
characteristics as follows:
1. Not being directed in huge amount but in some typical case
related to the research specialization.
2. Not being decided its amount rigidly initially but it can be
changed either in the case of amount or the character of
sample suitable with the understanding of conceptual
developing in the observation
3. Not being directed to representative, in the sense of amount,
but to the context harmony.
The method used in this discussion is explorative descriptive
so that generalization is not the main aim. Other discussion from
the existence field data is also done the discussion through
secondary analysis method that does analysis with secondary
data, the data collected from other side.
The problem of the subject can be determin by:
How is the character of the design of Malay Jambi settlement?
How is the design of Malay Jambi settlement?
How is the acculturation happening to the design of space of
Malay Jambi settlement?
This observation is held for getting the illustration
descriptively about the design of the settlement of the area across
Jambi city in Jambi city, and the various designs of settlement as
the result of the cross culture occurred.
254

To make this discussion to be more guided, thus it is needed

some formulation of the aim of observation. There are some aims
of this observation, as follow:
Giving deeper illustration about the design of space of Malay

Jambi settlement.
Describing the characteristic of the space design of Jambi

nese Melayu settlement
Identifying and summarizing the diversity of the design of

Jambinese Melayu settlement.
The input for the policy determiner in preparation the
settlement environment that can be preserved according to the
characteristic of the related settlement. Besides, the result of the
observation very useful for the formulated concept and the
approach that can be applied to the planning and designing some
settlement environment.
ARCHITECTURE AND SETTLEMENT
Folk architecture is as the result of thinking done
repeatedly through try-out and repeating process (trial and error)
until reaching one last form, that it may not become the last one.
The building of people architecture has high enough
harmonization with its environment cause through the long
adaptation process.
The structure of settlement space, it illustrates the social
structure of society where they live. How the social structure can
describe the structure of settlement space it can be seen from
Levi Strauss study (1963) in Bororro, Winnebago, and Indonesia.
According to Levi Strauss, social structure is involved with the
marital system, legacy system, relative system, society
stratification, and society belief.
The design of layout contains three elements, they are:
1. A space with its arranging elements (building and room
around them)
2. Arrangement has the composition meaning with the model
from some composition
3. Space dimension orientation and the relation between spaces
is a model of layout of settlement.
The space characteristics of some environment that has
been formed so influenced and can reflect to whom can
communicate with whom in every condition, is the important way
for the formed environment and social arrangement so related,
cannot be separated.
While for explaining, the meaning of space design is a
space with its arrangement element (building and space around
them) through arrangement (formation) that has meaning of
composition. Zahnd (1999) also states the same thing that the
space design is the organizing of certain meaning that is
communicated into space through certain forms. The space
255

design can be created with the existence of mulberry or different

size with the unique shape or space and, location (Chink, 1979).
Kostof divided two shapes of city, namely, first, planned
city, and the second is unplanned city. Unplanned city is the
shape of city developed spontaneously with the various
importances until the city will have irregular shapes. That shape
of city is called organic pattern. According to Kostof, this organic
shape of city is formed spontaneously, unplanned, having
irregular design or non-geometric.
The characteristic of shape design of the riverside is
needed to give understanding about the identity of some city
placed in the riverside area, suitable with the potential existence.
In this case according to Eko Budihardjo (1991) that the character
is gained from physical condition of environment and another
unmeasured things, like culture and social life. Culture and social
design is some system that has been stable and designed in the
place built along the history of society.
Kuthanegara concept based on Jambudwipa cosmic
system. The cosmology model is the existence of the opinion that
this world is divided into some circles with one central point
namely mountain then the outside of the circle is sea then land
again and so on it is in layers. For the most outside circle is the
unlimited sea.
The cosmology model also places four lands in their four
corners where is such a kind of original shape from orientation
direction and gives the directions of the prominent points of the
compass in the architect process. In Hindu society, this circle is
consisted of seven layers (Sumet Jumsai: 1989). These circles
spread from one centre for seven layers to the outside. These
layers are also as the symbolization from those seven layers of
skies or heavens. These circles will cut into eight parts that
describe the existence of eight prominent points of compass.
GENERAL CONDITION
Jambi City, as the Palace City, was formed since the
presence of Malay Jambi kingdom (XVIII century), in the bank of
Batanghari river. The shape of Jambi city has been formed by the
material and spiritual culture from the various types of ethnic,
social stratification, economy, and the system of government in
the past time, that can be seen with the shapes of building with
the atmosphere/setting/color of the environment in the bank of
river as one of the element in forming Jambi city. The time
journey has changed the system of economy, government, and
the development of technology that form Jambi city nowadays,
shows indication and tendency will develop and grow without
direction, with the existence new formations. The necessity of the
settlement and housing is more increased.
256

The area across Jambi city (Sekoja) is a waterfront area

where has been developed into the settlement environment. The
majority of inhabitants are Malay (Melayu). That area has had so
many changes, even for its physical environment appearance or
for its supporting means and infrastructure. Some houses have
changed into not only houses on stilts, with the material not
consisting from board and woods.
From the field data is gained the information that the total
of living houses in Sekoja area are around 156 units for this time
consisting of the permanent houses or even non-permanent
houses. The most of living houses has the main function for living
houses and only several of them has the double functions,
namely as the house for living and also kiosk. Most part of
arrangement of buildings and orientation of the settlement
buildings in Sekoja look out north-south with their orientations
looking out road and river, and the other smaller parts of them
look out east-west. Watched from the age of the building of those
houses are still relative young, because the new comer
inhabitants entered inside Tanjung Pasir Sekoja environment in
50s built them.
Seen from the division of the available parcel of land,
thus the land belonging to the group of western settlement
designed lying to East to West goes along side of the road and
the bank of river, the position of land and its wide is limited, so it
causes impossible for someone to build the house with the
orientation north-west. If it is seen from the structure of the
existing road, the narrow trail and mind road lying out in north and
east sides crossing in front of living houses are one of the strong
factor influenced to the new buildings orientation. Since the owner
of the house will look for the easiest access to reach his house by
using the nearest way.
According to the field observation and by seeing the
highway networks map of the Sekoja settlement, it can be seen
that there are the settlement designs shaped grid as one of the
character, and linear design of settlement all along the main
roads can be known the developed settlement to this unplanned
area. The main roads for this area are KM Saleh Road, KM Rojali
Road, and Jepang Road lying out east- west directions. For the
settlement environment around the main roads, there are
connected footpaths (alleys).
The highway network formed grid can give easiness for
the movement from one region to another region in the same
area, because they cut for each other. For the main roads located
in Sekoja, it can be seen KM Saleh Road, KM Rojali Road are
connected with five footpaths (alleys) laying out north- south
directions. For this type of road, there is no blind alley. Therefore,
the current movement can flow to all directions. One of the
causes the happening of grid formation road in Sekoja settlement
257

area is caused by the orientation from the living house building to

this area looking out on the north and south.
With the presence of the centralization of Sekoja
settlement along KM Rojali Road and KM Saleh Road, thus this
footpath or alley has the main function to connect between the
two main roads and also the location of the settlement with the
society activity for the territorial life of Batanghari River
THE BEGINNING OF THE ANALYSIS
The definition of the design characteristic of the
settlement of the riverfront area is the performance of constructed
building having the developed pattern dynamic age suitable with
the character of the bank river the place where the area is, having
connection with the activity and orientation with the territorial area
of river as one product in certain period of time that becomes the
part of the arrangement of designing elements of city and the
development of the social society life.
The spreading of the settlement location follows the
design of the river net. Actually, the domination of river waters as
a space is only seen to the part of settlement design namely the
settlement existed in the river part having a role as the
communication infrastructure, especially navigation.
The settlement in this Sekoja area is a formation of
settlement with the spreading out water (river) as a domination
space element. So that the activity of its inhabitants always has
connection with the river related to the daily life system. The
design of settlement in this area is occupied by Jambi Melayu
people using the territorial space as a source of living. Other
inhabitants do the agricultural activity as part time or main source
of living. This category usually comprises most part of the unit of
settlement in the bank of Batanghari River area especially Sekoja
area.
Besides, there are also some art of inhabitants in this unit
of settlement who do not use the territorial area as the source of
living but chose farming with consideration that there is enough
field for farming. The existence of the design of settlement in the
environment of the bank of Batanghari River is expected has
existed since in the beginning of history, the center of trading has
grown up and developed in the hinterland harbor city in Sumatras
edge lying in the line of the merchant shipping between China
and India (Sumadia in Soni, 2001). If this opinion is continued, the
design of settlement of the hinterland resident is inclined to
develop and spread out from the edge (beach) to hinterland,
especially in the bank of river area (Askandar in Soni, 2001). In
that thing, the observation of ethnography shows the contrary
event namely the hinterland inhabitants move to beach through
valley of river. The group of Jambinese inhabitants living in the
258

territorial area of Batang Hari River used river as the

communication infrastructure.
Meanwhile the design of the position of house and its
complement building with the way how to build that reflects the
movement of the water of the river, because river is the easiest
means of communication in the case of its reaching, this causes
the existence of houses on stilts either in the edge of land and in
the edge of territorial area, in the transition area or even on the
above of river. The people who do not have space in the edge of
river they will build house in the land area. Because of condition
of house sites influenced with water, the inhabitants living in
territorial area choose the type of wood or other material for
building that is water- resistant, especially for buried part or
influenced by soil and water. With this condition, the local traders
of woods use the existence of river and they will wash away a roll
of woods to the river. The beam of woods are collected near to
the factory of sawmill and the factory of plywood. The Batanghari
River territorial also contains the natural sources one of them is
fish. Some people also do the fishing activity even the result is
few, but this kind of as part time job to fill the free time. It proves
that Batanghari River is as one of the space production
connected with fishery that still exists.
Sekoja area is Jambinese Melayu settlement having
potential and facility in a good direction of the design of
settlement that presents here has formed naturally. However, it
can be categorized into three; they are the grouping design, the
linear design, and spreading design, according to the formation
from its natural potential. Government helps for the hardening of
the road and the footpath for the environment of this area that
causes the increasing quality of this area.
At the riverfront area, the connection across formed
space between Batanghari with the public quay. It can be seen
from its process of reaching where societies firstly go to
Batanghari River territorial after that passing the quay to go to the
land area. Meanwhile in the land area the connections between
the formed open space and open field in the environment of
settlement with the road of environment. It can be seen through
the process of reaching where societies go somewhere by using
the road of environment.
While the relation between the buildings in this area for
the design of formed settlement in the bank of Batanghari River
area consists.
The pattern of settlement at the shore area formed by a
row settlement with a little density. The settlement united with the
street causing the relation between the buildings less strong. And
the pattern of settlement in the market formed by a row
settlement, which has a high density, making the relation between
one building to others become stronger.
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THE SETTLEMENT MORPHOLOGY

1. Grouping
The area of houses tends toward the grouping at the
center of activities. It could be seen from the houses in the area of
RT (administrative unit at the next-to-lowest level in city) 04 with
the orientation of houses toward the main street (St. KM. Saleh).
The physical scene of this area is very simple with a very
minimum of facility to support their life. In this region only some of
the design of grouping coordinated and planned. The houses with
the grouping design are mostly founded around the Street of KM
Saleh, the bank of river Batanghari at RT 04, and at the bank of
St. KM Rojali.
2. Spreading
Accordingly the houses at the region of Tanjung Pasir
Sekoja are spreading due to the limitation of soil, causing the
distance become unreachable and undistributed. The design at
the region of RT.05 in Tanjung Pasir Sekoja, created by the
houses far reaching from the center of support. And some are
very far away from the other houses. That could be found at the
region in the bank of St Jepang in the North part.
3. Linear
The limitation of soil and the need to live near the street
becoming the location of the growing houses tending towards
closer to the bank of river Batanghari (at RT 01, RT 02, RT 04).
Their settlement is growing at the region near the bank. The
government worries it will become the uncontrollable growing,
and threatening the environmental conservation and erosion of
garbage disposal. The design of settlement in the region of RT
01, RT 02, RT 04 is linear that could be found at the region along
the street of KM Saleh, border of river and small streets in the
village..
From the above explanation it could be identified the
design of building, shape, and the character of streets in Tanjung
Pasir Sekoja.
THE STREET
1. Main Street
There are three main streets in Tanjung Pasir Sekoja,
these are KM Saleh, St. KM Rojali and St. Jepang. All are having
the similar character, which is toward the East West. The streets
are having a very dominant role in the scale of settlement
because it could be used for center place of various activities in
the society, such as marriage party, Independence Day of
Republic of Indonesia, and so on.
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The shape of main street is curvilinear
N
-
The shape is curvilinear due to the influence of natural factor

of River Batanghari
The orientation designation of settlement is towards the North
and South (toward the river).
There is a footpath which is the branches of this main street.
The street stretch to East West.
The shape of main street is linear
The street stretch to East West

The shape is linear influenced by the orientation Designation
of settlement which is tend toward the North South (toward
the street). There is a footpath, which is the branch of this
main street.
End of street started from Aur Duri Bridge and in the East part
is bordered from the region of neighbor Tanjung Raden.
Now a day the changing design of street in the region of
Tanjung Pasir Sekoja is the street dimension change, due to
the situation and the condition of traffic vehicle at the
moment. Making the possibility to enlarge the street.
2. Pathways
At the settlement in Tanjung Pasir Sekoja there are
footpaths stretching to North South connected to the main street.
The footpaths are in the East and West side between the building
of settlement or other buildings with the majority having
orientation toward the North and South (Bank of River
Batanghari).
261

Sample 1
Generally the streets are stretching to North South

because the design of building formed along this street are
oriented toward the North and South. The length of street is 2
meters. There is branching from the street and the shape of street
is linear connected toward the main street.
Sample 2
The main street formed stretching to East West, due to

the building orientation along this street is toward North and
South. The length of the street is 2 meters with a linear shape.
There is branching from those streets.
ENCLOSED
cultural diversity, in addition for this, the settlement especially
The traditional settlement is the reflection of social and life of
society in one area.
Settlement pattern on Sekoja area divided into three,
which are grouping pattern, spreading pattern and linear pattern.
262

Formed settlement area patterns divide into two, which are linear
pattern on riverside settlement and grid pattern on shore
settlement, oriented toward road surroundings. Building mass and
form divided into two, which are linear pattern developed on
Batanghari riverside settlement, while grid pattern form due to the
building row arrangement an roads intersection on shore.
The the structure of the Jambinese Melayu settelement is
the unity of political, commercial, social which is reflected on his
settlement fabric
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Bagoes P. Wiryomartono, 1995, Seni Bangunan dan Seni Bina
Kota di Indonesia, Gramedia, Jakarta
Eisner, Simon and Stanley A. Eisner, Arthur B. Gallion, 1993, The
Urban Pattern, sixth edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York
Inajati Adrisijanti, 2000, Arkeologi Perkotaan Mataram Islam,
Penerbit Jendela, Yogyakarta
Kostof, Spiro, 1991, The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and
Meanings Through History, Thames and Hudson Ltd.,
London
_________, 1992, The City Assembled: The Elements of Urban
Form Through History, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London
Kuntowijoyo, 1994, Metodologi Sejarah, PT Tiara Wacana Yogya,
Yogyakarta
Lombard, Denys, 1996a, Nusa Jawa : Silang Budaya, Kajian
Sejarah Terpadu, Bagian I : Batas-Batas Pembaratan,
Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta
__________, 1996b, Nusa Jawa : Silang Budaya, Kajian Sejarah
Terpadu, Bagian II : Jaringan Asia, Gramedia Pustaka
Utama, Jakarta
__________, 1996c, Nusa Jawa : Silang Budaya, Kajian Sejarah
Terpadu, Bagian III : Warisan Kerajaan-kerajaan
Konsentris, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta
Moleong, Lexy J., 1986, Metode Penelitian Kualitatif, PT. Remaja
Rosda Karya, Bandung
Muhammad S. Djarot S. Senna, 1987, Sebuah Pemikiran tentang
Permukiman Islam, Penerbit Mizan, Bandung
Noeng Muhadjir, 1996, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, edisi III,
Penerbit Rake Sarasin, Yogyakarta
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Pratomo, Soni, 2001. The Meaning of The Structures and

Elements of The Center of The Harbor City of Tuban : A
Morphological and Cross-Cultural Analysis on The City
Center of The North Java Coastal Area. Thesis Magister
tidak dipublikasikan, Magister Teknik Arsitektur Universitas
Diponegoro, Semarang
Rapoport, Amos, 1980, Cross-Cultural Aspects of Environmental
Design, in Almant, I et. al. (ed.), Environment and Culture
(Vol. 4 of Human Behaviour and Environment), Plenum,
New York
Usman Meng, 2006, Napak Tilas Provinsi Jambi, Pemerintah
Provinsi Jambi, Jambi
Usman Pelly, et. al, 1994, Teori-teori Sosial Budaya, Direktorat
Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi Departemen Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan, Jakarta
264

PEMBANGUNAN PERUMAHAN
DAN PEMUKIMAN NASIONAL :
PERMASALAHAN, HARAPAN DAN
TANTANGANNYA
Mindo Siagian
I. Pendahuluan
Pembangunan Nasional pada hakikatnya upaya-upaya
yang ditujukan bagi perwujudan manusia Indonesia seutuhnya.
Sementara itu, manusia Indonesia seutuhnya adalah manusia
yang berkeadilan, sehat, makmur dan sejahtera. Secara khusus,
Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 Pasal 28 H mengamanatkan bahwa
setiap orang berhak hidup sejahtera lahir batin, bertempat tinggal
pada lingkungan hidup yang baik dan sehat serta berhak
memperoleh pelayanan kesehatan.
Pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman adalah salah
satu syarat bagi perwujudan manusia Imdonesia yang seutuhnya.
Rumah merupakan salah satu kebutuhan dasar manusia, tidak
hanya sebagai tempat berlindung, tetapi rumah juga mempunyai
makna penting dalam pengembangan kehidupan sosial dan
ekonomi bagi sipemiliknya.
Dibahagian lain, Undang-undang Nomor 4/1992 tentang
Perumahan Permukiman pasal 29 menyebutkan bahwa setiap
warga negara mempunyai hak dan kesempatan yang sama dan
seluas-luasnya untuk berperan serta dalam pembangunan
perumahan dan permukiman yang layak dan terjangkau.
Karena itu, terpenuhinya kebutuhan perumahan dan
permukiman merupakan tuntutan dan kebutuhan masyarakat
Indonesia. Pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman di
Indonesia menghadapi permasalahan dan tantangan yang sangat
berat. Apalagi selama ini, ada kesan bahwa pembangunan
permukiman dan perumahan cenderung timpang. Tidak ada
keselarasan. Dinamika kehidupan dan kebijakan pemerintah
serta tuntutan dunia usaha turut serta memberi kontribusinya di
dalamnya.
Kedepan, masalah pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan
dan permukiman akan semakin berat. Diperkirakan rata-rata laju
kebutuhan perumahan setiap tahunnya sebesar 800.00 unit
rumah. Laju pertumbuhan perumahan tersebut dipredeksi akan
terus naik seiring dengan pertumbuhan penduduk. Kondisi ini
diperburuk dengan terdapatnya 14,5 juta unit rumah (28,22
persen dari rumah yang ada) berkualitas rendah dan tidak layak
huni. Biasa dibayangkan, jika tidak ada upaya serius dalam
mengatasinya, dikhawatirkan akn terjadi ledakan yang sangat
265

besar terkait dengan tidak terpenuhi masalah perumahan dan

permukiman tersebut.
Secara umum, persoalan pembangunan perumahan dan
permukiman di Indonesia berkaitan dengan berbagai
permasalahan dasar, seperti : masalah pembiayaan,
pertimbangan sosial budaya, nilai-nilai arsitektur atau issue
pembangunan yang tidak relevan.
Dilain pihak, pembangunan dan permukiman sering
berbenturan dengan pengelolaan lingkungan. Masalah-masalah
lingkungan, seperti penyediaan air bersih, pengelolaan sampah,
sanitasi, jalan lingkungan, drainase sering terabaikan dalam
pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman. Hal ini disebabkan
karena manajemen pembangunan yang diterapkan tidak efisien.
Mengingat permasalahan pembangunan perumahan dan
permukiman yang sangat beragam dan kompleks, maka dalam
penanganannya, integralistik dan holistik. Disamping itu,
pengembangan kepranataan dan instrumen pembangunan
perumahan dan permukiman harus berorientasi kepda
kepentingan seluruh lapisan masyarakat.
II. Masalah
Dalam
Pembangunan
Perumahan
dan
Permukiman
Sama seperti yang dihadapi oleh negara-negara lain
pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman di Indonesia akan
semakin berat seiring dengan perjalanan waktu. Pertumbuhan
penduduk menjadi salah satu alasan utamanya. Berdasarkan
analisis statistik pertumbuhan penduduk dan rumah tangga,
diperkirakan laju kebutuhan perumahan di Indonesia setiap
tahunnya rata-rata sebesar 800.00 unit rumah. Jumlah tersebut
belum termasuk kebutuhan rumah akibat kekurangan atau defisit
rumah (backlog) yang belum terpenuhi. Sebagai contoh, backlog
yang belum terpenuhi hingga akhir 2003 yang lalu mencapai 5,93
juta unit (9,43 persen dari jumlah rumah yang ada)
Kondisi tersebut diperburuk dengan terdapatnya 14,5 juta
unit rumah (28,22 persen dari rumah yang ada) yang kualitasnya
tidak layak huni dan tersebar pada 10.065 lokasi permukiman
kumuh dengan luas 47.393 hektar, yang dihuni oleh sekitar 17,2
juta jiwa. Ini baru data yang dicatat secara resmi. Belum lagi ada
banyak data tentang kondisi perumahan masyarakat yang belum
terpantau secara jelas.
Hal ini telah lama disadari. Namun hingga kini masalah
tersebut belum sepenuhnya dapat ditanggulangi. Memang sudah
banyak program yang dicanangkan pemerintah untuk mengatasi
tingginya kebutuhan perumahan dan permukiman tersebut. Akan
tetapi kenyataannya masih jauh dari yang kita harapkan. Banyak
warga negara yang belum menempati rumah yang layak huni.
Alasan klasik masalah pembiayaan selalu mengemuka.
266

Secara umum,
persoalan pemenuhan kebutuhan
perumahan dan permukiman di Indonesia berkaitan dengan
berbagai permasalahan mendasar ; yaitu masalah pembiayaan
dan minimnya lahan yang tersedia, khususnya diperkotaan.
Disamping itu masih ada masalah-masalah lain, seperti halnya
arsitektur yang belum memenuhi syarat perumahan yang sehat.
Tata letak dan seni perumahan yang sesuai dengan kaidahkaidah kesehatan cenderung dipinggirkan dan tidak dihiraukan.
III. Tantangan Dalam Pembangunan Perumahan dan
Permukiman
Masalah perumahan dan permukiman di Indonesia masih
terus muncul. Selama ini ada sejumlah tantangan dalam
pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan dan permukiman di Indonesia
yang belum juga dapat dituntaskan. Beberapa diantaranya
adalah:
Pertama, masalah kesenjangan pelayanan. Pemenuhan
kebutuhan perumahan dan permukiman bagi masyarakat yang
kurang mampu belum mendapat proporsi yang berimbang.
Mayoritas pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman masih
didominasi oleh kepentingan masyarakat menengah keatas.
Pada hal, kepentingan seluruh lapisan masyarakat sesungguhnya
harus mendapat proporsi yang serasi, seimbang dan selaras.
Prinsip berkeadilan dan keseimbangan harus diterapkan dalam
pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman. Pada hal, justrtu
masyarakat miskinlah yang harus dibantu untuk memenuhi
tuntutan kebutuhan atas perumahan dan permukiman. Kedepan,
paradogma seperti ini harus dirubah. Simiskin harus
diprioritaskan.
Kedua, Pola pengelolaan lingkungan yang belum maksimal.
Pembangunan
perumahan
dan
permukiman
ternyata
membutuhkan dukungan lingkungan. Artinya, lingkungan dan
perumahan permukiman harus taat pada hukum lingkungan.
Selama ini, pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman
cenderung mengabaikan keutuhan lingkungan. Misalnya,
penyediaan sarana dan prasarana yang buruk. Sarana air bersih
sering pula tak dihiraukan. Demikian juga dengan penataan dan
pengelolaan sampah, sanitasi, sarana jalan, drainase.
Ketidakseriusan dalam penataan dimensi-dimensi lingkungan
tersebut telah secara sengaja berdampak pada lingkungan
perumahan dan permukiman yang tidak sehat.
Disamping penataan lingkungan perumahan, penyediaan
ruang hijau dan terbuka bahkan cenderung ditiadakan. Pada hal,
setiap rumah selyaknya harus menyimpan dukungan akan
kebutuhan oksigen. Pola seperti ini harus dikedepankan dalam
pembangunan perumahan kedepan.
Ketiga, Manajemen pembangunan yang tidak efisien. Selama ini
ada kesan bahwa pembngunan perumahan dan permukiman
267

kurang memperhatikan kualitas dan cenderung mengutamakan

kepentingan proyek semata. Pada hal, kualitas bangunan sangat
penting dalam memenuhi kebutuhan akan kenyamanan sipemilik
rumah dalam rentang waktu yang relatif lama. Mutu bangunan
juga berkaitan dengan peningkatan kualitas hidup. Jika mutu
bangunan adalah kualitas seadanya, hal ini juga turut serat dalam
memperparah
pemenuhan
kebutuhan
perumahan
dan
permukiman.
Keempat,
Masalah
kepemilikan
tanah.
Tak
mengherankan bahwa sengketa pertanahan di Indonesia sangat
banyak, termasuk dalam sengketa lahan perumahan. Hal ini
disebabkan karena penataan administrasi pertanahan belum
dilakukan secara tertib. Dengan demikian, tak jarang lahan
perumahan menjadi lahan didirikannya bangunan perumahan
tersebut.
IV. Berbagai Langkah Untuk Mengatasi Masalah Perumahan
dan Permukiman
Berbagai langkah untuk mengatasi masalah perumahan
dan permukiman di Indonesia harus digagas secara kontiniu
tanpa pernah berhenti. Sejumlah gagasan layak diutamakan
diantaranya adalah:
Pertama, dukungan pemerintah. Dukungan dan
komitmen pemerintah menempati posisi yang strategis dalam
pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan dan permukiman bagi
masyarakat luas. Ketidakmampuan masyarakat, seyogianya
diimbangi dengan dorongan dan dukungan dari pemerintah.
Adanya kebijakan Strategi Nasional Perumahan dan Permukiman
(KSNPP), jika benar-benar dijalankan, diyakini akan menjadi
model yang efektif dalam mengatasi seluruh problema dalam
pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman.
Fungsi regulasi pemerintah untuk mengatur masalah
penataan dan pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan dan
permukiman harus dimaksimalkan. Cita-cita agar seluruh
masyarakat dapat menikmati perumahan dan permukiman yang
layak dan terjangkau dapat pula diwujudkan dengan
pembentukan
lembaga
yang
representative
sebagai
penyelenggaraan pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman
diseluruh wilayah Republik Indonesia.
Kedua,
Komitmen
pemerintah
untuk
mengimplementasikan Gerakan Nasional Pengembangan
Sejuta Rumah (GN-PRS) jangan sampai berhenti pada satu
tahapan. Gerakan yang dicanangkan pada tahun 2003 tersebut
harus dijadikan sebagai titik kulminasi bagi kebangkitan
pembangunan perumahan dan permukiman di Indonesia. Hal ini
penting sebagai momentum untuk mengajak semua pihak untuk
berpartisipasi dan penanganan masalah-masalah yang muncul
dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan dan permukiman bagi
268

seluruh lapisan masyarakat. Banyaknya masalah yang muncul

harus diatasi secara bertahap hingga pada beberapa tahun
kedepan dimana mayoritas masyarakat Indonesia sudah
mendapatkan perumahan dan permukiman yang layak.
Ketiga, Program Pemilikan Rumah Sederhana Sehat
(RSH) Bersubsidi. Seperti direncanakan bahwa pemerintah akan
mengembangkan rumah sederhana sehat (RSH) yang disubsidi
sebanyak 200.000 unit rumah per tahun. Jika program ini benarbenar dijalankan, tentu akan sangat menolong bagi masyarakat
khususnya berpenghasilan rendah.
Keempat,
agenda-agenda
internasional
harus
dimanfaatkan sebagai kesempatan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan
perumahan dan permukiman bagi seluruh masyarakat Indonesia.
Misalnya Agenda 21 yang dideklarasikan di Rio de Jeneiro yang
berintikan pada rencana yang menyeluruh dari masyarakat dunia,
Negara serta pemerintah untuk sungguh-sungguh meningkatkan
kualitas permukiman, terutama bagi Negara-negara yang sedang
berkembang. Indonesia sebagai bagian dari Negara berkembang
tentu penting untuk mengadopsi dan memanfaatkan kesempatan
atas dukungan masyarakat internasional tersebut.
Di samping itu, masih banyak agenda-agenda
internasional yang bisa dimanfaatkan. Misalnya Agenda Habitat
Istambul 1996. Adapun agenda tersebut telah menyepakati : 1)
Rumah untuk semua, (2) Memperbaiki pengelolaan permukiman,
(3) Meningkatkan kualitas tanah yang berkelanjutan, (4)
Meningkatkan
keterpaduan
infratruktur
lingkungan,
(5)meningkaykan energy dan transportasi yang berkelanjutan, (6)
meningkatkan perencaaan dan pengelolaan kawasan bencana,
(7) meningkatkan industri konstruksi. Penjabaran agenda 21 ini
terutama ditujukan bagi terselenggaranya perumahan untuk
semua orang serta mewujudkan pengembangan permukiman
yang berkelanjutan.
Kemudian adanya Johannesburg Summit pada tahun
2002 yang kemudian dimaknai sebagai penjabaran atau langkah
konkrit untuk mengimplementasikan Agenda 21, yang secara
khusus ditujukan untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup masyarakat
atau untuk menanggulangi kemiskinan serta menyelamatkan
sumber daya alam.
V. Penutup
Masalah pemenuhan kebutuhan perumahan dan
permukiman di Indonesia ternyata sangat banyak. Karena itu,
diperlukan langkah konkrit untuk mengatasinya. Untuk itu, semua
pihak harus bersatu padu dan member partisipasi aktif.
Pemerintah, pihak swasta, dan masyarakat itu sendiri harus
saling berkoordinasi sesuai dengan potensi dan kemampuan
yang ada pada diri masing-masing.
269

A STUDY ON RESIDENTIAL PREFERENCE IN

SUBURBAN AREAS OF MEDAN
Case Study: Kelurahan Gedung Johor Kecamatan
Medan Johor Kota Medan and Kelurahan Delitua
Kecamatan Namorambe Kabupaten Deli Serdang
Syafiatun Siregar
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Negeri Medan, Indonesia
Abstract
The growing of urban population up is acknowledged
going to cause tensions either rising up price of land around the
urban region, increasing requirement on housings, reducing
quality of environment, flood, traffic jam and so forth. Housing
Preference on urban border region shall be one of alternative in
avoiding any pressure resulted by the progress of urban. The
objective of housing preference study on the urban border region
is to know factors influencing the rate of residing preference on
the border and then to identify the attractive term of location as
housing choice for research.
The result of analysis with cross tabulation and by chisquare test showed that existed relationship between the housing
preference with its road condition (wide and hardness), still
housing preference with the education facilities and housing
preference with a family oriented/ community oriented. This
perhaps conformed to the theories as adopted Beside it, it is
found other finding namely the location/ region should be free
from flood must be other alternative to prefer a location for
housing choice.
Keywords: housing preference, housing choice, suburban area,
residential preference
Introduction
The economy growing up currently perhaps cause the
urban run to develop widely, either physically or non-physically. It
is noted that the urban development by physically resulting in the
urban got developing rapidly even achieving the suburban, and
however the border is hardly to determine while administratively it
has border already.
The growing of urban population up is noted causing
tensions amongst of going expensive more the price of land
around the urban, rising needs on houses, reducing the quality of
270

environment, flood, got traffic jams and so forth. A preference for

residing on suburban shall be one of alternatives in avoiding the
tensions resulted by the development of urban.
The development on border regions as not integrated
planning on differences of interested and competences may
cause the development of housing and residences become not
planned and uncontrollable as later got problems in life such as
conflicts on exploitation of land, not efficiency in serving urban by
infrastructure, the environmental polluted resulting in occurrence
reducing quality of environment in whole.
The development of Medan City and its hinterland as the
suburban somehow become a preference for public residing
particularly the community of Medan City, and this condition
cause the residences around suburban got more development
and rapidly with all its problem emerged mainly on the community
of suburban as the consequence of their social-economy
condition.
The Formulation of Problems
In details the problems for housing preference are as the
following :
1. What factors influencing community have housing preference
on the location of study (Suburban of Medan City and Deli
Serdang District)
2. What factors influencing that location of study be attractive
and has additional values.
The Limitation of Problems
In writing this study in topic a housing preference limited
only to the community has permanent resident or not as
temporary resident either on the region of real estate residential
(planned) or the residents with a conventional housing
(spontaneous). Therefore, those community residing by rent or
resident by board excluding to this study.
The Objective of Study
The objectives of study a preference to reside on
suburban of Medan are :
To know the factors influencing a housing preference on
suburban
To identify the attractiveness of locations for study
Library Research
The regulations No. 4 of 1992 regarding the housings and
the settlement as entered into Chapter I General Guidance
defines the settlement as a part of the environmental region
outside the preserved zone either provided as urban region or
271

suburban as function for the environmental of residences or for

settlement and for business places supporting for the living and
life.
The settlement as residences is a basic need for human
being. In each planning of urban seen that utilization of land for
residences take most part for settlement. In order bring the
settlement into an integrated region for residence require several
components inherently such as available land as intention,
existing superstructures and infrastructures, available housing
(resident built up) in the residence region as well as available
general facilities and social facilities provided.
In utilizing the land with spaces in forming a residences
found several approaching models exposed in responding the
dynamic of urban living. In general this approaching is classified
into four approaches (Yunus, 2000) namely Ecological Approach,
Economy Approach, Morphological Approach, Activity Approach.
The dynamic of urban development beside to influence
the part of city core and middle core, it also indirectly influence to
the occurrence development on the suburban and on the city
border with the towns peripheral / fringe areas. It is such for
Medan City beside influencing to the city core, it also influences to
the peripheral.
Preference has a meaning a prefer or ones tendency for
something. Housing preference means a someones intention for
residing on one place influenced by its variables. A preference to
express intention over something can be used as a basic to
assess mainly regarding the environmental characteristics. For
instance, someone shall prefer location for residence near to the
city core, to office, near to toll road, noises rate lower and a lower
crowded. While others shall prefer the location near to reach
schools for children (Chapman, 1986).
The development of suburban in the planning usually
practiced not integrated since the difference of interest and
authority and this resulting in the growing of housing run non
planned and uncontrollable. Urban is a system for residing in
various scales, agglomerated or not covering parts in-built linking
with various social and economy interest bound and to deal each
other, to enrich and influenced. Amongst those towns in the
system is found a main city takes part very dominantly. The form
and width of master city is not determined anymore yet by the
political capability, but on behalf of economy activity and interest,
various consumption and transportation for goods and services
overstep the conventional limit (Silas, 1996).
The consequences of city development is available a
tendency moving the functions of urban to fringe as is seen a
process move beyond physical exposed from urban to sprawl. A
further consequences on suburban will experience a spatial
transformation process by a densification residence process and
272

social-economy transformation as a further impact of the spatial

transformation process. The densification residences process
occurring on suburban is a realization of rising need on spaces
on urban.
The urban fringe as a region overflowing activity of urban
development has got already attention from many experts on
various disciplines such as geography, social, and urban since
1930-s was the first time the term of urban fringe stated out in
literature. The highly attention mainly addressed to various
problems resulted by an expanse process of city into suburban
and resulting in changing of physical for instance the change of
utilization of land, demography, ecological balance as well as
economy-social condition (Subroto, etc. 1997 by Giyarsih).
Mc. Gee (1991 in Giyarsih) stated out that the
development process and urbanizations in Indonesia (mainly in
Java Island) marked by available restructuring in the internal of
cities. The cities in Indonesia for coming several decades tends
going to progress either demographically, physical, or spatial. A
phenomenon reduced rural population within past two decades
because a massive migration from rural, and this indicates that
cities in Indonesia shall develop rapid either demographically or
spatial in the future.
House as a basic need for human has a various form
according to whom as user. Bases to hierarchy of need (Maslow,
1954) the necessity on house can be approached as a
physiological needs, safety or security needs, social needs, self
actualization (Arrupe, 1977). Housings constitute a heterogeneity
consumption thing, imperishable, important is an indirectly
indicator of status and difference in consumers argument, a
social relationship map of city structure, an important part of
residences, and conflict between various strength in group and
source of profit income for different institute involved in the
production process (Bessett & Short, 1980 in turniningtyas).
Everyone has privilege to choose for residence refers to
their needs, preference, life style, either take it on the suburb,
hinterland or rural, on a mega metropolitant area or mini
(Rapoport, 1977). House as primary consumption following the
clothes and foods depending on social economy condition of
the human itself. For the city land become narrower and going
rise expensive the land on urban cause preference moves over
suburban. Ones decision to move shall depend on the difference
between a currently opportunity and to be achieved and its
various tensions. (Ablere, etc.1977). The decision on location
often linked with the characteristics of residences, status, prestige
and homogeneity of social, topography, security and social
relations related closely with the rate of social status (Rapoport,
1977). Beside it seen the consequence of publication spreading
273

out that mass media and advertising can produce the differences
of preference to reside on one place (Rapoprot, 1977).
Housing preference is influenced by life style of the
resident with a consumption oriented, social prestige oriented,
family oriented/ community oriented (moore 1974 by
Turniningtyas). By a family oriented and with certain community
oriented dominates highly a need in determining location of
residence. In this case, the community may connect with race,
faith, or social-economy rate of the resident, while the family
oriented shall link with existing the family, parents, friends or other
relations.
The prestige rate of someone as connected with the
social-economy status and income owned also influencing to
ones preference. If choosing to the regions viewed from the
income point it seen that the population with lower income tend to
choose the residence location near to city core (usually slum ),
while for those resident with middle income and above tend to
chose the suburban (a better residence) refers to the argument
stated out by Burgess (1925). Whereas in Indonesia many times
friends, family present an important influence in facilitating and
encourage migrant to urban to determine their residence
(Tirtosudarno, 1985).
The Research Method
The population to this study are housings available on the
suburban of Kecamatan Medan Johor and spontaneous
residences housing and a planned housing Kelurahan Delitua
Kecamatan Namorambe Kabupaten Deli Serdang. The sort of
study adopted perhaps a survey study by distributing
questionnaire. The taking sample technique was by cluster
sampling. The data processing and analysis was conducted by a
descriptive analysis statistic.
The Result of Study
In the ecology approach of Medan City by adopting
Harris-Ullman method (1945) which theory state out the Multiple
Nuclei Model with own concept with the lead development of
Medan City mention the concept forming structure of space
separating and exploiting the region with functional (Figure 1).
Berry theory (1963) mentioning the distribution of land
value theory for big cities linked with the transportation net
(accessibility). For available radial road may push the emerging
mini peaks. If seen on the grand peak (city center) marked with a
grand peak rate, while on mini peak the price of land be lower
(Figure 2). The Northam Theory (1979) concerning over bounded
city, true bounded city and under bounded city for a
morphological approach (Figure 3).
274

Figure 1. Ecological Approach

Source: RUTR Kota Medan, 2005
Figure 2. Economy Approach
Figure 3. Morphological Approach
The respondents were taken amount 100 people with a

detail of 70% men and 30 women. The age of respondent namely
< 30 years (3%), 30 40 years (22%), 40 50 years (43%) and
> 50 years (32%). The respondent education rate comprising of
Post Graduate (11%), Graduate (63%), SMA grade (22%) and
SMP grade of 4%.
The environmental variable analyzed were the
environmental factors as the main consideration of respondents in
choosing the location for residence. The factors comprising of the
green condition, flood, drainage condition, quality of roads, quality
of clean water, electrical facility, and the security rate and the
cleanness of residences.
The above graphic indicates that free flood region is
known the highly mean from several variables of residence
condition namely amount 97.80, and this state out that free flood
variable is the most dominant region as priority the respondent
choose in determining the location for resident.
Beside the region free of flood, the condition of road is
still priority with the mean of 83.00 and mention that the condition
of road shall highly determine to preference in residing. The
condition of road intended comprising of accessibility of way out
and in to the residence complex including its hardness. The
location of study is well known as outer ring road. (Figure 4)
It is noted that the praying facilities mostly demanded with
a near location and easy to achieve from the residence, and the
mean response from the respondents is 92.00 and it means that
facility for worship should be not so far (< 2km) distance from the
location of residence, followed by the education facilities (89.80),
traditional markets (83.20) and clinic (81, 80). These variables
shall be a reference in deciding for housing preference. (Figure 5)
275

97,80
83,00
78,20
75,20
68,00
67,80
70,40
74,40
57,80
Penghijauan Bebas banjir
Drainase
Lebar Jalan
Kondisi
jalan
Air Bersih
Listrik
Keamanan
Kebersihan
Figure 4. The mean variables about the condition environmental factors
89,80
83,20
92,00
81,80
66,80
78,40
72,80
64,20
50,20
Pasar
Tradisional
Sup er
market
Plaza /M all Pendidikan
Temp at
Peribadatan
Klinik
Rumah
Sakit
Taman
Bermain
Sarana
Olahraga
Figure 5. The mean variables about the condition of infrastructure and

superstructures
It is noted that the location to the southern part of Medan

City specifically leads to residential purpose on representative. It
is not seen only from its access or available infrastructures and
superstructures but also linked to other reasonable. Accordingly,
the respondents resided on the southern part of Medan City have
a certain reason why they choose that location for the residence.
Based to the result of survey in fact found that in generally (95%)
respondents responded that location is relative cheaper than
other locations. Still, got near to the family is noted secondly
priority (87%) and the available infrastructure and superstructure
namely completed social and public facilities shall be another
reasons for them in housing preference. (Figure 6)
276

100
95
90
87
83
80
70
62
60
50
40
30
15
20
10
0
Murah
Dekat lokasi
kerja
Dekat
Fasum/Fasos
Dekat
Keluarga/t eman
P ret ise
Figure 6. The reasons for them in housing preference in suburban area
According to the result of study on the location, as well as the

result of statistical test can be taken a conclusion as the
followings:
Table 1. The Result of Analysis Crosstab Preference
for Residence
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Relations
The condition
of road
Width of road
Facility on
education
Frequency in
flood
Social religion
Who in 1
location
Chi square
Table
174.645
Preference to reside
Chi Square
Interpretation
Count
16.919
Ho accepted
Remarks
Connected
124,727
133,273
16,919
16,919
Ho accepted
Ho accepted
Connected
Connected
88,856
12,592
Ho accepted
Connected
129,936
210,914
12,592
21,026
Ho accepted
Ho accepted
Connected
Connected
Conclusion
Refers to the objective of this study it can be taken
conclusion that factors influencing the housing preference are as
the following :
The condition of residence namely condition of green
surrounding, condition of drainage, condition of road,
condition of quality and quantity of clean water, and the
condition of security.
The available superstructure and infrastructure with
accessibility properly existed and near to the location of
general facility and social facility with the residence.
Social condition namely comprising of existing closed to the
family, a certain community, social condition surrounding as
the residence.
277

In particular, the respondents reason to have the location are:

The house price is cheap relative
Near to the general and social facilities
Near to the relative in group (family, friends, parent, and
office-mate)
Near to the working location
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Bappeda Kota Medan (2005), Rencana Umum Tata Ruang Kota
Medan
Chapman, N.J, Ritzdorf M. A, 1986, Tradeoff Method Of Asses
Housing Location Preferences, Journal Of Enviromental
Psychology 345-358
Giyarsih S. R.,2006 Gejala Urban Sprawl Sebagai Pemicu Proses
Densifikasi Permukiman Di Daerah Pinggiran Kota (Urban
Fringe Area), Kasus Pinggiran Kota Yogyakarta,
Glasson, J., 1974, Pengantar Perencanaan Regional. Bagian
Satu Dan Dua, Terjemahan Paul Sihotang, LPFE-UI.
Jakarta
Nazir, M, 1999., Metode Penelitian, Jakarta, Ghalia Indonesia,
Jakarta
Rapoport, A. 1977 Human Aspect Of Urban Form Towards a Man
Enviroment Approach To Urban Form And Design,
Pergamon, New York
Silas, J. et al (1990), Penelitian Keadaan Perumahan Di desa
Pinggiran Surabaya Terkait Dengan Sensus 1990, Lab
Permukiman, ITS
Sinuligga, B. D., 2005, Pembangunan Kota, Tinjauan Regional
dan Lokal, Pustaka Sinar Harapan
Snyder, JC., 1979, Introduction to Urban Planning. Mc. Graw Hill
Book Co., New York
Turniningtyas A. R., Dampak Perkembangan Kota Surabaya
Terhadap Preferensi Bermukim Di Daerah Perbatasan,
Studi Kasus: Permukiman Di Sekitar Pondok Tjandra
Kecamatan Waru Perbatasan Kabupaten Sidoarjo Dan
Kota Surabaya, Jurnal RUAS Volume 1 No 2 Desember
2003, hal 145 - 151,
Yunus, H. S., 2000., Struktur Tata Ruang Kota, Pustaka Pelajar,
Jakarta
278

CHARACTERISTICS STUDY RESIDENT LIVING

OF SLUM SETTLEMENT ON RIVER BANK
Case Study: Asahan River, Tanjung Balai,
North Sumatera
Nurmaidah
Departement Of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Technic, Universitas
Medan Area, Indonesia
Email Address: midah_zizi@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Existence of slum settlement appeared on the bank of river
seemly triggered by a worst economy, failed to provide the
settlement fulfilling the requirements as a residence properly to
occupy and make them difficulty to dwell on the bank of river,
lake, sea as their residence and this however become a certain
problem and it may decrease quality over surrounding. The
objective of this study is to know the factors influencing people as
community persistent to live by settlement on the bank of Asahan
River since it has a worst quality condition surrounding. To collect
the data perhaps conducted by field research as well as interview
with non structured to those respondents, for them distributed
questionnaire in this case those residents in the settlement. Later,
the result was tested by using a statistic method to obtain factors
causes the people in the community persistently to live with
neighborhood on the bank of river. There are variables to test
such as economy, socio-cultures, location of work and location of
residence. From the result of this study showed that factors
cause the people in community persistent to occupy the
settlement on the bank of river are : near to the area of working,
ethnic group and familial relationship with the resident on the
location.
Keywords: slum, bank of river, characteristics
Introduction
It is noted that in knowing more the area of river bank or
offshore in Indonesia in actually rooted on geographical factors,
and the archipelago history for centuries had been acknowledged
a vital part on the international trade channel (Suprijanto, 2003).
Tanjungbalai town is flowed through a large rivers namely
Asahan River and Silau River, also flowed by some small rivers
(Pematang River, Merbau River, Kapias River, Raja River, Serap
River, Langge River) as all empties into Aasahan River and Silau
279

River. There are still many other rivers known as estuaries

without names found on Tanjungbalai town.
A few years ago, the settlement on the main land existed
on Kelurahan Kuala Silo Bestari is the same precisely with the
settlement region being studied. Local government once held
reclamation, it is later appeared a main land as now being crowed
and dense population with houses. It is noted on these
residences occurred many times burning and get down completed
those houses surroundings and had ever occurred a great flood
achieved 1 meter above shore, but although had occurred the
flooding and big burning, the community take persistently reside
on this settlement.
Amongst the offshore settlement existed on Tanjungbalai
Town, the settlement on Kelurahan Kuala Silo Bestari region
seemly run wide leading into the mid of Asahan River site by site,
almost a half of the river part filled with staged houses made of
wood in a simple construction and some of the houses have got
decayed and slanted. The building laid out not orderly, almost no
distance one house to another building and average size of house
about 5 m x 7 m with iron sheet roofing and some have no any
ceiling. For daily necessities as for bath, washing and toilet and
others the people take rivers water. Public way facilities around
this settlement made of wood construction in a very simple far
from construction requirement. Mostly public way made of wood
on site mostly out of order in condition and it is seen threatening
to people. The population of this location in generally make their
living as fisherman and labor. They live on this settlement region
and got averagely teens year, mostly of the community have
relative bound one and another. It is still as to ask question to this
study : what factors cause those people persistently to reisde on
this offshore region.
Library Research
1. Slum Settlement on River Bank
Along with the population grew in number to the urban so
that requirement on house and residence shall be going to rise
anymore, to provide it with housing and the residence got risen
spontaneously or with a planning residence. In generally, the
housing problems on urban occurred on a highly growth of
population and it is noted on natural growing up run and because
of the urbanization, still highly costly to develop houses on urban
also triggered by a limitation of land or even on a reason a lower
economy make them not ability to live on any residence reliable,
shortage of infrastructure and superstructure to fulfill people
necessity mainly to those people with weak economy.
The settlement has own characteristics type refers to its
non physical strength grown locally, it connecting with social-
280

culture system, governance, education rate as well as technology

is going to give contribution in environmental physical
(Koentjarangra, 1977). According to Koentjarangrat, (1985), the
housing and residence (house and environment) is existed as a
physical culture constitute the result of idea complex of a cultural
system reflected on social activity locally. In order to know and
have the same meaning precisely on housing and residence, it is
necessary to study the definition as entered into UU No.4/1992
regulations. The explanation as in the regulation indicate that
there are several main element connected in defining the housing
and residence, namely: available dwelling place function as
shelter and human socialization as individual in the smallest
environment, existing a service net allowing people (as individual
and society) for living, hold there a limitation element connecting
with the human behavior (as individual and society) in their living
and have life.
Further, in the UU No.4/1992 regulation define the
meaning of settlement and mention there found a part of
environment outside of restricted region either as urban region
and rural and it function as dwelling place or for residence and got
it for activity supporting to the life and living. This case cause a
seriously problem mainly on people with a lower income with a
greatest number classification while its economy capability very
limited. In connecting with it, people shall form a community and
take dwell on green line zones and river plain, railway track and
with idle land without any master. According to Article 22 UU No.4
of 1992 regulation regarding Housing and Settlement as not
properly to reside such as the region and zone is not suitable for
its purpose/ exterior, a highly crowded buildings found within a
limited area, extremely affected with social illness and
environmental disease, endanger for living and to those
community live there.
There are so many Indonesian people resided on the
area of rivers bank, and they shall exploit the natural resources of
water on sea and shore. In connecting with it, the problem deals
with perhaps growing up there various activities on the river bank
such as economy activity of fisherman community, they shall build
houses neglecting any technical rules, ecological and
administrative requirements. In building houses, the community
make reclamation uncontrolled and some to heap the swamp up
so that ecology and environment destroyed. The location and site
for settlement tend influencing to the social interaction pattern.
The element and road network or open space are known affecting
mainly to the image refers to identity, and it shall present some
meaning as forming image of some place.
According to Suprijanto (2000) in his study, the rivers
bank zone comprising of a region run dynamic and unique (with
all sizes) where the land and waters (river, lake, sea, Bay) run
281

united (water edge zone) and must hold its unique and still further
the zone may comprise buildings or some other activities that
must not be directly on water but linked with the water as the
main scheme in widely.
In connecting with the Presidential Decree Number 32 of
1990, date of 25th July regarding the Management of Restricted
Zones to preserve defined as
1. A protection to all beach and river provided in order to
preserve the border region of beach/ river away from the
activities disturbing the function of beach/ rivers.
2. Criterion border of beach/ river is mainly the land along the
sea side with the width proportional with the form and its
physical condition minimally 100 meters from the highest tide
point lead ward land.
The building orientation as initially build facing water refers
to its activities based water oriented. Further development the
activity oriented to land and increasing to rise (even more
dominantly), the houses build oriented tends facing to the land
ward and consider more the functional aspect and accessibilities.
By architecture, the building on the river side classified into :
1. Buildings on land
2. Buildings staged on land
3. Buildings staged on water
4. Buildings raft on water
The architectural buildings provided in a traditional and modern
styles and its refers to the background of cultures and each ethnic
group. The building typology adopted a simple structure and
construction, make traditional and conventional, perhaps neglect
considering the wind influence. There are many times found
burning on careless, people use dangerous equipment/tools and
flammable, as well as not existing facilities and no guidance for
extinguishing particularly for houses on waters.
The river side settlement with the land region for research
compound between the fisherman settlement and river bank
settlement noted shortage superstructure and infrastructure such
as drink water and road facility, a lower rate income, people care
on environment is lower and their education rate is lower as well
as. The settlement found on water side available on this Asahan
River, mostly community live there had a very lower income with
their way of living as fisherman and they got socialized with the
village area existed and on the main land is known as a marginal
settlement on Tanjungbalai town. If seen from the comfortable
point view this region offer no any thing, but their comfortable and
they feel at home atmosphere, on other side still offer them
harmony live, warmly relation and familiar each other as normal
psychological human.
282

2. The Relations of Dwelling Place with the Working

Location
The human and its environmental constitute a unit unable
to separate, means both got interaction each other, which
interaction will influence on human behavior. The environment
might be a physical sphere namely universe surrounding in
natural or artificial made. As a human is of course social creature
so take always interacted with other, and there appeared then
some houses named as settlement. In his book, Yunus (1994)
with the theory of hoyt sector mentions, population take zone
three namely zone with a slum settlement. Those lower workers
prefer house near to the location where they work, aimed for
saving transportation cost. The user of town site mainly on the
zone three, according to R.V Ratclif stated out as an exchange
phenomenon between the land price and dense between the
transportation cost and dense. This possible to run for mostly
community want a lower transportation cost. So exploiting space
by human still be based on the considerations of distances that
links directly with the economy factor.
In essentially, the factor cause the community not able or
live under poverty and then take dwell next to river side
comprising of three factors :
1. Economy factor, people capability they hold in order to fulfill
their living needs, for instance working and income.
2. Social factor is their capability adapted with the environment,
for instance education rate and knowledge.
3. Cultural factor, is their background on culture, ethnic group
and traditions as well as their faith in hold.
4. Lower education rate that people got
5. Closed relation they hold among those community dwell
together.
For economy factor, social and culture as well as
education is recognized influencing highly and immediately to the
growth of spontaneous settlement found on river bank, in addition
it can be mentioned that to the settlement of river bank later have
a various characteristics as the following :
1. It has superiority location that possibility to become a central
for economy growth.
2. The community have social activity oriented to water and
main land.
3. Mostly people with a lower economy group with a relative
limited education background.
4. Their knowledge on a health environment is still shortage.
They usually do not care about their environment and have
tendency neglect any risk and danger of earthquake.
5. Found there community with their tradition to live on water
and used to exploit waters and rivers as their transportation
way.
283

6. It is an openly zone (access directly).

Originally, the river side settlement occupied by community
requiring shelter only away from outside weather and they need it
closed to the location where they worked. In generally, the
community live on the river side make their living way informally
and mostly they were as fishermen, they could move easily
mobilized with their working such as boats closed to their house
and they need near distance for dwelling. According to Turner
(1968), in Hadi Sabari Yunus theory, there are four sorts of
dimension need to pay attention particularly in knowing more the
living houses on any urban, they are :
1. Dimension of location relies on the areas very suitable for
dwelling house. This condition pressed more on their income
and way of cycles in life. This location closed relation with the
distance for working (accessibility to employment).
2. Dimension of housing related with ones aspiration to the type
of house available. This condition mostly people make
argument to the aspect of controlling the house and usually
linked with the income and living cycle.
3. Dimension of cycle of live, deals with ones stages
commencing to have starting autonomy to life, in wide
meaning all living needs one hundred percent supported by
own income.
4. Dimension of income, emphasized on how many ones
income gained on time unit.
According to the argument of Panudju (1999), in making
priority about the house, someone and one family having a lower
income tend to put their main priority on the location where they
shall get opportunity to job. It means, without any job for
supporting their daily needs, it shall be very difficulty to maintain
their life. While, status of house possession and have land shall
the second priority. For the house with quality shall be the last
priority, but the important one on this stage is existing a house for
protecting and got relax for their way to maintain life. In the social
housing system, so Jo Santoso (2002) stated out that house for
community with a lower income shall be :
1. Near to the working place or to an area potential to get job, at
least worker on informal sector.
2. The quality in physical of dwelling and environment is not
important as far as they still can live and hold to work.
3. The rights and privilege owned on land and building is not
care. The most important for them is never to condemn and
do not ask them remove. According to their opinion, a house
is facility.
From above description, the relation between the location
of work with the location for residence has many link with
economy, social and culture and all it closed each other. The
three factors affecting the community, people not have capability
284

or live under the poverty line for living on the residence chosen on
the river side, as already mentioned above, from thence the
emerging residence of water side mainly on town is as alternative
for living with the economy consideration.
The Methodology of Research
Based on the background and formulation of case to this
study, identified some variables involved and influencing factors
cause community persistently to dwell on the settlement on river
side. The method for collecting the data adopted with conducting
a field survey, carried out there also interview to those community
locally, and distribute a questionnaire to have the result more
accurately, while other data(s) taken from the authority in
competency. Further, from each component described out factors
related with, then analyze it by comparing the phenomenon of
each factor on the site of study, completed it all with a descriptive
method and analyze it statistically. From this analysis, referred to
the phenomenon occurred on community local found on the
location of spontaneous settlement, later found the findings. The
result of findings later compared to the framework by theory and
on the cases found on the location of water side settlement. At
last, take a conclusion and provide a recommendation from the
study.
Survey to the Location
On the middle of this town flowing two river namely Asahan
River and Silau River. This location of study lied on fore part
estuary of both river. This settlement as residence including into
Kecamatan Tanjungbalai Utara, comprising of Kelurahan Kuala
Silo Bestari, borders with :
Northern ward : Kecamatan Sei Tualang Raso
Southern ward : Kecamatan Tanjungbalai Selatan
Western ward : Kecamatan Datuk Bandar
Eastern ward : Kecamatan Sei Kepayang Kab. Asahan.
The width region of Kelurahan Kuala Silo Bestari of 0.171
km2 with total population 15,351 people/km2, whereas the width
region of study per RT total population has 1213 people and total
houses of 223 units.
285

Figure 1. the location of Study, River side of Asahan

The Result of Study
The result of study, the background of socio economy of
community can be formulated as the following :
1. Background of Residents
The residents to this settlement comprising of community
group in a lower income, in generally their living way are as
fishermen and labor. By the questionnaire distributed from them
obtained the result showed that their expenditures approximately
> 300,000 rupiahs, and some of residents did not mention their
total income, and in field it can be seen from their living and daily
life condition, while the education rate of head-family in generally
hold Junior High School grade.
The characteristics of residents in family on the housing
are as a lower economy group with a total members of family
approximately 4 6 people such as Father, Mother with 2 6
children. Mostly head of family aged in a productive age
environment approximately ranged 30 60 years. Status of
house possession of resident on this settlement region majority
owned by themselves.
The result of interview showed in actually that a tendency
to reside maintained on the region on a reason they got forced to
live there and they have no sufficient income for removing
although they aware the dangerous.
286

2. Factors persistent to Live on the Water Side

The residents living on the location have several causes
factor. Based on the result of interview and from the result of
questionnaire distributed seemly that mostly community to prefer
live on this zone because closing and near to the location of
working as in generally they work as fishermen. Another factor
because the community living to this settlement involved noted
having a closed relation between them.
If seen from the year they took residing noted since 1970,
they born and grew up on the location locally, it can be taken
conclusion the community living on the Kuala Silo Bestari site had
already got adaptation with the environment closely and this
perhaps will influence their perception as residents to the location.
Conclusion
Based on the result of study on the location of study, and
bases to the result of statistical test can be taken conclusion that
factors cause the community persistently to live on the water
settlement on the reasons as the following :
1. Having relation of location to reside with the location where
they work. If connected to their way of living as the resident
to the site of study noted that majority (59%) their occupation
as fishermen. In generally, the fishermen always to reside on
the location to where they work and not far from the river
side for they got easy to put and save their aids tool around
their house for their aid tools unable to bring home, such as
boats,
and so on. On the location of study, mostly
community build their house sticks out body of river in stage
form.
2. Having relation of location for residing with the original site.
For the community residing on this location mostly Batak
ethnic group, but they live already longer on the Tanjungbalai
Town particularly on Kelurahan Kuala Silo Bestari, seen from
the result of field study through the questionnaire and
obtained 50% since they bear and live there for longer.
3. Having relation of location for residing with other family live
already on the side, some 17% respondent mentioned
having family more then one and about 50% respondent has
one family. Each family either with one family or more than
one family have occupation as fishermen and labor.
Accordingly, majority profession of them is closed to
fisherman, and they have any alternative for having any work
but fisherman, and mostly them have a lower education rate.
From the result of study by field seen that the community
occupying the settlement of water side available on Kelurahan
Kuala Silo Bestari on the side line of Asahan River maintain to
live on that settlement refers to their theory adopted on this study.
--
287

Reference
Koentjananingrat,
(1982),
Kebudayaan,
Mentalitas dan
Pembangunan, Gramedia, Jakarta
Santoso, J., Budi PI, Parwoto (2002), Sistem Perumahan Sosial
Di Indonesia, Centre Of Urban Studies
Suprijanto, I., (2003) Kerentanan, Kawasan Tepi Air Terhadap
Kenaikan Permukaan Air Laut, Dimensi Teknik Arsitektur
Volume 31, No. 1 2003
Turner, J.F., (1968), Cand Fichter, Robert, Freedonm to build,
Dweller Controll of The Housing, The Manmillan Company,
New York, Collier Macmillan Limited, December 1972,
Doxiadis Constantinos Ekistics: An Introduction to the
science of Human Settlements
Undang-undang Nomor 4 tahun 1982 Tentang Perumahan dan
Permukiman
Yunus, H.S. (1994) Teori dan Model Struktur Keruangan Kota,
Fakultas Geografi UGM, Yokyakarta
288

BANDUNG COLONIAL CITY REVISITED,

DIVERSITY IN HOUSING NEIGHBORHOOD*)
Rini Raksadjaya
Architecture Design Research Group
School of Architecture, Planning, and Policy Development
Institut Teknologi Bandung
Introduction
Bandung is a city with a history dated from 1400s, located
on the fertile soil of Preanger Highland. This was a condition that
attracts the Westerners to come and lived in the abundant wealth
of plantation in the southern area of Preanger Highland.
At the time the Dutch came, there was an indigenous
settlement with a regent (bupati) as head of society. The
European adventure to Priangan highlands got support when a
road was built connecting Jakarta, Bogor, Cianjur and Bandung
as a part of increasing Dutch military defense, the Groote
Postweg (Great Post Highway). In 1810, the construction of the
Post Highway through Bandung area was completed. The regent
was ordered to move his regency seat to a location south of the
highway.
Nearly all colonial towns have one thing in common, that
is the segregation between indigenous and colonial settlement.
Colonial cities were created by the exercise of power by some
groups over others, to extract an agricultural surplus and provide
services (King, 1985). However, settlement segregation in
Bandung colonial city was not as distinct as some other colonial
cities as shown in the city expansion and neighborhood
development.
In 1906 Bandung got the status of gemeente
(municipality) under the Dutch sovereignty. A view years later, a
development plan for the town was initiated. Along with the
development of a railway transportation system, expansion of
Bandung city was planned. Lead by the Stadsvormingcommissie
which ir Thomas Karsten, architect and town planner, was one of
the member, the city developed to north-east and north-west area
to accommodate a number of neighborhood areas. The new
development plan was based on the principles of the Garden City.
The plan for North Bandung was followed with overall
development plan for the city (Siregar, 1990).
The development of North Bandung was supposed to support the
Netherlands East-Indies government plan to move the capital city
*)
A paper prepared for The Knowledge City International Seminar at the

Department of Architecture - University of Sumatera Utara, in November 13-14,
2007
289

from Batavia to Bandung. The municipality provided ready to to

build parcels to builders that focused to the affluent society.
Meanwhile, increasing activities attracted people from
surrounding country areas to the city. For them that were related
to the activities of development, but could not afford to buy
housing units from the builders, clusters of low-income housing
were built. The clusters of low-income units were strategically
located among the new housing development, against the
principles of segregation of the colonial cities, but still did not
mean integrating people among different socio-economical
classes.
In 1930,
Bandung was planned to accommodate
750,000 inhabitants within 25 years. The initial size of Bandung
gemeente was 900 ha, increased to 8,000 ha in 1949, and
became nearly 17,000 ha according to the latest city plan,
accommodating approximately 2,500,000 inhabitants. There are
evidence that housing neighborhoods are differentiating
themselves into new forms of segregation. Concentration of
affluence housing neighborhoods develop in North Bandung area,
while the less unfortunate are located in clustered housing at the
periphery or land areas that have low location value.
Development of Bandung Colonial City
Colonial cities
Anthony D. King (1985) defined colonization as follows:
the establishment and maintenance, for an extended time, of the
rule over alien people that is separate and subordinate to the
ruling power. The process extended the boundaries of one
society to incorporate other territory and peoples. By this process,
the city, as a cultural artifact, became an instrument of
colonization. A number of typological criteria can be used to
understand the social and spatial form of a colonial city
development. One of them is where an indigenous settlement
already existed, and the colonist site and accommodation are
incorporated into a new planned settlement (King, 1985). This
was the situation in the case of Bandung; the motivation for
colonization was the acquisition of land for agriculture. There
were indigenous settlements, and the conquest was made by
forced leasing of land and forced labor (Kunto, 1986).
Towns in the Netherlands East-Indies
Batavia was the first town established by the United EastIndies Company (Vereenigde Oost Indische Company VOC). It
became the center of trade and soon monopolized commerce in
the entire Netherlands East-Indies region. The development of
towns was concentrated on the island of Java, due to the large
number of outlying islands spread over a large area, and the state
of transportation. Data from 1920 through 1930 showed that there
290

was a rapid population growth in the towns of Java. Jakarta,

Surabaya, Bandung, and Semarang became towns with
population of more than 100,000. Inhabitants of the colonial towns
were grouped according to legal status. The European was
considered as citizen number one and lived European housing,
spread in the best location in town. Indigenous inhabitants lived in
traditional settlements, called kampong. The Chinese group
lived in a Chinese camp, but later on, they were allowed to live
outside the camp. There were other foreign Orientals that were
treated like the indigenous or the Chinese. Non-Europeans were
able to request European legal status, and, if it was granted, they
were treated like European with similar status (Wertheim et al,
1958). Based on these legal status groupings, neighborhoods
were clustered spatially, even without clear physical boundaries
between them.
The early development of Bandung colonial city
The completion of Post Highway in 1810 through
Bandung was a milestone of Dutch colonization on Priangan
region and the city. Priangan then became the most prosperous
plantation area in West Java (fig.1). In 1880 the rail line
connecting Batavia and Bandung was completed, and promised a
shorter trip compared to a car trip.
Fig.1 Bandung 1826

Source: Semerbak Bunga di Bandung Raya (1986)
The railroad supported the growth of light industry.

Primary processing of raw plantation crops then could be done
291

efficiently in Bandung. A number of Chinese came to Bandung to

help run the facilities, and services to the new industries. The
development of Chinatown dates from this period. The indigenous
houses were scattered mostly south of the Post Highway. The
European and other first class citizen houses were built along
streets that ran uphill in the northern part of the city (Kunto, 1986;
Wertheim et al, 1958) The establishment of Bandung as a
municipality, in 1906, also created early planning activities in the
city. In the earlier development, the Dutch army held an important
role in decision making, construction, and maintaining security
during construction (Kunto, 1986).
A Planned Development of Bandung Colonial City
Image transformation of an Indische stadt
The Bandung municipality had a centralized power called
gemeente. The city was not granted decentralized power the
stadsgemeente until 1926. During the gemeente state, the
Dutch government restricted its power only to deal with and
manage the European society and territory. The indigenous
society was left under the rule of the regent. The segregation of
power gave a certain character to the physical development of the
settlement. European houses were built along streets developed
by the Dutch government and were subject to building codes, as
European citizens were subject to Dutch law. This regulation also
affected the non-European that were granted Eurpean status by
law. The undeveloped land that was left between the European
houses became the kampong of the indigenous inhabitants (Nix,
1949). In 1926, the otonomous rule of regent was abolished, and
the kampong areas were brought under the administration of
Dutch municipal services. It was in the same year the
stadsgemeente was granted to the city (Siregar, 1990)
In line with the increasing power of administration, the
municipality started to enhance the environmental quality of the
city, through infrastructure development, kampong improvement,
land use planning, and planned city expansion. There was a
rivalry between Batavia and Bandung to be the best city in
Netherlands East Indies, particularly when the plan to move the
capital city from Batavia to Bandung could not be implemented
(Buitenweg, 1976). As the city was growing, the image of Indische
stadt was diminishing. Bandung became a unique blend of
European life style, tropical environment that influence building
architecture hand in hand with the flourishing Art Deco style,
Chinese business, indigenous pasar and services, and many
other activities. The European-Indonesian symbiosis slowly took
over spatial seggregation in the city development (Buitenweg,
1976; Siregar, 1990).
292

North Bandung developmet

The municipality established a committee, in charge of
the city physical development. In 1917, a development plan for
north Bandung was initiated, that was supposed to support the
development of Bandung as the capital city of Netherlands East
Indies. Although the plan of the capital city was not completed,
the city expansion was well planned and most of the plan was
implemented. The Uitbreidingsplan Bandoeng-noord North
Bandung Development Plan was based on the Garden City
principles; the neighborhoods were not fully self-supporting, but
facilitated by the .old city. Thomas Karsten, a leading town
planner at that time, contributed to Bandung development through
establishment of Bandung city bouwverorderning that became the
base of the neighborhood design. A various scale of land lot and
housing blocks were carefully designed, layer by layer, matching
the width of streets or boulevards (fig.2). The overall plan seemed
to apply a zoning system which was based more on economic
levels instead of on ethnicity (Siregar, 1990; Voskuil, 1996).
The Gemeentelijk Groundbedrijf the municipal land
service had a task to guide the development by means of
municipal land policy that had several practical purposes. The
municipality provided non-profit oriented services in order to act
against land speculation practice and increasing land rate, to
assure the builders would follow high technical and hygienic
requirements, and to assure a great, beautiful and healthy
environment. The main service was to provide a large choice of
ready to build lots in various sizes, locations, and prices, for
candidate dwellers and builders. The builders, and also small
contractors, built a limited cluster of housing that were marketed
to Europeans active in government service or business, or to
pensioners, and even to indigenous people.
293

Fig.2 Part of a Neighborhood
The rapid development of the city pulled people from

other part of the region. Some worked in jobs related to the
government, or related to the construction in north Bandung, The
less fortunate settled down in the kampongs. The development of
the city also pushed emerging indigenous sub-group, e.g. lower
class civil servant, clerks, workers in the Railway Company or
other industries. Their jobs were related to the Europeans but
their social status was inferior to the European community. They
were also socially dislocated from the kampong lower class
society. At the same time, they could not afford to buy houses
built for the Europeans (Siregar, 1990; Voskuil, 1996).
The Woningsbedrijf the Municipal Housing Agency
built a number of affordable low-income housing clusters, referred
as kleinwoningbouw. The housing clusters were inserted in the
interior side the planned neighborhood areas (fig.3 & 4). The
agency built hundreds small houses of various type and
construction methods to apply appropriate technology for low-cost
housing. A community facility consisting of a public open space
and a row of Chinese small shop houses was located at the
center of the inner block. The layout of street and houses,
construction technologies, buildings material were all
experimental effort to achieve a physical environment that
integrate in the larger neighborhood and overall city development.
The overall layout of the housing cluster or neighborhood created
a tapestry of diverse socio-economical society. Large and
medium housing lots were located in the outer layer and
294

facilitated by a spacious street or boulevard. Smaller lots were in

the inner layer, and a cluster low-income housing inserted in the
interior pocket. Diversity in urban housing was implemented in a
colonial city.
Community center
& open space
Kleinwoningbouw
Fig.3 Kleinwoningbouw in Gempol Area

A View from Nowadays Bandung
In 1987 the city administrative boundaries was extended
to accommodate the Greater Bandung Plan (Bandung Raya). It
was a plan to move higher concentrations of development outside
the current city centre.
The development of Bandung Raya is an attempt to
relieve population density pressure from the old core. A lot of
housing was built in response to the plan, in a way that separate
the larger and medium class housing from small houses. Small
houses were located in urban periphery, mostly south of
Bandung. The large and medium size houses were exclusively
clustered and mostly in north of Bandung or closer to city facilities
and had higher accessibility.
Housing areas that were built by the colonial Dutch suffer
under pressure of new development. A lot of houses were torn
down to give way for a new architectural style or new function.
Small houses were demolished and new large houses built for
different social class. What was once an image of diversity that
suit the future became the lost past.
From a physical viewpoint, there is not much concern for the older
fabric of the built environment. In regard to the historic areas in
295

Bandung, LSAI (The Foundation of Architectural History Society)

asserts:
These days Bandung Raya is still years ahead, yet the land
has suffered deeply. Commercial activities run amok, God
only knows who can take control. The city core is practically
uprooted, old faces are torn down, lot sizes regrouped, and
what was idyllic residence is now bustling chain
supermarkets and rich banks.
The Real Estate investors are primary players in the
development of urban environment. A new kind of social
segregation is implemented in housing supply. Referring to Abidin
Kusno (2000) what happened in the development of Bandung city
is a dialogue with the colonial past, in the form of forgetting, that
resulted the reproduction of a form of colonialism itself.
References
Buitenweg, Hein (1976), Bandoeng. Servire Katwijk aan Zee
King, Anthony D. (1985), Colonial cities: Global pivot of change,
in R.J. Ross and G.J. Tellkamp (eds.), Colonial Cities.
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht
Kunto, Haryoto (1986), Semerbak Bunga di Bandung Raya.
Penerbit PT Granesia, Bandung
Kusno, Abidin (2000), Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture,
Urban Space and Political Cultures in Indonesia.
Routledge, London and New York.
Wertheim, W.F. et all (1958), The Indonesian Town: Studies in
urban sociology. W. van Hoeve Ltd, The Hague
Nix, Thomas (1949), In Indonesi en de Stedebouwkundige
Vormgeving: Een studie over de algemene vormgeving in
de stedebouw en haar toepassing op de stedebouw in
Indonesi, Uitgevers: Nix, Bandoeng, and de Toorts,
Heemstede
Siregar, Siregar.A. (1990), Bandung, the Architecture of a City In
Development: Urban analysis of a regional capital as a
contribution to the present debate on Indonesian urbanity
and architectural identity, Volume I & II, a doctoral thesis,
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculteit Toegepaste
Wetenschappen, Departement Architectuur, Stedebouw en
Ruimtelijke Ordening, Afdeling Architectuur, Heverlee
Voskuil, Robert P.G.A. et all (1996), Bandoeng, Beeld van een
stad. Asia Maior, Purmerend.
296

COMMUNITYS GREEN BEHAVIOR

MANAGEMENT TO SUSTAINABLE CITY
Azizah Hanim Nasution1, Hendaru Sadyadharma 2
Abstract
The roles of human behavior in their environment and
development are potent to decide the direction of sustainable city.
The fact is that the pro-environmental behavior in a community is
significantly needed as the key point for achieving this goal. It
also becomes a big challenge for the community to participate.
This paper aims at describing a concept of communitys green
behavior as a reflection of their pro-environmental behavior and
participation that can be achieved from the development of
knowledge, attitude and practice. This concept is made to
bridging the city residents to be more knowledgeable to manage
their own environment to
Keywords: green behavior, sustainable city
1. Introduction
Although mostly people concern about the economic and
social growth, recent issues show that the environmental concern
has remain strong in the universe, especially the global warming.
People at least understand that global warming deals with the
issue of environment. However, for some, it is only an issue,
which is in some respect uncertain and unknown.
In daily activities people will sometimes unconditionally
and sometimes purposefully focus on their environmental
consequences. Some are concerned about what they are eating,
what they are wearing and what their responsibilities are for the
environment, and some are not. There is, in fact, a strong
relationship between life styles and global warming (Media
Indonesia, 9 September 2007, p. 21). In other words, life styles
can contribute a negative effect to the environment. Therefore,
humans behavior should be managed in order to lead the
direction of the effects to the positive ways. In this case, it is
assumed that the green behavior is crucial as it is reflected in the
actions people do in their daily activities.
1
A current PhD student of natural Resources and Environment management, The

University of North Sumatra (adeanasti@yahoo.com)
A current PhD student of natural Resources and Environment management, The
University of North Sumatra (hendarusadyadharma@yahoo.com)
297

In general, many Indonesian people have not yet

performed such a behavior, including the Medan city residents.
The advancement of technology has still been used for life
comfort in the short-term only; there is still a poor realization of its
long-term (either positive or negative) impact such as in the use
of excessive air conditioning. In another case, many people do
not know that they can utilize used water, either after taking a
shower or cleansing vegetables or fruits, which in fact, can have a
multiplier function. However, the real situation of Medan city
residents green behavior should be further examined.
This paper aims at examining Medan city residents green
behavior in order to identify what factors that may contribute. The
examining will be scoped to the residents self-evaluation by
exploring their knowledge, attitude and practice toward the
environment. It is expected that the results will give a motivation
in terms of developing residents pro-environmental motivation.
2. Sustainable City
Sustainable city is a difficult concept to define as it refers
more to a process rather than an end-point3. Therefore, it has
many concepts and definitions. Stephen Wheeler in his 1998s
article suggests a definition of sustainable city development as
development that improves the long-term social and ecological
health of cities and towns. These include compact, efficient land
use, less automobile use yet with better access, efficient resource
use, less pollution and waste, good housing and living
environments, a healthy social ecology, sustainable economics,
community participation and involvement, and preservation of
local culture and wisdom4.
In addition, the term sustainable city or urban
development has been defined as improving the quality of life in
a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social
and economic components without leaving any burden on the
future generations, (in term of reduce of natural capital and
excessive local debt, and unequal of energy, financial
input/output), (Rees, W.E & Roseland, M., 1991, Sustainable
Communities Planning for the 21st Century. Plan Canada,
31:3:15).
There are several similar concepts available in several
countries such as India, Argentina, Sweden and Central Europe.
The concept of sustainable city in India is defined as one that is
able to provide the basic needs of the population along with the
necessary infrastructure of civic employment, good governance,
etc. It should take care of populations need and all sections of
society without discrimination. In Argentina, the sustainable city is
3
4
Stockholm Environment Institute.

REC (Regional Environment Center)
298

defined as a city where achievements include social, economic

and physical development are made to last and has a lasting
supply of the natural resources on which its development
depends, lasting security from environmental hazards which may
threaten development achievement. While in Sweden sustainable
city is defined as one that puts in place action plans and policies
that aim to ensure adequate resource availability and (re-)
utilization, social comfort and equity and economic development
and prosperity for future generations5.
From those various definitions, it can be concluded that
all of the concepts focus on three key-points of sustainable
development such as economic needs, social needs and
environmental needs for the recent generation without any burden
for the future generations needs. Hence, one may approach the
concept of sustainable city based on its characteristics as listed
below:
Sustainable city tries to minimize urban sprawl,
material and energy input comes from renewable and
recyclable sources (e.g. agriculture, waste, renewable
energy resources),
material output is kept to a minimal level (solid waste,
sewage, and air pollution),
Extensive recycling,
Minimize citys ecological footprint (i.e. the land/natural
resources necessary to supply the city with raw
materials/energy and to ensure its implementation,
Holistic system development in policy development and
decision making,
Integration of advanced environmental principles into
decision making and preparation (e.g. reduce, reuse,
recycle, polluter pays principle, internalization of external
costs, eco-efficiency in industrial production, from cradle
to grave approach/ lifecycle analysis, environmental
impact assessment, public participation in decision
making, etc.),
Democratic society
Cooperation of different stakeholders in solving problems
(may
include
businesses,
municipal/national
governments, NGOs, universities/research institutes/think
thanks, etc.) (The Regional Environmental Center for
Central and Eastern Europe).
3. Medan Sustainable City
The concept of sustainable city in Indonesia can be
defined by generating the city development indicators, i.e. human
5
ibid
299

resources, social capital, nature and environment, and physical

capital. The sustainable city development should be improved
and monitored to evaluate the achievement of the city in the past
and the city in the future. Unfortunately, those indicators are
considered underdeveloped (Rahmah, A., et al, 2001).
From the local governments website, it is stated that
Medan local government have strategic planning for 2001-2005. It
says that to realize the goals of urban developments the local
government has formulated strategic planning which also gives
orientation and commitment to the management of urban
development. By doing so, it is expected that it will be possible to
measure the performance of local government as the form of
public accountability and service needs. This expectation has
been integrated in the vision of Medan City as Medan as a
metropolitan city characterized by its civil society, having good
capacity of science and technology, religious beliefs and charity
and environmental orientation.
Environmental-oriented means efforts of creating
cleanliness, healthy, safeness, and neatness. It also means
development for brighter future for the coming generation, the
balance between development and environment caring capacity
concerns, health comfort and safety, standardization for
environmental impact, development which is relevant to social
values, such as love and cares of nature, environment and
6
culture .
Based on this description we conclude that Medan, from
the environmental perspective, also has a concept of sustainable
city like in other countries. However the city residents should
support those vision and mission by developping their green
behavior in order to achieve the three basic capabilities in
supporting the concept, i.e. knowledge related to sustainable city,
attitude toward sustainable city and participation to support
sustainable city.
Due to a very wide and numerous kinds of environmental
issues, we would like to scope this study to one of the
environmental behavior issues, namely green behavior.
4. Green Behavior
Behavior refers to the actions or interactions of an object
or organism, usually in relation to environment ( Wikipedia). In
addition, the term is defined by many who study behavior,
management, psychology, and education and culture. Behaviors
may refer to feeling and emotion and aggression (Rimm &
Masters, 1974). Behaviors may be in the form of unconditional
situation (reflexes) or purposeful intention.
6
Medan
Local
Government
pemkomedan.go.id/medan_visi_eng.php.
300
Website
http://
www.

Some behaviors are conditioned and learned, for

example studying in the evening rather than day time, aware of
traffic when crossing the road, a young girl acting like an adult,
etc., and our every day lives are filled with so many examples of
behaviors that can be conditioned, observed, measured,
responded, studied and modified when necessary. In other words,
behavior can be something that one does as his/her activities and
can be an experience from others. It may happen consciously or
unconsciously.
There are so many kinds of behavior, but it can basically
be classified or identified by its own substance, for example,
animal behavior, learning behavior, eating behavior, sexual
behavior, and also green behavior.
Green behavior actually hard to define too. However, it is
considered as an approach for positif behavior toward
environment. It frequently uses as a terminology for the green
values that can be performed by human being. Green values can
be interpreted as anything which links to the pro-environmental
motivation such as reduce, reuse and recycle activities, water
saving, energy saving, minimizing pollution, conservation
program, choosing an environmentally-friendly products or
materials, environmentally-manageable houses and rooms and
space, and even manageable coordination between human
environmental behavior, and so forth. Thus, green behavior does
not necessarily refer only to how a community maintains its green
environment in terms of planting or greening, or to keep it green.
In their everyday lives, for example, families as city
residents may not realize that they have their own green
behavior. It can be observed from their everyday activities such
as watching TV, using refrigerator, computer, energy, hair dryer,
microwave, driving, buying things, eating, showering, and
producing waste (domestic waste production). All of these things
give a very big contribution to the environment consequences, as
it is stated by the Kristen Ismuranty, Information, Education, and
Research Program Indonesia (KEHATI) that Global warming is
very dependent on residents (people) life styles 7.
5. Behavior Management
Behavior management strategies include a variety of
techniques used to increase appropriate behaviors, decrease
inappropriate behaviors, and teach new behaviors, which involve
the observation, measurement, and evaluation of target behaviors
and the identification of environmental antecedents and
consequences that maintain target behaviors (Zirpoli, 2005,p.33).
7
At the Global warming and womens life styles Jakarta, Friday 31st August
2007 ( Media Indonesia,
Minggu 9 September 2007, p. 21).
301

Furthermore, Zirpoli explains that target behavior is the

part of behavior that can be observed, measured and targeted for
change. Behavior is considered observable when it can be seen
and measurable when it can be counted in terms of frequency
and/or duration. These criteria must be met in order to make a
direct observation of behavior meaningful and reliable.
Meanwhile, consequences are events or changes in the
environment following a target behavior. For example, What are
the consequences of water saving behavior (target behavior)?,
Who provides the consequences? (parent? local government?
neighbors?), Will ones behavior end up by wasting or saving
water? Or, it could be explained in the following way. Lets
consider that ones water saving behavior at the beginning is bad
(wasting water during shower), and then he gets
punishment/reinforcing from his parent (could be his neighbor, or
local government, depending on his status in the social system),
and this consequence then might change his behavior from
wasting to saving (target behavior).
6. KAP (Knowledge, Attitude, Practice)
KAP is the abbreviation of Knowledge, Attitude and
Practice. It is a very common term. In some other studies this
term is often transferred into The Head, The Heart and The Hand
(Witman, 1997). In Indonesia, this term can be understood as
Pengetahuan, Sikap dan Partisipasi. Fortunately, such a term is
easy to understand so that many people can then simply get the
essence of it. This understanding generates a belief that
increasing knowledge, attitude and practice about environment
will make changes in behavior (Perilaku Masyarakat, ANON,
1999, p. 22). According to a study on the relationship between
behavior and KAP, it is concluded that KAP has a positive
correlation with environmental behavior, and such a behavior can
be developed by increasing KAP (Koeswandi, 2004).
6.1. Knowledge
Knowledge can be considered a set of information
arranged in a good way in oneself. The information might be
collected in such ways as formal, informal and non-formal
education. In http://www.msc.une.edu knowledge, in general, is
divided into several kinds such as (1) deep knowledge referring to
that acquired through years of proper experience; (2) shallow
knowledge: minimal understanding of the problem area; (3)
knowledge as know-how: accumulated lessons of practical
experience; (4) reasoning and heuristics: the use of reasoning by
analogy and formal reasoning, and; (5) common sense: a type
that almost every human being possess in varying
forms/amounts.
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In order to possess an environment-oriented behavior

one must improve his/her knowledge of environment. Such
knowledge can help anticipate various kinds of violation and
distortions as well as destructions to the management of
environment. A never-ending learning process will change ones
level of knowledge depending on his/her environment and
surrounding. Khasali (2007:xvi) asserts that ones self-concept
can be developed through thinking process and characters
enriched with the environment that has shaped him/her. A human
being is able to think and possesses emotions, and both elements
generate his/her behavior, which is materialized in the habit. The
results of the behavior will produce an outcome or an
achievement that he/she gains in life. Therefore, the more people
improve their knowledge, the higher their opportunities to
proliferate the outcomes.
6.2. Attitude
The term attitude may be viewed differently by experts.
Some believe that attitude refers to the emotional concomitant of
action and others say that it is actually a generalized conduct.
However, attitude is very individual, in the sense that one may
have a different attitude from others; however, it has origins in
collective behavior. In other words, attitude is something an
individual has which defines or promotes certain behaviors.
Therefore, an attitude will determine ones behavior toward
something. For example, when he/she thinks that smoking is bad
he/she will tend to dislike seeing someone smoking and hence,
he may tell the person not to do so, especially in public places.
His action reveals his uncomfortable feeling and some kind of
protection for others around the smoker. Therefore, it is obvious
that his attitude towards smoking has promoted his behavior.
Attitudes are not easy to change because attitudes are
highly influenced by ones knowledge. The illustration above
shows how much the person knows about smoking as he decides
not to smoke or to prohibit others from doing so. His knowledge of
the dangers and little value of smoking leads him to manifest his
behavior.
Environmentally speaking, attitude is considerd very
important and promising because, as Kaiser, Wolfing, and Fuhrer
(1999) claim, two-thirds of all psychological environmental
publications include environmental attitude in one way or another.
Thus, it is undeniably true that peoples attitudes are influential to
environmental behavior.
6.3. Practice
Participation is ones practice and considerable role in an
activity. Participation begins with an agreement endorsed by selfmotivation and awareness in order to generate a sense of
303

responsibility.
Therefore,
participation
reflects
ones
implementation of what he/she knows and how he/she behaves
towards something. This means that knowledge and attitude are
both perfected by practice as it is the realization that either the
person him/herself or others could evidently observe.
For example, realizing the importance of trees in the
forest in the process of absorbing water to void flood one may
have a positive attitude towards forestation. However, the attitude
will be meaningful if it is accompanied with a good action as to
contribute to forestation, possibly ranging from the smallest
portion of participation, such as telling others not to devastate, to
the largest one, such as stopping and banning illegal logging, or
at least green your own home yard.
7. Conclusion
A sustainable city concept needs basic requirements that
have to be completed. On one had, the government at the first
place have to consider enabling factors such as, social, politic,
economic, and environment. The government should promote
and facilitate the city to achieve the goal of sustainable city. On
the other hand, as an individual action, a city residents have a
great capability to conduct their role as a part of the achievement
process as long as they are agree to develop their knowledge,
attitude and practice to support their green behavior.
As many as 300 respondents (ages ranging from 18 to
40) will be involved in this research. They will be divided into
three groups according to the circles of the city: the first, second,
and third circle. Each circle will be represented by 100 randomlytaken respondents. A questionnaire consisting of knowledge,
attitude, and practice items will be administered to obtain the
data.
Likerts scale will be used which means that in every item
there will be four options for the respondents to choose. Each
option is scored differently from others, ranging from 1 to 4. Score
1 shows the least suited response and score 4 the most suited
one.
When the respondents have returned the questionnaires,
all the answers will be scored. The average score will be counted,
first of all, internally based on the city circle in which the
respondents live. This is to differentiate the results of the three
circles and to find out people of which circle perform the best. And
then, the accumulation of the scores of all respondents will be
obtained to deduce a result of the whole sample. Percentages in
relation to the responses to knowledge, attitude, and practice
questions will be revealed in order to help with the drawing of
conclusions.
304

8. References
Kaiser F.G., Wolfing S, & Fuhrer U. 1999. Environmental Attitude
and Ecological Behavior. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 19, 1-19.
Khasali, R., 2007. Re-Code: Change your DNA, Jakarta.
Gramedia
Kinds of Knowledge in http://www.msc.une.edu.. Accessed on 14
September 2007
Koeswandi, 2004, Perilaku Berwawasan Lingkungan Hidup
Perwira Siswa Perguruan Tinggi Ilmu Kepolisian di Jakarta
( Disertasi). Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia
Zirpoli, T.J.,
2005. Behavior Management: Application For
Teachers. New Jersey : Pearson Merril Prentice Hall.
Perilaku Masyarakat, ANON, 1999, p. 22
Rees, W.E & Roseland, M. 1991. Sustainable Communities
Planning for the 21st Century. Plan Canada, 31:3:15.
Accessed on 9 September 2007
Rimm & Masters, 1974. Behavior Theraphy: Techniques and
empirical findings. New York: Academic Press
Wikipedia. Accessed on 12 September 2007
http://www.pemkomedan.go.id. Accessed on 9 September 2007
Media Indonesia, 9 September 2007, p. 21
Wheeler, S. 1998, To Define Sustainable City
http://www.rec.org/REC/Programs/SustainableCities/Introdu
ction.html. Accessed on 9 September 2007.
305

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CITY

ESTABLISHMENT AND SOME PROBLEMS
UNDERLYING ITS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Sismudjito
Master of Science, Rural and Regional Development Planning,
Post Graduate School- University of Sumatera Utara
Abstract
Historically, a city is initially a village after growing
process. Manifestation of such growth bring about some activities
like social, political, economical and cultural activities, then the
village turn to be a city. In further process, city is gradually and
continuously growing, as the time passes. Some theories on city
growth which usually implemented are concentric theory, sector
theory which always bring along some problems especially in
social ecology of a city. Some emerging problems are population,
organization, technology, social-psychology and environment. In
order to minimize such problems there is one quite ideal theory
which is called multinuclear theory. This theory describes that one
city consisting of many center of development.
Introduction
Generally, in every region or area in the world lies small
site which is far from human activities. This site is commonly
known as rural area. However, such rural areas do not always
stand still or stagnate. Berger (1981) states that social dynamics
is an inherent characteristic, either for traditional or modern
society. When this statement referred to the availability of rural
area, then we can sub conclude that rural area will finally develop
into a city.
From historical point of view, a city originates from a rural
area (village). Briefly means a rural area after developing
process. Anyhow, not all rural areas will turn to be a city in its
development. There are several factors or certain requirements
for a rural area to develop into a city. Among others, the most
important one is the rural area should be the centers of
government, trade, industry and mining. With some social
economic activities criteria above, human relationship networks
will spread in accommodating all needs.
Whereas, an American sociologist Charles Horton Cooley
(1894), with his quite specific theory, said that break in
transportation regions like bus stops, railway stations, ports and
others, are centers of development. This reality is
306

comprehensible, when a certain activity requires human contact it

will enhance other interrelated activities due to the first activity.
Development process of a rural area to be a city is not
the final stage of the development, where such development will
keep on changing with different grade and speed among those
cities. According to Lewis Mumford (1938), development process
starting from establishment to its final end will undergo a series of
process from eopolis (eo=new), metropolis (metro=center),
megalopolis (megalo=big) tiranopolis (tiran= tyrant) up to
necropolis (necros=remain).
The above arguments from P.L. Berger (1981); CH.
Cooley (1894) and Lewis Mumford (1938) will be put as the basis
of analysis to evaluate some rural areas and cities, from its
establishment alteration, up to the routine stages to figure out its
development pattern, from simple until the sophisticated stage. As
symbolized by Durkheim (1964), the characteristic of the two
societies known as mechanical solidarity for rural people and
organic solidarity for city people.
City Definition
Some ideas given by experts about city definition do not
match completely considering that the idea derives from different
points of view. When city defines from characteristics or features
attached in city life, the aspects underlying its definition is not a
single feature. As its social characteristics, city has stratification
related to economical, social, political, and educational status.
Individualistic character of city people who put more priority on
their own needs than public need is very conspicuous.
Furthermore, one of characteristics shown by its inhabitants tends
to create other characters such as low social tolerance, high
social gap, where social value commonly based on multiple
aspects.
The complex features which draw the characteristics of
city community can be put as an initial step to determine and
define a city. Geographically, city can be determined as a system
of human life network indicated by a densely populated
community and a heterogenic social economical background
which tends to be materialistic, or can also be defined as cultural
fortification built by natural and unnatural elements with
symptoms of massive people centralization, more heterogenic
and materialistic life compared to its hinterland (Bintarto,
1989:36).
Based on the above statements, we can conclude that
city is a center of culture with its elements relate to social
economical, political, and cultural aspects where all citizens show
a manifestation of a certain type of human development.
Interaction network between one and other human beings is
gradually and continuously getting bigger which represents its
307

social dynamic. One realization of this social dynamic is the

population develops so rapidly that such city will suffer from
various problems. Huge number of population will bring
unimaginably various problem to control its people to live
peacefully and wealthy. Such social reality often pushes people to
compete more aggressively in achieving opportunity. When
population variable is also considered as an indicator of city
existence, then increasing number of urbanization also
contributes to the development of a city.
Whereas, other opinions referring to number of people
define a city is a center of massive number of people activities
where more contacts might happen than any other places with
more rarely populated region (Norton Ginsburg, 1981:71).
Such understanding focuses on a big number of people
populated in a certain small territorial where spatial interaction
pattern amongst its citizens happens; therefore their relationship
frequency depends solely in its territorial.
Problems in Citys Social Ecology
Basically, citys social ecology consists of interrelated
elements and integrated as a single entity. System of
interdependent among different elements, either physical or nonphysical, is an interrelated chain. Likewise, the citys social
ecology commonly connects to spatial relation and interrelation
among its social life. Families with similar social economic status
will tend to live in its group, so the life pattern is also created
differently. Hence, there are number of segregation area
domiciled by high, middle, and low social economic status.
Principally, citys social ecology consists of five elements,
where each element is concurrently. The five elements are
population, organization, environment, technology and socialpsychology. Interaction among its elements sometimes carries
out a problem to the city ecology. As the population increases,
people will be more competitive to occupy a settlement. A more
rapid mobilization shows the level of how hard or how soft they
can compete to achieve space for living. Under this condition,
citys social ecology problem usually varies in many terms. One of
those is environment problem. Establishment of this inappropriate
environment is caused by interaction amongst factors such as
organization, social-psychology, and technology. Means that
organization as a manifestation of high population indicates
limited space, either for park or recreational area, moreover for
housing and industrial area, thus contribute to very bad air
pollution. These make the environment less comfortable.
Emerging such problem starts from the working of
concentric theory (Burgess, 1933). According to concentric
theory, city development pattern is the most famous attempt. It
shows a central business district at the center, surrounded by a
308

slum consisting of old buildings which are gradually being

replaced by the expansion of the business district. This is in turn
is surrounded by zones of successively better-class residence.
Housing quality tends to improve as one moves outward from this
slum, and much of the choice residential area is located in the
suburbs. But this pattern does not fit preindustrial cities, whose
sequence of zones was reserved, with the rich living close to the
center and the poor on the fringes (Sjoberg, 1960; Abbott, 1974).
Nor does the concentric zone pattern describe city growth since
automobile transport became dominant. Thus, it fits cities at a
particular time and place. And even then, these zones are not
unbroken bands surrounding the city, nor are they circular in
shape. Instead, the various grades of residence are rather
irregularly distributed and often concentrated on one side of the
city. Briefly, concentric theory can be drawn as the following chart
:
However, environment problem usually brings about

other interrelated problem. This further problem starts from the
increasing number of urbanization from remote areas to city.
Manpower in unskilled jobs is increasing in number. This causes
309

an increasing spare time. Social value like young couple marriage

and child rising alters to be positive, hence population increase
due to fertility is also getting higher. At this point, there comes
population problem caused by interaction amongst organization,
social-psychology, and technology. Progressively, this problem
reveals other consequences such as high composition of city
population highly suppress city people for a less comfortable
place for children of the middle class. The emerging problems
accompanying are environmental, organizational, and socialpsychological problems. These problems progress to adaptation
and socialization problems for middle class people.
Reality shows that emerging of such problems, do not
end at this point. There come other repeatedly problems like
environment problem caused by organization and technology
interaction. It starts from spreading area of settlement.
Agricultural region alters to be housing complex or industrial area.
Along with that, some facilities and infrastructures related to
people mobility are also added. With a better communication and
transportation
media,
geographical
distance
between
communities is closer. The most obvious problem is that
agricultural regions are more densely populated, again brings
about environment problem.
This observation led Hoyt (1933) to frame his sector
theory of city growth, holding that a particular kind of land use
tends to locate and remain in a particular sector of the city. Thus,
industry tends to locate in one sector, upper class housing in an
opposite sector and working class housing in intermediate
sectors; then as time passes, each of these sectors simply
expands outward until some change in topography breaks up the
pattern. This sector theory is briefly figured out in the following
chart :
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Whenever evaluated further, city development is

continuously happened following the development of the society.
Indeed, emerging certain social economic activities will stimulate
other interrelated activities.
Ideal City Development Theory
Many theories have been commonly implemented to
describe city development process, anyhow no single sure fire
theory fits and is proved effective to solve problems faced by city
people. When a theory considered effective in solving problem, it
still has some shortcomings even at a minimal level. Hence, to
solve problems due to city people syndrome, some theories are
commonly combined.
Anyhow, there is one theory of city growth which will
minimize some emerging problem underlying social ecology of a
city. The theory is the multinuclear theory (Harris and Ullman,
1945). The theory holds that a number of centers business,
shopping, manufacturing and residential areas become located
early in a citys history. Topography, cost, and historical accident
all enter into these early choices. These concentrations tend to
survive and fix the pattern of later city growth. Larger cities, which
usually represent the growing together of once separate villages
or communities, provide multiple nuclei. The figurative view is
shown as follows:
The growth of these centers are caused by some

reasons, among others are : (1) Some activities require certain
facilities and therefore centers in one place that usually the place
where it exists. (2) Similar activities or business bring more
advantages when centered in one place or close to another. (3)
There are some activities or businesses categorized as opponent,
(4) For some business activities, city center is less advantageous
and too expensive.
311

In its further growth, some new activity centers can not

stay in city center or old downtown. They have to move away.
Thus, following Harris and Ullman theory, this will end in creating
a new ideal city, minimizing emerging problems, although some
factors can not be predicted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbott, Walter F. (1974) Moscow in 1987 as a Preindustrial City : A Test of the
Inverse Burgess Zonal Hypathesis, American Sociological
Review, 39 : 542-550.
Berger, Peter, L. dan Hans Friend Keller, (1981) Sociology, Reinterpreted. An Essay on
Method and Vocation, Jakarta LP3ES
Bintarto R, (1989), Village City Interaction, Jakarta, Ghalia Indonesia
Burgess, Ernest W. (1967) The Growth Of The City, in Robert E. Park, Ernest W.
Burgess and Roderick Mc. Kenzie. The City Chicago,
University of Chicago Press.
Cooley, Charles Horton, (1894), The Theory Of Transportation, Publication Of The
American Economic Association, Vol. 9 No. 3.
Durkheim, Emile, (1964), The Divison Of Labor In Society, Glence, The Free Press.
Harris, CD, and El. Ullan (1945) The Nature of Cities, Annals Of The American
Academy of Palitical and Social Science, 242 : 7 17
Hayt, Homer, (1933), One Hundred Years of Land Values in Chicago : University Of
Chicago Press.
Ginsburg Norton, (1977), City and Modernization in Myron Weiner, Modernization
Dynamics Growth, Yogyakarta, Gadjah Mada University
Press.
Lewis Mumfrod, (1938), The Culture Of Cities, New York, Garcourt, Brace and
Company.
Sjoberg, Gideon, (1960) The Praindustrial City, NewYork, The Free Press.
312

URBAN ECOLOGY
Lita Nasution, W. MSi
Master of Science, Rural and Regional Development Planning,
Post Graduate School- University of Sumatera Utara
Abstract
The pattems of land use, and the need for good
ecological planning in urban areas, are discussed. Urban
developers should mix land uses with human communities,
concentrate land use, favor small-scale development, allow users
to design development, seek sell-sufficiency and discourage the
use of private car. The human communities as integral parts of
ecosystems poses special problems for the development and
testing of ecological theory. If there is a laboratory where
ecological change can be studied at close hand, it is the city.
Arrangement or urban lay out need a good integration among
every part, government and all its institution, government bodies,
a solid and authorized law enforcement institution, correctional
facility, and all urban residences in order to achieve national
development goal that is sustainable urban development with
environment perspective. This effort needs a long and deep
examination, not only to simulate the right policies but also in
order to minimize the negative effect that can be caused by the
development.
Key word: urban, ecology human communities, environment,
sustainable development
Introduction
Today one often hears citizens groups and
environmentally aware individuals calling for the reorganization of
a town or of a city district in accordance with the latest knowledge
in the field of urban ecology. In this article we attempt to define
the good ecological planning facing this new type of urban
ecology, which will stive to understand people and their urban
behavior in the inclusive way the first ecologists tried to
understand remote tropical isles-defining and studying the
interactions between people and the so-called natural
environment in which their cities exist.
In our view ecosystems span a continuum, from the
pristine to the urban, along which the role of human activity grows
from marginal to dominant It is interesting that the term urban
ecology was coined by sociologists who sought to use ecological
theory to describe human behavior in the urban setting. Today we
313

are attempting to integrate human-dominated ecosystems into

ecology itself.
Ecology constitutes part of dynamic ecosystem. Urban
ecology includes architecture, design, land utilities, lay out
arrangement; economy and other aspects to make a city worth
dwelling. Traffic, garbage disposal and water consumption are
three mayor elements of urban environment Big and small cities,
as parts of other human life, need to integrate better with
ecosystem to perform sustainable development with an
environment perspective.
Urban area has many roles in ecosphere, that is, a place
where excessive energy and ingredient concentrated and altered.
At one side, urban area is a market, center of factories and center
of distribution. Urban area is also center of organization. The
energy flow into the area to provide food, heat, shelter,
entertainment and interaction among people who spread
information. The organization also refers to leaders, managers,
whether private company or government, and each individual who
is involved in forming discourse and opinion, from religious leader
to media. Urban population makes decisions which affect energy
flows in the ecosphere.
A city must awn a transportation system to keep flowing
of goods, distribution and channeling of food ingredients in a large
scale. In general. transportation in a city consists of three types:
1. Private Transportation, such as: car, motorbike, and bicycle.
2. Mass Transportation, such as: bus, electronic tram or train.
3. Special Transportation, such as: pick-.up car or pick-up bus
and minibus.
Urban transportation system needs to be managed by
establishing utilization policy of 50% mass transportation, 35%
private transportation and 15% special transportation. Besides
transportation network a city need clean water pipeline network,
water drainage, reservoir, electricity power plant and
communication network.
Environment problem that happen in an urban area is
pollution. Pollution is a huge problem which has 3 factors as its
background, such as:
- Industrial processes:
1. The amount of smoke in the air has been increase, as well as
the amount of waste flowing into the water.
2. Population growth:
More goods have been discarding and there is lesser space
to dispose of those discarded goods.
3. Chemical
Beginning on the year of 1828 with urea synthesize, chemist
experts have been formulated of found about 7 millions new
chemical essences/substances: dye/coloring substance,
explosive ingredients, plastic, detergent, thinner, etc. Problem
314

emerge due to so many discarded goods/garbage disposed

into the environment which change the characteristic of those
discarded goods. A few examples about that area:
- On the 1950kb era, there was nuclear bomb on the ground
level at a remote area which caused falling of fallen
radioactive that can detect in the river, rainfall, food
ingredients and water all over the world.
- Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) sprayed onto plants
to eradicate insects has caused the chemical ingredients of
DOT infiltrate into ponds and rivers causing decreasing of
pelican population in the l96O, eagles are close to
extinction; DOT in the water also hamper formation of
eggshell on birds.
Environment pollution that occurs in urban area is:
1. Garbage pollution.
For disposal purposes, garbage must be managed
efliciently by sorting out garbage into two types is solid or liquid.
To sort out garbage, a final garbage dump must be provided. It
has to be coated by or plastic to protect soil water. Garbage
produdion can be decrease by garbage recycling. To make
garbage recycling can happen industries in urban area shouki
already have the ability in using ex materials. Those goods that
can be recycled are:
- Garden trash
- Paper
- Aluminium
- Various plastics
- Water
- Banana skin
Another way of garbage management is to reduce the
source of garbage by decreasing usage of disposable goods.
Reducing the source of garbage is related to goods life cycle,
people should use goods that have longer life cycle.
Reducing of garbage source and recycle program have
been success in some area, for example, in Seattle individual
garbage production declined about 65% between 1983 to 1993,
and only a few people who still use garbage stove.
2. Water pollution
Water pollution caused by disposing of domestic waste
into water without having processed it first. The above matter can
be surmounting by constructing a modern-liquid domestic waste processor, where solid matter distracted from water. At first,
garbage was strained, and then allows the water to stay in the
sedimentation tank until the waste precipitate at the bottom of the
tank. Finally, add the oxygen content of the water (aeration) and
purify from germ and microbe by applying chlorine before discard
315

into the nearest spillway. The accumulated waste has been dean
enough to be altered into fertilizer that has the shape of pill which
can be trade in the market.
3. Air pollution
Air pollution caused by buring fuel made from fossil at the
factories and vehicles produce dangerous substances nest.
Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and many other
chemical industry materials which have the form of gas are some
of the example. As the result, smog takes place in the air. Local
smog turns into global smog because atmosphere circulation has
a global characteristic, and atmospheres chemical is quite
complex therefore ecosystem circulate dangerous pollutant gas in
the air. Those conditions caused the following phenomenon to be
happened:
- Acidic rainfall
When reach the ground, acidic rainfall release out metal
ions from the soil:
aluminium, cadmium, mercury, and timbale which
afterward dissolved into aquifer, poisoning fishes and
animals (including human) who consume those fishes.
- Diminishing of Ozone Layer
Ozone layer has an important rote in keeping lives on
earth. This layer filters deathly sun radiation that is ultra
violet New innovation in science found a very stable
substance that is chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). CFC firstly
made on the I 93O and use inside refrigerator coil,
aerosol sprays tin, and foam in Styrofoam. From all those
goods, gas spread out into higher atmosphere layer,
afterwards attack the ozone layer Because this reaction
take place on the cold surface of clouds, ozone ho)e first
occur alongside South Pole, however, ozone layer also
diminishing above all over continents. The ultra violet
intensity on the ground increase, as well as skin cancer
cases.
- Global Heating
Global heating occur due to sun radiation. Carbon dioxide
absorbs sunshine and then gets heat up. Radiation heat
does not release out back into the atmosphere and
because of that, generally there are increasing amount of
carbon dioxide in the air, the hotter the weather on earth
therefore called as greenhouse effect. To overcome the
above matter, need an urban lay out arrangement by
develop urban forest and urban landscape about 10% out
of the total urban area; develop green line along the
street, and conservation of preserve forest.
316

The environment pollution based on above explanation

should be fully attention for urban developers. This effort needs a
long and deep examination, not only to simulate the right policies
but also in order to minimize the negative effect that can be
caused by the development.
Sustainable development is an effort to fulfill human
necessities in the presence without destroying the ability of the
next generation to fulfill their necessities in the future. Human,
animals and plants are parts of the biosphere on the earth. Every
individual who think global and act global like a responsible
heterotrophe is part of movement towards continuity.
Reference
Fower. ER, 1991. Land Use In The Ecologically Sensible City.
Alternatives Journal. (18): 1-26.
Nielsen, S. B, 1999. Urban Ecology and Transformation of
Technical Infrastructure. International Planning Studies. 4
(2): 253-254.
Collins, JP. Kinzg, A Grimm, N8. Fagan, 2000. A New Urban
Ecology. American Scientist. 88(5): 416-426
317

318

Part Five:
CITY AS AN URBAN
SOCIAL DIVERSITY
319

320

URBAN SOCIAL DIVERSITY, URBAN SELF

IMAGE, AND INQUIRY PARADIGM APPROACH
Dedes Nur Gandarum
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning,
Trisakti University
Dedesng@yahoo.com
Abstract
In some of the world's mega-cities, the diversity of
cultures has actually become an important part of the urban
identity. Cultural diversity and mutual respect for cultural
differences in cities have become an important trademark in a
global economy. This highlights the importance of continuing the
efforts to incorporate cultural diversity (social diversity) into urban
policy and urban strategies, including city design.
Design of a city is a result of the decisions and actions of many
people which determine the future shape of cities. One major
urban design issue has always been how to synthesize these
many interests into meaningful physical form. In this context, the
public process of designing cities is of high importance since a
city represents an urban social (cultural) diversity. Public process
of designing city does not start on the drawing board but starts
with a commitment by people.
The most important single element in public process
designing cities is the concept of urban self-image. This element
represents the very real but intangible perceptions of people
about the essential qualities of their city. To improve city design,
this self-image must be explored, articulated, communicated and
made the theme and focus for all development and revitalization
activity. It is essential guide by which all change will be judged.
On the other hand, there is a need to create knowledge
based city, rather than merely commercial and economical
considerations. Knowledge based city means research based or
science based city design. Then the question is, how to explore
and articulate the urban self image scientifically, which represent
the factual urban social diversity, to develop the city design
guidance. The main purpose of this paper is to discuss the inquiry
option among the paradigms, for exploring and articulating the
urban self image, as well as the role of design educational
institution and architect (professional) in society.
Key words: inquiry paradigm, public process, social diversity,
urban design, urban self image.
321

Introduction
identity. Cultural diversity can be seen as a trademark that makes
the city more attractive to international investments, tourism, etc.
Therefore it is important to continue the efforts to incorporate
cultural diversity into urban policy and urban strategies, including
city design.
Design of a city is a result of the decisions and actions of
many people which determine the future shape of cities. One
major urban design issue has always been how to synthesize
these many interests into meaningful physical form. Therefore
the focus here is on the public process of designing city. In the
public process of designing city, the design of cities does not start
on the drawing board but starts with a commitment by people. In
this context, the public process of designing cities is of high
importance since a city represents an urban social diversity.
designing cities is the concept of urban self-image. This element
about the essential qualities of their city. This image comes from
cultural and historical antecedents. This image should represent
urban social diversity or cultural diversity, which has actually
become an important part of the urban identity. Cultural diversity
can be seen as a trademark that makes the city more attractive to
international investments, tourism, etc. in a global economy. To
improve city design, this self-image must be explored, articulated,
communicated and made the theme and focus for all
development and revitalization activity. It is essential guide by
which all change will be judged.
On the other hand, there is a need to create knowledge
based city, rather than merely commercial and economical
considerations. Knowledge based city means research based or
science based city design. So the question is, how to explore and
articulate the urban self image scientifically, which represent the
factual urban social diversity, to develop the essential city design
guidance. Which inquiry paradigm could be the most suitable
scientific approach for exploring and articulating the urban selfimage. The main purpose of this paper is to discuss the inquiry
option among the paradigms, for exploring and articulating the
urban self image, as well as the role of design educational
institution and architect (professional) in society.
Urban Social (Cultural) Diversity and Urban Development
Strategy
Today most people live in cities and larger urban areas.
In other words, today cities constitute a mix of people, cultural
and social life and different important societal functions such as
322

trade, investments, education, etc. Consequently, cities are the

primary 'destinations of globalization' and it, especially in the
cities that demand and supply with respect to know-how,
investments, labor, cross- and intercultural communications, etc.
have increased - across national borders.
identity. Cultural diversity can be seen as a trademark that makes
the city more attractive to international investments, tourism, etc.
Cultural diversity and mutual respect for cultural differences in
cities has become an important trademark in a global economy.
In time of globalization and economization of all spheres
of life, human beings feel the need to identify themselves. Cultural
self awareness and conscious decision in favor of values which
are not based on economic consideration are of great influential
importance in the behavior of people within their habitat as well as
on their individual perception of the quality of life. With this in
mind, in 2002 the UNESCO approved a universal declaration on
cultural diversity. This declaration reaffirms That culture should
be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual
and emotional features of society or a social group and that it
encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of
living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs (TRIALOG,
2005).
At the same time the city as a phenomenon is an
excellent platform for integration in society. Contrary to society as
an abstract phenomenon composed by general cultural and
political norms, the city is very concrete, physical and visible. You
live in the city, meet people in different settings, hear and speak
the language and are confronted with different ways of behavior
all the time. In other words, everyday life in local urban areas
encompasses the full range of day-to-day activities and the areas
constitute meeting points for face-to-face contact and cultural
exchange with other groups in society.
This highlights the importance of continuing the efforts to
incorporate cultural diversity into urban policy and urban
strategies, including city design. The question is how to
incorporate cultural diversity into city design.
Public Process of Designing Cities
Who design our cities? Perhaps every one of us does. If
people live, work, do business there or are active in civic affairs,
chances they do, even though they may never sit down at a
drawing board. The design of cities results from fluid, complex
process of decision-making and opinion-making that spans many
years and responds to a variety of incremental changes outside
the professional designers purview. Everyday many people make
decisions which contribute more to designing the city than the
323

efforts of most design professionals in city planning, landscape

architecture and architecture. (Thomas, 1984)
The Possible Urban Design Decision Makers (Thomas, 1984)
Public Sectors
Mayor
City Council
City Manager
City Agencies
City Departments
Government
Council
State Agencies
Federal
Programs
Private Sector
Developers
Bankers
Corporations
Local Business
Economic Consultants
Engineering
Consultants
Urban
Design
Consultant
Architects
Landscape Architects
Interior Designers
Communication
Consultants
Nonprofit Sector
Neighborhood
Organization
Public Interest Groups
Development
Corporations
Preservation Groups
Community
Organization
Design Centers
Arts Organizations
Service Organizations
Foundations
Universities
Environmental
Organizations
Urban design is a result of the decisions and actions of

many people which determine the future shape of cities and their
community. Many people, in fact, participate daily in shaping the
city by virtue of their decisions, actions and influences. The focus
here is on the public process of designing city. Successful city
design happens most frequently as an open public process, which
includes a wide range of people who make decisions and take
actions to determine the physical quality of the city or contribute
to urban development. The design of cities does not start on the
drawing board; it starts with a commitment by people. Public
process of designing cities is a coordinating activity to integrate a
concern for design quality into all of these processes which relate
to urban and community development.
Urban Self-Image
Urban Self-Image
Perhaps the most important single element in public
process designing cities is the concept of urban self-image. This
element represents the very real but intangible perceptions of
people about the essential qualities of their city. This self image is
portrayed through the policies of citys leadership, communicated
in the press and media, promoted by public interest groups, and
most important exists in the consciousness of a citys public. This
image comes from cultural and historical antecedents that go
deeper than local boosters. (Thomas, 1984). This image should
represent urban social diversity or cultural diversity, which has
actually become an important part of the urban identity and can
324

be seen as a trademark that makes the city more attractive to

international investments, tourism, etc. in a global economy.
To improve city design, this self-image must be explored,
articulate, communicated and made the theme and focus for all
which all change will be judged. (Thomas, 1984).
The first step in public process of designing city is
harnessing the commitment and self-image needed to go forward
(because development and revitalization should grow from a
recognized, positive self-image of the city at large). This is one
way citizens can contribute to the design of the cities.
The Image of The Environment and Building The Image
At every instant there is more than the eye can see, more
than ear can hear, a setting or a view waiting to be explored.
Nothing is experienced by itself, but always in relation to its
surroundings, the sequences of events leading up to it, the
memory of past experiences. Every citizen has had long
associations with some part of his city, and his image is soaked in
memories and meanings (Lynch, 1960). We must consider not
just the city as a thing in itself, but the city being perceived (and
perhaps enjoyed) by its inhabitants, by million of people of widely
diverse class and character.
Image is the product both of immediate sensation and of
the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret
information and to guide action. The need to recognize and
pattern our surroundings is so crucial, and has such long roots in
the past, that this image has wide practical and emotional
importance to the individual. (Lynch, 1960)
A good environmental image gives its possessor an
important sense of emotional security. He can establish a
harmonious relationship between himself and the outside world. A
distinctive and legible environment not only offers security but
also heightens the potential depth and intensity of human
experience. Potentially, the city is in itself the powerful symbol of
a complex society. If visually well set forth, it can also have strong
expressive meaning. The observer himself should play an active
role in perceiving the world and have a creative part in developing
his image. He should have the power to change that image to fit
changing needs. (Lynch, 1960). Environmental images are the
result of a two-way process between the observer and his
environment. The environment suggests distinctions and
relations, and the observer with great adaptability and in the
light of his own purpose selects, organizes, and endows with
meaning what he sees. The image of a given reality may vary
significantly between different observers.
In context of creating knowledge based city, which also
means research based or science based city design, the
325

question is, how to explore and articulate the urban self image
scientifically, which represent the factual urban social diversity.
Urban Self Image Inquiry Approach
Approaches to Urban (City) Design Programming
In all professions there is not only a concern for quality of
the product but also a value placed on the quality of the process
that produced it. In architectural design, as well as urban design,
this means it is important to not only arrive at a good building or
city design but also continually work to improve the process for
arriving at solutions. This requires that an attempt be made to
bring as much of the process to conscious awareness as
possible. It also requires an analysis of values and attitudes with
respect to major design process issues even though in time they
may evolve and change.
Programming is the first, and perhaps the most important,
stage in the architecture of the city delivery process.
Programming is the definitional stage of design the time to
discover the nature of the design problem, rather than the nature
of the design solution. Architectural programming is the first stage
of the architectural design process in which the relevant values of
the client, user, architect, and society are identified; important
project goals are articulated; facts about the project are
uncovered; and facility needs are made explicit.(Hersberger,
1999).
Various programming methods have been developed.
These methods range from informal discussions between client
and architect to carefully articulated research studies covering
similar facilities and users leading to a comprehensive and
detailed program. Most programming approaches fall between the
two extremes. There are four approaches to architectural
programming:
design-based
architectural
programming,
knowledge-based architectural programming, agreement-based
architectural programming, and value-based architectural
programming. (Hersberger, 1999)
It seems that the value-based programming is relevant to
public process of designing cities. Value-based programming
uses systematic information gathering procedures to ensure that
important information is not overlooked in the programming
process. Value-based programming recognizes the importance of
obtaining agreement among all urban design decision makers in
open work session environment. The intent in value-based
programming is to let the most important values set the tone of
the programming effort. Value-based programming encourages
the decision makers to set forth both their programmatic and
design ideas for the project so that the professionals will have
benefit of their unique perspective. (Hersberger, 1999)
326

It is agreed that knowledge (based) city means research

based or science based city (urban) design and development.
The question is could this value-based programming in public
process of designing city be defined or categorized as science
based or research based process of designing city for developing
or designing a knowledge city?
Inquiry Paradigm
Research is careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation of information in some field of knowledge
undertaken to establish facts or principles. The facts discovered
by research are never absolute certainties. They are at best,
statements of probabilities for certain effects, given certain
situations.
Where there are complex operations to be performed or a
large body of information to be presented, the use of models often
proves useful. Models or paradigms provide a way of
understanding information or operations and their relationships
and so also serve as means for organizing and presenting ideas
about both.
There are many paradigms that we use in guiding our
actions. Our concern here, however, is with those paradigms that
guide disciplined inquiry. All these paradigms can be
characterized by the way they respond to three basic questions,
which can be characterizes as the ontological, the
epistemological, and the methodological questions.(Guba, 1990).
The questions are:
1. Ontological: What is the nature of the knowable? Or, what is
the nature of reality.
2. Epistemological: What is the nature of the relationship
between the knower (the inquirer) and the known (or
knowable)?
3. Methodological: How should the inquirer go about finding out
knowledge?
The answers that are given to these questions may be
termed, as sets, the basic belief systems or paradigms that might
be adopted. They are the starting points or givens that determine
what inquiry is and how it is to be practiced.
This paper is about options for inquiry: option among the
paradigms basic belief systems- namely: conventional positivism
and the other three paradigms, which have emerged as
successor to conventional positivism (post-positivism, critical
theory, and constructivism).
Exploring Urban Self-Image based on Positivism
The phrases how things really are and how things
really work are ontological matters. The basic belief system of
positivism is rooted in a realist ontology, that is, the belief that
327

there exists a reality out there, driven by immutable natural laws.

The business of science is to discover the true nature reality and
how it truly works. Knowledge of these entities, laws, and
mechanisms is conventionally summarized in the form of time and
context or value free generalizations. Some of these latter
generalizations take the form of cause-effect laws. The ultimate
aim of science is to predict and control natural phenomena.
(Guba, 1990).
Once committed to realist ontology, the positivist is
constrained to practice an objectivist epistemology. If there is a
real world operating according to natural laws, then the inquirer
must behave in ways that put questions directly to nature and
allow nature to answer back directly. That can be done through
the use of a manipulative methodology and empirical methods
that place the point of decision with nature rather than with the
inquirer (value free). The most appropriate methodology is thus
empirical experimentalism (Guba, 1990).
In the context of public process of designing city, where
exploring and articulating urban self image are of high
importance, positivism beliefs that although each individual
creates and bears his own image, there seems to be substantial
agreement among members of the same group (group images,
which exhibiting consensus among significant numbers). This
group image interest city planners who aspire to model an
environment that will be used by many people. The first order of
business will be what might be called the public images, the
common mental pictures carried by large numbers of a citys
inhabitants.
The question is, is there really one objective (value free)
public image, the common mental pictures carried by large
numbers of a citys inhabitants, which might be expected to
appear in the interaction of a single physical reality, a common
culture, and a basic physiological nature. Could this public image
be predicted and controlled?
Exploring Urban Self-Image based on Post-positivism
Post-positivism is best characterized as a modified
version of positivism. Prediction and control continue to be the
aim. Ontologically, post-positivism beliefs in critical realism, which
means that although a real world driven by real natural causes
exists, it is impossible for humans truly to perceive it with their
imperfect sensory and intellective mechanisms. Inquirers need to
be critical about their works precisely because of those human
frailties. But, although one can never be sure that ultimate truth
has been uncovered, there can be no doubt that reality is out
there. Realism remains the central concept.(Guba, 1990)
Epistemologically,
post-positivism
recognizes
the
absurdity of assuming that it is possible for human inquirer to step
328

outside the pale of humanness while conducting inquiry. Work in

the sciences has aptly demonstrated that findings emerge from
the interaction of inquirer and inquired into. To overcome these
problems post-positivists counsel a modified objectivity, hewing to
objectivity as a regulatory ideal but recognizing that it cannot be
achieved in any absolute sense. It can be achieved reasonably
closely, by striving to be as neutral as possible; by coming clean
about ones own predispositions so that the reader can make
whatever adjustments to the proffered interpretations of findings
that seems appropriate; by relying on critical tradition, that is,
requiring the reports of any inquiry to be consistent with the
existing scholarly tradition of the field; and by subjecting every
inquiry to the judgment of peers in the critical community, that is,
the editors and referees of journals as well as the readers. (Guba,
1990).
Methodologically, post-positivism provides two responses
to emergent challenges. First, in the interest of conforming to the
commitment to critical realism and modified subjectivity, emphasis
is placed on critical multiplisism, which might most usefully be
thought of as a form of elaborated triangulation. If human sensory
and intellective mechanisms can not be relied upon, it is essential
that the finding of an inquiry be based on as many sources of
data, investigators, theories, and methods-as possible. Further, if
objectivity can never be entirely attained, relying on many
different sources makes less likely that distorted interpretations
will be made. (Guba, 1990).
Second, and perhaps more important, post-positivism
recognizes that many imbalances have been allowed to emerge
in the zeal for achieving realistic, objective inquiry. A major part of
the post-positivist agenda has been devoted to identifying these
imbalances and proposing ways of redressing them. Postpositivism redress imbalances by doing inquiry in more natural
setting, using more qualitative methods, depending more on
grounded theory, and reintroducing discovery into the inquiry
process. (Guba, 1990).
If post-positivism beliefs that findings emerge from the
interaction of inquirer and inquired in to, so the question is, who
holds the most important role as inquirer or interpreter in
exploring and articulating urban self-image in public process of
designing city. Could professional designer and educational
institution (universities), who are in public process of designing
city just one voice in a crowd of various city design decision
makers, hold the role as inquirer?
Further, relying on many different sources makes less
likely that distorted interpretations will be made, then the question
is who and what should be the reliable sources?
329

Exploring Urban Self-Image based on Critical Theory

A more appropriate label for critical theory would be
ideologically
oriented
inquiry,
including
neo-Marxism,
materialism, feminism, Freireism, participatory inquiry, and other
similar movements as well as critical theory itself. These
perspectives are properly placed together, however, because
they converge in rejecting the claim of value freedom made by
positivists (and largely continuing to be made by post-positivists)
(Guba, 1990).
Because they are human constructions, paradigms
inevitably reflect the values of their human constructors. They
enter into inquiry at choice points such as the problem selected
for study, the paradigm within which to study it, the instruments
and the analytic modes used, and the interpretations,
conclusions, and recommendations made. Nature cannot be seen
as it really is or Really works except through a value window.
(Guba, 1990)
Critical theorist (ideologists) have elected to believe in an
objective reality as the phrase commonly used by them, false
consciousness some where out there, or, more likely,
possessed by the inquirer or some better-informed elite. The task
of inquiry is, by definition, to raise people (the oppressed) to a
level of true consciousness. Once they appreciate how
oppressed they are, they can act to transform the world. The
close parallel between transforming the world and predicting and
controlling it should not be lost. (Guban 1990)
Thus there appears to be a logical disjunction: a critical
realist ontology coupled with a subjectivists epistemology.
Subjectivists because inquiry acts are intimately related to the
values of the inquirer. (Guba, 1990)
If the aim of inquiry is to transform the (real) world by
raising the consciousness of participants so that they are
energized and facilitated toward transformation, then something
other than a manipulative, interventionist methodology is required.
Critical theorist (ideologists) takes a dialogic approach that seeks
to eliminate false consciousness and rally participants around a
common (true?) point of view. In this process, features of the real
world are apprehended and judgments are made about which of
them can be altered. The result of effective, concerted action is
transformation (Guba, 1990)
If values do enter into every inquiry, then the question
immediately arises as to what values and whose values shall
govern. Could it be the value of professional designers or
educational institution (university), and based on what reason?. If
the findings of studies can vary depending on the values chosen,
then the choice of a particular value system tends to empower
and enfranchise certain persons while disempowering and
disenfranchising others. Inquiry thereby becomes a political act.
330

Exploring Urban-Self-Image based on of Constructivism

It is my belief that proponents of both the post-positivist
and the critical theory (ideological) paradigms feel that there can
be an accommodation between their positions and, indeed, with
conventional positivism. Constructivists, on the other hand, feel
that the positivist (and post-positivist) paradigms are badly flawed
and must be entirely replaced. Constructivists feel that an entirely
new paradigm is needed.
Ontologically, if there are always many interpretations
that can be made in any inquiry, and if there is no foundational
process by which the ultimate truth or falsity of these several
constructions can be determined, there is no alternative but to
take a position of relativism. Relativism is the key to openness
and the continuing search for ever more informed and
sophisticated constructions. Realities are multiple, and they exist
in peoples minds.
Epistemologically, the constructivist chooses to take a
subjectivist position. Subjectivity is not only forced on us by the
human condition (as the post-positivists might admit) but because
it is the only means of unlocking the constructions held by
individuals. If realities exist only in respondents minds, subjective
interaction seems to be the only way to access them.
Methodologically, the constructivist proceeds in ways that
aim to identify the variety of constructions that exist and bring
them into as much consensus as possible. This process has two
aspects: hermeneutic and dialectics. The hermeneutic aspects
consists in depicting individual constructions as accurately as
possible, while the dialectic aspect consists of comparing and
contrasting these existing individual ( including the inquirers)
constructions so that each respondent must confront the
constructions of others and come to terms with them. The
hermeneutic/dialectic methodology aims to produce as informed
and sophisticated a construction (or more likely, constructions) as
possible. Simultaneously the methodology aims to keep channels
of communication open so that information and sophistication can
be continuously improved. Constructivism thus intends neither to
predict nor control the real world nor to transform it but to
reconstruct the world at the only point at which it exists: in the
minds of constructors. It is the mind that is to be transformed, not
the real world.
May this paradigm be the most appropriate approach in
exploring and articulating urban self-image representing urban
social/cultural diversity in public process of designing city.
Inquirer and inquired into are fused into a single (monistic) entity.
Findings are literally the creation of the process of interaction
between the two. Hermeneutic, dialectic individual constructions
are elicited and refined hermeneutically, and compared and
331

contrasted dialectically, with the aim of generating one (or a few)

constructions on which there is substantial consensus.
Conclusion
Urban design is a result of the decisions and actions of
many people which determine the future shape of cities and their
community. Many people, in fact, participate daily in shaping the
city by virtue of their decisions, actions and influences. The focus
here is on the public process of designing city, where the design
of cities does not start on the drawing board: it starts with a
commitment by people.
designing cities is the concept of urban self-image, which
about the essential qualities of their city. This image should
represent urban social diversity or cultural diversity, which has
actually become an important part of the urban identity. To
improve city design, this self-image must be explored, articulate,
communicated and made the theme and focus for all
which all change will be judged.
Image is the product both of immediate sensation and of
the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret
information and to guide action. At every instant there is more
than the eye can see, more than ear can hear, a setting or a view
waiting to be explored. Nothing is experienced by itself, but
always in relation to its surroundings, the sequences of events
leading up to it, the memory of past experiences. Every citizen
has had long associations with some part of his city, and his
image is soaked in memories and meanings.
In context of creating knowledge based city, which also
means research based or science based city design, the
question is, how to explore and articulate the urban self image
scientifically, which represent the factual urban social diversity.
Models or paradigms provide a way of understanding
information or operations and their relationships and so also
serve as means for organizing and presenting ideas about both.
There are many paradigms that we use in guiding our actions,
namely conventional positivism, post-positivism, critical theory,
and constructivism.
In designing knowledge city, which means science based
or research based city (urban) design, there are several important
questions should be answered.
Based on which paradigm should knowledge city be
developed?
Is there any paradigm, which is considered to be the most
appropriate one?
332

Is it possible, that none of those four (positivism, postpositivism, critical theory, and constructivism) is the
paradigm of choice, because each is an alternative that
deserve, on its merit, to be considered.
Could it be, that we need a new paradigm, that will not be
a closer approximation to truth, it will simply be more
informed and sophisticated than those four paradigms.
Rich (1979) said that there is no the truth nor a truth,
truth is not one thing or even a system. It is an increasing
complexity1 Knowledge is socially constituted, historically
embedded, and valuationally based2.
Could it be that cities, because of their natural
design/development process, are the real knowledge
cities.
References
1. Editorial in TRIALOG 85, Zeitschrift fuer das Planen udn
Bauen in der Dritten Welt, 2/2005. Frankfurt am Main: IKOVerlag fuer Interkulturelle Komunikation, 2005.
2. Guba, Egon G. 1990. The Paradigm Dialog. Newbury Park:
Sage Publication.
3. The Ministry of Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs.
Published by The Ministry of Refugee, Immigration and
Integration
Affairs,
Version
1.0
April
2003,
http://www.inm.dk/, accessed May 2007
4. Thomas, Ronald. 1984. Cities by Design: an Introduction for
Public Administrators. Washington, DC: Community Design
Exchange and Purchase and Institute for Urban Design.
5. Hershberger, Robert G. 1999. Architectural Programming and
Pre-design Manager. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. http://phi.kenyon.edu/Projects/livingtogether/community.htm,
accessed May 2007
7. Lynch, Kevin. 1960. The Image of The City. Massachusset:
MIT Press.
8. Nasution, S. 2003. Metode Penelitian Naturalistik Kualitatif.
Bandung: Penerbit Tarsito.
9. White, Edward T. Introduction to Architectural Programming.
Florida: Florida A&M University.
Nasution, S. Metode Penelitian Naturalistik Kualitatif. Bandung: Penerbit

Tarsito, 2003, page 4-5
Nasution, S. Metode Penelitian Naturalistik Kualitatif. Bandung: Penerbit
Tarsito, 2003, page 4
333

CITY AS AN URBAN SOCIAL DIVERSITY:

A CASE STUDY OF RUKUN TETANGGA
IN KUALA LUMPUR AND SELANGOR
Prof. Dr. Mohd. Taib Hj. Dora
Dr. Izaidin Abd. Majid
Dr. Raja Roslan Raja Abd. Rahman
Norliah Kudus
Zawiah Mat
Noor Maslian Othman
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UteM)
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine the level of
knowledge, perception and acceptance among the public towards
programs organized by Rukun Tetangga (RT). The programs
organized include social, educational as well as sports and
recreational activities. Activities related to health and
environment, welfare, art and culture, economy and public safety
are also carried out. This research looks at the correlation
analysis between demographic variables of the respondent with
the level of knowledge, perception and public acceptance towards
the program organized. In brief, this research tries to answer the
question of how far is the effectiveness of RT in organizing
activities to promote unity among our community. This is
considered as beneficial development in order to identify the RTs
direction in the future. The research is done in a few districts in
Selangor and Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. The selected
areas are chosen due to the existence of diversified
characteristics of the community that is relevant to the research
needs. The characteristics include the aspect of different races
and the distribution of location as they are thought to be the threat
towards the solidarity among the main races. Moreover, the
location is identified as to be the highest in population in the
country. The research shows that the knowledge level, perception
and public acceptance toward the programs organized by RT are
generally high. This result can be used as an indicator that RT is
a success entity in all situations. It has also increased harmony
and contributed to national integration among Malaysians.
I.
INTRODUCTION
The Rukun Tetangga Scheme (RTS) was introduced in
1975 following theenforcement of Necessary Rules (Rukun
Tetangga) 1975. The main purpose of these rules is to safeguard
334

the people in their residential area due to safety problems and

issues arising from the tragedy of 13th May 1969. Among others,
the issues were the threat of communist propaganda, the chaos
caused by the murder of the Inspector General Police (IGP) and
the bombing of the National Monument. In order to overcome
these problems, inline with national security force, local residents
have been given the responsibilities to safeguard and promote
the spirit of solidarity through the introduction of the Rukun
Tetangga (RT) programme.
In two decades (1970-1990), the RTS had changed
drastically through the tremendous urbanization process in the
country. Mass migration of Malay people from the rural areas to
the urban areas had caused intense pressure in the city. This has
caused the city to be highly populated with multi-racial community
which has diversified activities and lifestyles. Definitely, this had
led to new phenomenon in the context of neighbourhood and
intra-racial relationships in this country. In fact, this state of affairs
requires SRT as an important tool to create national integration
with harmony, safety and tolerance in the country.
In addition, in the year 2000, the roles of SRT were widen
with emphasis was given to community development to guarantee
the harmony and safety of the people and country. The emphasis
had caused SRT to diversify its activities to not only focus on
safeguarding but also on other activities including those related to
education, social, recreation, sports, environment, etc. Through
the variety of activities, the government hopes to create national
integration in respective communities. Hence, more SRTs were
established all over the country and more allocations were
allotted for activities under the scheme.
All the activities aim at enabling the members of the local
community to get to know each other, to help each other in
handling problems, to interact and develop good relationship
between the leaders and communities of different ethinicities,
religions, customs and cultures. The types of activities carried out
under the RT scheme are social (celebrations of major festivals),
educational (motivations, tuitions, talks), sports (tele-matches,
traditional and folklore games) recreational (expeditions,
workshops), health and environment (health talks, anti drugs
campaigns, cleanliness campaigns) welfare (visits to old folks
homes, charity work, helping victims of flood and other natural
disasters), religious (religious talks and forums), arts and culture
(dancing classes, crafts, traditional games, stage shows)
economy (planting hydroponics plants, rearing ... water fish)
safety (voluntary patrolling, detecting and reporting of issues
pertaining to relationship among races).
An ideal RT area must have at least 2,000 residents or 80
houses. However, the size of an ideal RT cannot be more than
6,000 residents in order to achieve good relations and to know
335

each other well. To make the activities run well in one RT area,
one RT committee has to be established. The committee must
consist of 15 to 30 people depending on the size and location of
the residential area. The committee members should be of the
active residents in that area.
Even tough the RT has successfully organized varieties
of activities, yet until now, it has not been identified whether they
can strengthen the cooperation and integration among different
race groups. In fact, at the moment, there have been very few
comprehensive studies done to re-evaluate the effectiveness of
RT in strengthening the understanding, tolerance and unity
amongst the multi-racial community in this country. Therefore, this
study is significant in order to gain information about the
effectiveness of the RT program from the communitys
perspective. The result of the study will ascertain the best
resolution to determine the direction of the RT especially in the
more challenging new millennium.
II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The methodology used for this research is quantitative
(statistics) approach which is based on decriptive method.
According to Mohd. Majid Konting (2000), descriptive research
are studies that aim at explaining certain phenomenon and this
method does not need any effort to control variables. Quantitative
approach also emphasizes on correlation in which stress is given
on the determiners and observation is done on how much is the
correlation among variables. In this matter, Kerlinger (1973)
explains that correlation research involves two or more sets of
data collected from a subject group to determine the relationship
between the data.
In term of research framework, this case study is an
explorative and observational research which looks at the
effectiveness of the RT programmes. This study also seeks to
study the correlation between the level of perception towards RT
with the effectiveness of RT programmes in promoting national
unity and integration. Besides that, the study also looks at the
relation between knowledge about RT with the effectiveness of
RT programmes in promoting national unity and integration.
Finally, the study also looks at priorities and to analyse factors
contributing to different levels of perception, knowledge,
acceptance towards social, educational, health and environment,
welfare, religious, arts and cultural, economy and safety activities.
Research framework is shown in Figure 1.
336

Measurement
i. Perception
ii. Knowledge
iii. Acceptance
Independent
Variable
- Location
- Risky
Location
- Race
- Age
Category
(Young
Neighbour,
Women
Neighbour,
Senior Citizen
Neighbour)
D
I
F
F
E
R
E
N
C
E
S
Dependent
Variable
1. Social,
2. Education,
3. Sport,
4. Recreation,
5. Health and
Environment,
6. Welfare,
7. Religion,
8. Art and Culture,
9. Economy,
10. Safety.
Figure 1: Research Framework
The research population were the residents of Federal

Territory of Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. Diversity in ethnicity and
locality as well as different forms of communal groups and their
backgrounds make these areas suitable for this study. Besides,
these areas are known to have the highest number of population
in this country. Based on these criteria, this research covers
residential areas in the districts of Setapak, Campbell, Brickfields,
Sentul and Cheras in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur.
Petaling, Kelang, Shah Alam and Gombak are the chosen
districts in Selangor.
The instruments used in this research are likert scale,
tables and documents analysis. The instruments are constructed
from the questionnaires which were distributed to respondents.
The questionnaire is divided into two parts:
a. Part A: Respondents profile (Race, Locality, Group, Age and
Risk Area).
b. Part B: contains variables with reference to the RT activities
including social, educational, sports and recreational, health
and environmental, welfare, religious, arts and cultural,
economy as well as safety activities. Part B of the
questionnaire aims to measure the level of perception,
knowledge and acceptance of the respondents towards the
RT program.
All the data gathered are analyzed based on the research
questions and objectives. Both descriptive and inferential
statistical methods are used to analyze the data. The descriptive
statistical method is used to get the min, standard deviations, and
337

percentage of all variables. In this research, the Statistical

Package of the Social Science (SPSS Version 13.0) software is
used to assist calculation and to ensure accuracy in calculation.
The use of SPSS Software to analyze the statistical data can
produce accurate calculation and is free from errors (Mohd. Majid,
2000).
III. FINDINGS
The three main components of this research are the level
of knowledge, perception and acceptance towards RT and the
activities organized. Following are the min scores analysis and
the level of knowledge, perception and acceptance of the
respondents towards each sub-scale (activities) of RT namely
social, education, recreation, health and environment, welfare,
religion, art and culture, economy, safety as well as RT activities
as a whole. The scores are grouped into three levels: low,
moderate and high. The division of scores at all levels are as
follows:
Level of Knowledge
Low
Moderate
High
Min Score Marks

0 to 33.33
33.34 to 66.67
66.68 to 100
Level of Perception and Acceptance
Min Score Marks
Low
Moderate
High
1 to 2.00
2.01 to 3.00
3.01 to 4.00
Table 1 shows the analysis of min scores and the

respondents level of knowledge towards RT activities namely
social, educational, recreational, health and environmental,
welfare, religious, art and cultural, economy, safety, and sports
together with their perception towards RT activities as a whole.
Overall, the respondents level of knowledge towards RT activities
is high, which is at 67% and above. The results show that the
respondents level of knowledge towards social, sport, health and
environmental, recreational, safety and welfare activities is high
which is at between 69% and 86%. The respondents level of
knowledge towards religious, educational, economy, art and
cultural activities is moderate that is at between 49% and 63%.
338

Table 1. Min Analysis of Respondents Level of Knowledge

towards Rukun Tetangga Activities
1
10
4
3
9
5
6
2
8
7
11
Activity
Social
Sport
Health and Environment
Recreation
Safety
Welfare
Religion
Education
Economy
Art and Culture
Overall Activities
Min
86.26
76.19
75.68
70.80
69.57
69.37
63.38
62.29
49.18
49.13
66.97
Level
High
High
High
High
High
High
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
High
Table 2 shows the min scores analysis and the

respondents level of perception towards all RT activities namely
social, educational, recreational, health and environmental,
welfare, religious, art and cultural, economy, safety, and sports
activities as well as their perception towards RT activities as a
whole. The result of the research shows that the level of the
respondents perception towards RT activities as a whole is high
with the min scores between 3.03 and 3.18.
Table 2. Min Analysis of Respondents Level of Perception
towards Activities in Rukun Tetangga
Activity
Min
Level
Social
3.18
High
3.16
High
10
Sport
3.15
High
Recreation
3.12
High
Wefare
3.11
High
Safety
3.11
High
Education
3.09
High
Religion
3.04
High
Economy
3.04
High
Art and Culture
3.03
High
11
Overall Activities
3.10
High
339

Table 3 shows the min scores analysis and respondents

level of acceptance towards RT activities namely social,
educational, recreational, health and environmental, welfare,
religious, art and cultural, economy, safety, and sports activities
as well as their perception towards RT activities as a whole. The
results show that the respondents level of acceptance towards
RT activities is moderate with the min scores between 2.42 to
2.98.
Table 3. Min Analysis of Respondents Level of Acceptance
towards Rukun Tetangga Activities
Activity
Min
Level
8
7
10
4
5
6
Economy
Art and Culture
Sport
Welfare
Religion
2.98
2.95
2.95
2.93
2.88
2.87
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
3
2
9
1
11
Recreation
Education
Safety
Social
Overall Activities
2.81
2.77
2.73
2.42
2.86
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
IV. DISCUSSION
In brief, the research analyses and investigates the
effectiveness of RT programmes with regards to the level of
knowledge, perception and acceptance of the community
members toward RT programmes. As for level of knowledge, the
study looks at how far is the RT members general and specific
knowledge about the establishment and roles of RT. The level of
perception then looks at what are the RT members views,
descriptions and interpretations regarding the activities done in
their RT areas based on the stimulus of their senses. As for level
of acceptance, the study identifies how far the RT members can
accept each activity done by RT. The level of perception and
acceptance items includes sub-scales of social, education,
recreation, health and environment, welfare, religion, art and
culture, economy, safety and sport.
340

Level of Knowledge about RT Activities

We can see from the research that the knowledge level
about RT activities as a whole among all RT members is
excellent. It shows that the establishment of RT in this country is
well known and well accepted by the community. In fact, the RT
scheme is synonymous to the night patrol activities that are still
actively done in the many RT areas especially in the cities. Other
than that, the establishment of the Department of National Unity
and Integration in each state has done a good job in spreading
the information about the existence of RT scheme.
Level of Perception towards RT Activities
The level of perception towards the RT activities based
on respondents gender is high except for social activities. The
differences clearly indicate that the social activities are lower than
other activities. The study shows that there are few reasons as to
why this is happening. Among others, it is due to the indicators
used in this study, which are different from other research. This
research differs from other research because it is based on ethics
and samples collected vary depending on the different location of
this research.
In addition, the level of perception towards RT activities
based on respondents age is high except for those below 20
years old. It is because the older members of the community
shadow RT activities involving those 20 years of age and below.
In other words, adults lead all activities involving generation of 20
years old and below. Hence, the perception of those 20 years and
below towards RT activities is moderate. This is due to their level
of activeness and presence in these activities depends on the
adults who are in charge of the RT activities from time to time. If
the adult members were actively involved, therefore their RT
group would be active and vice versa.
The level of perception towards RT activities as a whole
based on respondents race, occupation, religion and residential
areas is high. It shows that these differences in races, occupation,
religion and residential areas do not cause different perception
towards the RT activities. This also shows that the information
about RT activities is equally delivered regardless of race,
occupation, religion and residential areas. The only difference is
the willingness of the members of the community to participate in
RT activities.
The overall level of perception towards RT activities
based on respondents district is high except for respondents in
Cheras, which is moderate. Ineffective leadership among the
committees and very minimal supervision by the officers from
JPNIN are identified as the causes to this phenomenon. This
issue needs to be looked into in order to get to the bottom of the
problem.
341

Acceptance Level towards RT Activities

Taken as a whole, the level of knowledge and perception
among the respondents is high while the acceptance level is
moderate. There are a few factors identified as obstructing
residents involvement and participation in RT activities. These
factors have also contributed to the moderate level of acceptance
towards RT activities. The factors are:
i)
Work pressure
Most of RT members find it difficult to get involved in
activities organized by RT due to workload pressure in their fields.
RT activities and programmes are usually held during weekends.
Most of RT members choose the weekends as their personal time
to rest their minds and physical after being exhausted from
working during the weekdays.
Challenging and competitive lives in the city force the city
dwellers to have their own space and time for relaxation and
therefore they choose to isolate themselves and rest at home
instead of involving in the activities organized by RT.
ii) Distance of Working Place from Home
Most of the RT members working places are quite far
from their homes. This situation causes them to face traffic jams
especially for those in the Klang Valley. Their journey home takes
a long time, causing them to feel exhausted the moment they
reach home. The situation makes them feel pressured thus
unable to get involved in RT activities and programmes.
iii) Quality Time with the Family
Most of the RT activities are done on Saturdays and
Sunday for almost all RT locations. The strain of working five
days a week makes the weekends, or Saturdays and Sundays
the only days available for them to visit their families and to do
other activities. This is also a factor why most of the RT members
are not interested to participate in the RT activities organized in
their area. Most of the respondents who are not involved with RT
prefer to spend their time at home with excuses like feeling
exhausted from workplace.
For that reason, JPNIN should look into this matter more
closely to find an effective solution to encourage all members of
the community to participate in RT programs.
Each activity held or planned to be held in future should
take the problem into consideration. Short and brief yet
informative activities should be considered to encourage more
participation from the community. This suits the instant culture of
the city community in which everything done should be simple,
easy and quick. It is undeniable that the hectic and busy lifestyles
in the city make the individual usually considered the need to rest
342

and be alone rather than involve with the community, avoiding the
needs to gather in the community itself. However, this must be
avoided as the community concept that is commonly known to be
the principal for the East culture community will not lose.
iv) Individuals Attitude and Motive
The research shows that individuals attitude and motive
is one of the reasons on why the perception and acceptance
among the public towards the RT activities are low. This attitude
is directly making an impact on their action and behaviour. Motive
is usually referred to the peoples reason to involve in an activity,
basically related to the individuals interest.
Various incentive proposals have been made to get
community interest to participate in RT activities. This incentive
hopefully will create more communitys involvement in RT
programmes. Individuals motive and attitude as a major influence
has been discussed in previous research by Omar Mohamad
(1979), Yahya Ibrahim (1996) and Tan Min Nee (1999).
v) Information Gathering
Information gathering and dissemination for the public
knowledge is also one of major problem that need urgent
attention. Research shows that the differences in knowledge
level, public or community acceptance and perception mostly
because of the lack of information. Information is a powerful tool,
especially to disseminate the community about scheduled and
upcoming activities organized by RT committee. Therefore, types
of information are important to encourage RT members
participation in RT programmes. This situation will help the
members to understand more on RT role and its function.
The department responsible should improve the
information delivery and dissemination effectively to reduce this
problem. The usage of notice board nowadays might be outdated
and not suitable. The enhancement way for dissemination leads
to well organized information, thus change the attitude among RT
members.
The problems arise above can be a positive factor or
threat to the resident involvement in RT programmes. Actually,
the problems have been discussed since the establishment of RT,
unfortunately it is not settled till now. If nothing is done, it will give
a negative feedback to the RT programmes.
V. SUGGESTION
Based on the findings above, there are some suggestions
can be considered to create effectiveness in RT activities:
i) Improve the Image of RT
ii) More Transparent RT Leadership
iii) To implement Various New Activities
343

iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
Create a Better Neighbourhood Administration

Promote a better Social Infrastructure
Using New Approaches in Effective Program Strategy.
Encourage more Research on Rukun Tetangga
Encourage Involvement of Chinese residents in Various RT
Activities
VI. CONCLUSION
The overall statistical analysis shows that the knowledge,
perception and acceptance level among the community towards
RT concept and RT activities are high. This indicates that the
existence of RT and activities held by JPNIN are on the right
track. Furthermore, there are no reports about major problems
with regards to national solidarity in the local newspapers and
media. It shows that the national unity and integration level in this
country is at a good state. These situations indirectly become an
indicator to the effectiveness of RT activities and role in local
areas. Therefore, it is advisable that the existing RT programmes
need to be continued and be enhanced with more new and
interesting programmes and activities.
REFERENCES
Elaine Phoo Tiew Khoo (1987). Interaksi Kejiranan di kalangan
Penduduk Berbilang Kaum Di Sebuah Kawasan
Perumahan.Negara.7:2 hlm 10-17.
Jabatan Perpaduan Negara (1982).
Kamus Dewan (1994). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Mesyuarat Panel Penasihat Perpaduan Negara, Februari (1992).
Mohd Salleh Lebar (1995). Asas Psikologi Perkembangan. Kuala
Lumpur : Utusan Publications and Distributors Sdn Bhd.
Najib Abdul Ghafar (1999). Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Skudai,
Johor. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Omar Muhamad (1979). Rukun Tetangga: Peranan dan
Fungsi.Latihan Ilmiah Sarjana Muda
Sastera.Jabatan
Antropologi
dan
Sosiologi.
Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Shafiee Bohari et.al. (1994). Kajian Kejiranan Di Kalangan
Penduduk Kawasan Rukun Tetangga
Balairaya Kuching Sarawak.Angkatan Zaman Mansang (AZAM)
Sarawak.
Tan Min Nee (1989//1999). Reaksi Penduduk Terhadap Skim
Rukun Tetangga: Satu Kajian
Kampung Sembulan Lama, Sekolah Sains Sosial. Universiti
Malaysia Sabah
Teuku Iskandar, Dr., et al. (Pnsyn) ( 2002). Kamus Dewan Edisi
Ketiga, Kuala Lumpur: DBP.
344

Temubual bersama En. Abdul Halim Omar, Penolong Pengarah 1

Pegawai Pembangunan Masyarakat di Jabatan Perpaduan
dan Integrasi Nasional, Putrajaya pada 25 Ogos 2006.
Ting Chew Peh (1993). Konsep Asas Sosiologi, Kuala Lumpur:
DBP.
Yahya Ibrahim (1995). Perbandaran dan Kejiranan .Kuala
Lumpur: DBP.
Yunus Maris
(1984).
Kamus Fajar Rumi-Jawi, Selangor:
Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.
345

IDENTIFICATION OF DENUNCIATING
CONSUMERS TO DEVELOPER AFTER
HOUSING TAKE OVER
Suharman Hamzah
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, University of Hasanuddin,
Makassar, Indonesia
Corresponding author: suharmanhz@yahoo.com
Abstract
Industrial growth of real estate instructs to dynamics
condition and accelerates with elementary requirement demand
of human being. Housing are business with trusty and long-term
investment, so that be expected to obtain gain and revenue which
significantly both of developer and also consumer of housing. To
the number of housing project will affect to choice more and more
immeasurable and at the end, the consumer will chosen pursuant
to ripe consideration. The other side, developer sometimes
disregards aspect of denunciating consumer. This matter is
enabled because of consumers tend to chosen pursuant to ability
of financial owned so that aspect of service didnt become matter
an effect on.
This research aimed to identify type of work that
becoming denunciating of consumer after housing takeover taking
from developer to user for the housing. Research conducted
through survey of questionnaire and interviews and also
according to complaint sheet of consumer housing with simple
random sampling method. Research conducted in the middlelower housing and the middle-upper housing in Makassar. Identify
type of work conducted with pursuant to type of work by
developer as according to agreement. Identify result got from
analysis of pursuant to value average of work type.
The result shows that denunciating of consumer to result
of developer work according to type of work to the middle-lower
housing are listed as follows: indoor installation, window-door,
wall, plafond, roof, floor, finishing and also exterior and interior.
While to the middle-upper housing are listed as follows: windowdoor, wall, indoor installation, floor, roof, plafond, finishing and
also exterior and interior. And for the merger of two housing are
listed as follows: door-window, indoor installation, wall, plafond,
floor, roof, finishing and exterior and interior.
Keywords: consumers denunciating, type of work, housing
346

Introduction
Industrial growth of real estate instructs to dynamics
condition and accelerates with elementary requirement demand
of human being. As part of real estate, housing development is a
key to the accomplishment of human need. Housing development
which initially tend to "booming" making developer focused at how
to build a housing as soon as, then be sold to consumer on the
chance to getting advantage regardless of condition and
consumer market desire. The other side, this situation ought to
make each developers have to look for opportunity to building and
marketing the product.
Housing are business with trusty and long-term
investment, so that be expected to obtain gain and revenue which
significantly both of developer and also consumer of housing. To
the number of housing project will affect to choice more and more
immeasurable and at the end, the consumer will chosen pursuant
to ripe consideration. Therefore be required by a strategy to
drawn consumer in developer market. Strategy which often be
used are price competing, best quality, supporter facility, right
location and also services given by developer.
One of all important issue in service industries is how
avoiding and also managing consumer denunciating. Consumer
will do denunciating if happened by difference among the desire
with the reality which they get. So that, to get level of consumer
satisfaction required by a carefully and precisely anticipation.
Pursuant to the condition and consideration above, hence
be done by a research about consumer denunciating to developer
after housing takeover.
Literature Review
Concepts of Quality
In
industrialization
emulation
this
progressively
competitive, each businessman having a mind to win competition
in the world of industry will give full attention about quality of
product. Full attention given to quality will give result and affect to
production cost or company expense and also affect to revenue
obtained by goods or services produced.
Product result with good quality will obviate happened of
damage and poor product, so that can be avoiding waste and
inefficiency of company expense. On the other hand, product with
good quality will generate satisfaction of consumer and also will
improve market share, in the end will improve company revenues.
David Garvin in Gasperz (2002) defining eight dimension
to analyze characteristics of product quality, the following:
a. Performance, linking with functional and product aspect.
b. Features, add elementary function linking with choice and its
development
347

c. Reliability, linking about the characteristic to reflecting

probability or possibility of efficacy level in use of the product
d. Conformance, linking with level of specification product which
has been specified pursuant to consumer desire
e. Durability, linking about period of use the product
f. Service ability, linking about ability to giving services in repair
g. Esthetics, subjective character as preference and individual
choice
h. Felt quality, subjective character with consumer feeling in
consuming product.
Satisfaction and Consumer Denunciating
The core of quality is how to create consumer
satisfaction. Consumer satisfaction basically is a circumstance
where requirement, desire and consumer expectation can fulfilled
through product consumed. According to Gaspersz (2002), if
consumer satisfaction expressed in a ratio will be able to
formulate in an equation, the following:
Z=X/Y
Where:
Z = consumer satisfaction
X = quality felt by consumer
Y = requirement, desire and consumer expectation
If ratio value obtained more than 1 (Z > 1) hence the
consumer satisfaction will become high, while on the contrary,
consumer satisfaction will lower if ratio value obtained smaller
than 1 (Z < 1).
One of all consideration referring to consumer satisfaction
is denunciating problem. Consumer which feeling its satisfaction
not fulfilled by effect of expectation and desire not reached, hence
will be do complain or denunciating.
Inaccurate of approach in handling consumer
denunciating can bringing length consequence. Antipathy attitude
which tend to inimical will leave to feel in consumer heart.
Therefore, the companies have to show empathy attitude to
consumer do denunciating.
Criticize, sigh, complain and or the consumer
denunciating on the other side will bring profit to company.
Denunciating consumer will assist to company in knowing what is
not right in company operational and can to bring an action
against correctional that is needed. The good response accepted
by a consumer will widen tolerance zone.
The companies should not rely on compensation in face
of consumer submitting denunciating. In denunciating moment,
the desire of consumer are heard and answered. Influence of
348

compensation not so much, the principal is pay to attention as far

as the consumer expectation.
Research Methodology
This research is a descriptive research to identify types of
work becoming consumer denunciating after housing takeover
from the developer to owner or consumer according by perception
or opinion from consumer as data source. Method of sampling
data collecting conducted by survey, interview and also from the
sheet of consumer denunciating.
Type of research conducted in form of survey to got
opinion, experiences or respondent attitude about the problems
which have and being faced with intake of primary data through
questionnaire and also interviews done to more assure existing
data and from the sheet of consumer denunciating which got by
developer.
Based on the types of work in housing development, then
develop some variable of work type more detailed to be part of
questionnaire. For intake of data in field, based on research plan
then be made a questionnaire to propagate to the housing
location as sampling research. Method of sampling intake is
simple random sampling method where that sampling taken from
2 different housing area, that is middle-upper housing and middle
lower housing each as much 50 respondent.
To get quantitative data in interpretation problem in
research instrument, then be made scale of variable
measurement (attitude, perception and opinion) with giving score
of each answer. Scale used is Likert Scale. For each question,
provided an amount of response alternative, vital importance
until very insignificant with score 5 up to 1.
Identify of work types based on work types done by the
developer, that is: wall, floor, door-windows, roof, plafond, indoor
installation, finishing and exterior and interior.
Analysis of Result
Validity Test
Validity test aimed to know how to measure instrument
used to measure of variable ought to be measured. A
questionnaire contains unclear question for respondent is not be
valid. Validity test conducted using correlation technique.
Correlation measured is correlation of total inter-score of
research variable. Validity test conducted to each aspect.
Result of validity test according by questionnaire
contents that is:
349

Table 1. Result of validity test

Research Variables
Wall
Floor
Door-window
Roof
Plafond
Indoor installation
Finishing
Exterior and interior
Correlation
Value
0.522
0.401
0.759
0.684
0.818
0.598
0.664
0.533
Decision
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Result of validity test from overall of research variable amount 8

variables, all of variable are valid at level of significant alpha 5 %
where r table value is 0.284.
Reliability Test
Reliability test used to measure how far a result of
measurement consistent relatively and reliable. Procedure of the
test using alpha reliability technique.
Value of alpha range from 0 until 1. Value of reliability
test near to 1 is the measure instrument more excellent. From
result of reliability test got value of 0,752. The value indicates
that measuring instrument give consistent result or of equal
during measured variable unchanged. This matter marked with
value alpha bigger than value of 0.6.
Denunciating Consumer Based on the Work Type
Assessment quantitatively to work type variable of
housing project conducted based on average value of scale
result of questionnaire variable. Assessment of that variable
conducted based on construct variable of each of variable. To
know average value conducted a descriptive analysis. To each
variable searched the average value. Result of average value
calculation, the following:
a. The Middle-Upper Housing
Table 2: Average value of middle-upper
Research Variables
Wall
Floor
Door-window
Roof
Plafond
Indoor installation
Finishing
350
Average Value
4.231
3.764
4.530
3.721
3.700
3.977
3.690
3.451

Ext-Interior
3,451
3,69
Finishing
Indoor Installation
3,977
Plafond
3,7
Roof
3,721
Door-window
4,53
Floor
3,764
Wall
4,231
Figure 1. Average value of middle-upper

From the analysis result of average value, so that can be
interpreted that denunciating consumer to developer for The
Middle-Upper Housing are listed as follows: door-windows, wall,
indoor installation, floor, roof, plafond, finishing and exterior and
interior.
b. The Middle-Lower Housing
Table 3: Average value of Middle-Lower
Research Variables
Average Value
Wall
4.056
Floor
3.616
Door-window
4.222
Roof
3.642
Plafond
3.865
Indoor installation
4.410
Finishing
3.600
3.420
Ext-Interior
Finishing
3,420
3,600
Indoor Installation
4,410
Plafond
Roof
3,865
3,642
Door-window
4,222
Floor
Wall
4,056
3,616
Figure 2. Average value of middle-lower
351


Middle-Lower Housing are listed as follows: indoor installation,
door-window, floor, plafond, roof, wall, finishing and exterior and
interior.
c. The Merger of Two Housing
Table 4: Average value of merger housing
Research Variables
Average Value
Wall
4.1435
Floor
3.6900
Door-window
4.3760
Roof
3.6815
Plafond
3.7825
Indoor installation
4.1935
Finishing
3.6450
3.4355
Ext-Interior
Finishing
3,4355
3,645
Indoor Installation
Plafond
Roof
4,1935
3,7825
3,6815
Door-window
Floor
4,376
3,69
Wall
4,144
Figure 3. Average value of merger housing

Merger of Housing are listed as follows: door-window, indoor
installation, wall, plafond, floor, roof, finishing and exterior and
interior.
Conclusions
The analysis result shows that denunciating of consumer
to result of developer for The Middle-Upper Housing are listed as
follows: door-windows, wall, indoor installation, floor, roof,
plafond, finishing and exterior and interior. For The Middle-Lower
Housing are listed as follows: indoor installation, door-window,
floor, plafond, roof, wall, finishing and exterior and interior. And
for The Merger of Housing are listed as follows: door-window,
352

indoor installation, wall, plafond, floor, roof, finishing and exterior

and interior.
References
Best R.J. (2000) Market-Based Management. Second Edition.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gaspersz V. (2002) Total Quality Management. Jakarta:
Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Hanna N., Wozniak R. (2001) Consumer Behaviour: An Applied
Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Landin A., Carl-Henric N. (2001) Do Quality Systems Really Make
A Difference. Journal of Building Research and Information.
29(1): 12-20
Miles M.E. et.al (2000) Real Estate Development: Principles and
Process. Third Edition. Washington DC: Urban Land
Institute.
Mowen, J.C. (1993) Consumer Behaviour. Third Edition. New
York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
Santoso B. (2000). Realestate: Sebuah Konsep ilmu dan
Problema Pengembang Indonesia. Jakarta: School of Real
Estate.
Wurtzebach C.H., Mike, E.M. (1994) Modern Real Estate. Fifth
Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
353

UNDERSTANDING URBAN KAMPONG IN

INDONESIAN URBANITY
Case Study: Kapongs in The City Center of Bandung
Department of Architecture, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung-Indonesia
Corresponding author: jbase@home.unpar.ac.id
Abstract
The kampong as a physical and social reality of
Indonesian cities has been officially recognized since the
beginning of the 20th century and yet is still believed to be an
important element of urban character.
The history of urban
development has proved that kampongs can accommodate the
majority of urban dwellers although their existence is recurrently
mistreated. The kampong is an inseparable part and unique
character of the city and has contributed to shaping Indonesian
urbanity.
Kampong phenomenon has recently attracted a
significant number of studies. Unfortunately, these investigations
are rarely undertaken in the framework of explaining its spatial
and architectural aspects. Indeed, there is a need for studies to
elucidate the spatial linkage between kampong and the city as a
whole. This study aims to reveal and elucidate the spatial
linkages between the kampong and the periphery of its urban
block in order to comprehend the position of the urban kampong
in Indonesian urbanity.
Important findings of this study consist of the following:
First, a way of looking at the kampong as a reality. As a reality,
the kampong is an accordance between social and spatial
organization. Second, permeability of the kampongs frame
affects the spatial linkage between the kampong and its urban
block.
There are at least three kinds of contribution that can be
offered by this study. First, the enrichment of the architectural
vocabulary of theory and methodology to deal with the issues of
the kampong in the city. Second, propositions for the
improvement of kampong settlements in the city center. Third,
recommendations for policy-makers to develop a sounder and
more equitable urban development policies and strategies.
Keywords: kampong, urbanity, spatial linkages, kampong framing.
354

1.
INTRODUCTION
History affirmed that kampong is the embryo of
Indonesian cities. Kampong is a local element in Indonesian
cities modernization. The coexistence of kampong and urban
social life patterns brings about the urbanity that has a dual social
characters. This came along with the dual city concept which had
been stated by Castell (1989) when he justified urbanity in
developing countries. The phenomenon physically was marked by
the occurrence of segregation and fragmentation between
rational-formal (modern) and organic-informal parts (Balbo, M.,
1993:25-26) and by conflicts in the using and the meaning of
public spaces (Kimaryo, J.L., 1996:26-28). It does not astonish
that in urbanity in Indonesia, the issues of kampong versus city,
traditional versus modern, informal versus formal, spontaneous
versus planned, are always stated to have contrast characters
and conflicting to each other. In fact the characters of kampong
and city link up to each other in a unique urbanity
(Sihombing,2004). This came along with the description by
Siregar (1990) in the metaphor of overlapping city.
Along this time, kampong is often presumed as a problem
of citys modernization and always in an uncertain position in
modern city planning. The treatment of kampong tends to be
reactive and partial which assumes that it is not an integral part of
a city. The reformation era evokes a new chance and
consciousness of the importance of kampongs roles in the city.
The concerns to raise the issue of kampong as a citys local
element are at least based on three main reasons, i.e.: [1]
kampong accommodates most of city dwellers, [2] kampong is
physical manifestation of urban population needs/aspiration and
there is a close relation between kampong physical condition and
socio-economic community condition, [3] city development
activities tend to put the kampongs existence on the side.
Although the kampong as a social phenomenon in the
cities in Indonesia has attracted the attentions of lots of experts
(e.g. Krausse, G.H., 1975; Haryadi, 1989; Jellinek, L., 1991;
Sumantri, G.R., 1995), the efforts to understand kampong reality
in Indonesian urbanity as a physical element (spatialarchitectural) have not been enough. Kampong physical reality is
involved with forms and organized spaces. Therefore, the
understanding of kampong reality which departs from physicalspatial aspects does not mean to ignore social aspects.
2. PROBLEM OF SPATIAL LINKAGES
The reality of kampong existence as a local element has
not been fully understood. Kampong as the concept or the city
settlement reality is a basic ingredient to be applied to do a
creative experiments in articulating Indonesian urbanity to
balance the homogenizing forces of modernism and capitalism.
355

One of the challenges in city developments, which has not still be

seriously dealt with, is doing city modernizations with the
sensibility of kampong reality as a local element and to integrate it
into the urban system. Therefore, the opinion that ignores
kampong as a local concept in the city development also means
rejecting the apt reality of urbanity in Indonesia.
Architecturally, a city can be perceived as a whole unity
which includes a planned part of city and an organic one which
grows spontaneously along with the community needs. The
difference between the space configuration which is created
spontaneously, informally, and is a result of formal rational
planning, can actually strengthen the urban characters. As a
settlement area, kampong does not be able to be disintegrated
from the other parts of a city. In other words, physical-spatially,
those two spatial configurations should be integrated. Both
physically and socially, kampong is the part of the city which
always exists and be needed in urban life in Indonesia. In
Bandung and lots of other big cities, kampong is a type of
settlement which has been there from the beginning of the city;
therefore, it takes role in building the city characters and
morphologies. On the other hand, the city development which is
held along this time tends not to be aware or even neglect
kampongs roles in the city modernization process. Therefore,
one of the purposes of this study is explaining the kampongs
existence and roles in the city. Such issue is a real challenge in
city developments. In the discipline of architecture, the problems
of spatial linkages between the kampong and the city are almost
neglected in understandings urbanity in Indonesia.
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study questions the position of kampong in
Indonesian urbanity by revealing the physical-spatial integration
between kampong and the other parts of a city. Architecturally,
kampong is an artifact of the city which possesses a unique
space configuration. The distinctiveness of its configuration
makes kampong has a forming value of city physical characters.
As a city system, the kampong space configurations are related to
each other and cannot be disintegrated from the particular city
part which surrounds it.
To clarify the working thesis, this study pursues the
answers of these following questions:
[1] How to explain kampongs roles in the city?
[2] How to understand kampong as the forming force of the
citys physical character?
4. RESEARCH METHODS
A city as a system consists of parts which are interacting
and influencing one another. Kampong physical-spatial
356

integration in a city is perceived as a part to whole relation. (see

Figure 2.) The relation is not seen as an aggregative process
which shapes global form but as an integration system which is
more macro (city, modernity) into the more micro one (kampong,
local/traditional value).
The study is done in two phases. The first phase is a
literature study to explain the research premises and justify why
city kampong deserves to be revised. The objective is to position
kampong as a reality in city modernizations in Indonesia. The
approach of social change theories are used for understanding
the correlation between the local element (kampong) and modern
element (city). Kampong is one of city settlement types. The
settlement function is the raison detre of kampong in the city. It is
the state of art in architectural research which is done in the next
phase. The second phase is the empirical study done onto the
three particular kampongs which has been chosen as the case
studies. Based on the empirical study about kampong space
integration in the city, an analysis-interpretation method is done to
understand the kampong position in urbanity in Indonesia. The
analysis is done by [1] recording building mass configurations and
spaces in the three kampongs as case studies and learning
spatial configuration patterns from the existing condition on sites,
[2] through thorough participative examining and then formulating
morphological themes which base the space configurations and
[3] interpreting factors which become the space configuration
structure.
5. KAMPONG AS A REALITY IN CITY MODERNIZATION
Kampong as a local element of the city

The study of kampong existence in the city cannot be
disintegrated
from
the
city
modernization
discourse.
Modernization is a process of social changes which happens in
the society because of the congregation between local values and
foreign ones. Therefore, the position of kampong as city local
element needs to be understood in the social changing context.
Some relevant theories which have been developed to explain the
social changes can be categorized into three paradigms, as
follows:
[1]
Evolution paradigm
Evolution paradigm sees the social changes go on slowly
and cumulatively. The paradigm perceived the traditions which
represent past era would be faded and in the end would be
gradually replaced by modernity (Rostow, 1971). In architecture
discourse, Roger Trancik (1986), in his book Finding Lost Space,
obviously showed how modern architecture movement neglected
and rejected traditional space planning principles (of past eras).
357

[2]
Conflict paradigm
From this paradigm, city modernization eliminates
kampong or at least let kampong always be exiled from and not
been touched by the modernization process. Kampong
demolishment which is often happened for the sake of modern
commercial buildings is the real example of the elimination of
local element in city urbanity.
[3]
Acculturation paradigm
From acculturation paradigm, local/traditional element is
not identified as a frozen thing and without dynamic changes.
Local values develop because of assimilation with foreign
(modern) elements. The assimilation is assured to produce a
dynamic and blended social change.
From the three social changes stated above,
acculturation paradigm is the most effective approach to describe
kampong reality in city modernization in Indonesia. City
modernization is an assimilation of existing local element
(kampong) and foreign/new element. The approach goes along
with the one which sees the city as architecture. City is identified
as a physical form (artifact). Some are monumental and some are
common, some are planned and some are amorphous, some are
traditional and some are modern.
Kampong settlement function in the city

The function of kampong as a settlement for most of city
dwellers is kampongs important role in the city. The sustainability
of kampong function as a settlement type in city modernization is
an indubitable historical fact. The informal settlement reality since
1970s attracted experts attentions in theoretical discourses about
urban settlement development in developing countries. According
to Tjondrosugianto (1981:34-47) at least there are four paradigms
which can be used for explaining the position of kampong in
kampong settlements production mode, i.e.: [1] Welfare
paradigm, [2] Economic paradigm, [3] Housing Resource
paradigm, and [4] Rejection paradigm.
Housing resource paradigm can be used to understand
why kampong as an urban settlement can exist in urban
modernization. The paradigm can be said as a realistic approach
to housing development in developing countries because most of
housing providing is done informally by the society. Therefore,
kampong is actually given the right to have an existence
guarantee in the city.
As a social reality, kampong also takes role in forming
urbanism in Indonesia. Kampong as a settlement in the city
cannot be understood wholly without knowing the position of
kampong community in the city area. In the effort to understand it,
it should be obvious firstly two important concepts which can be
358

used for the sake of understanding kampong position in the city,

i.e. community and society concept.
Studies which were done by Jane Jacob (1961), Herbert
Gans (1962), Liebow (1967), and Suttles (1968) showed that a
city inherently needed an environment that was more human, had
a close and tight bond of social life. It is a logical consequence of
social organization in neighborhood level. Herbert Gans in his
book The Urban Villagers showed that the community with
social bonds which were based on lineages, ethnics, economic
status would not be faded in city lives. It was an older community
that dwelled in the city centre that gave chances for a
gemeinschaft social life type to be born. This paradigm stated that
city modernization also triggered the developments of various
sub-cultures in the city or which was known as community
saved (Knox, Paul L., 1994:275).
In mid-1970s, there was a change in the paradigm of
understanding the city after David Harvey (1973), Manuel Castell
(1977) and other academicians who were influenced by Marxism
which perceived the city as a terminus of the occurrence of urban
cultural process and as an arena of conflicts (social and spatial)
because of heterogeneous city dwellers. This paradigm mostly
emphasized that urbanization is a process of liberating rather
than a process of constraining. With this theoretical approach
kampong could be seen not as autonomous enclave which was
alienated from the city life, but on the contrary, it was a part of the
city life which formed and was formed by the city life. Therefore,
urbanism should not have been perceived to be a homogeneous
citys way of life, but as strength for various societies way of lives
(Knox, P.L., 1994:272).
6. KAMPONG AND URBAN PHYSICS CHARACTERS
Kampong as an artifact
Learning from the existing condition is very important in
architecture discourse. The most real condition which can be
touched, seen and also experienced is a physical reality
(kampong) as a material form of civilization (artifact). Based on
the empirical observation to the three kampongs as the case
studies, at least there are four important underlying issues and
can be used to understand space configurations to describe
kampong position in the city, i.e.: [1] Complexity, [2] Legibility, [3]
Pattern, and [4] Transformation control
Kampong space configurations

Basically, kampong space configurations are determined
by kampong frame (boundary), road systems, and buildings. The
frame can create bounds for kampong communities and also
359

definite kampong territories apparently. Kampong basically is the

integration between spatial organization (territory) and social
organization. Obviously territory boundaries which are created by
the framings strengthen kampong dwellers identification as a
community. In one side, the bound gives an exclusive image of
the kampong in city dwellers perspectives, but on the other side,
it also creates a perception in kampong dwellers minds that the
city is not their territory.
The frame makes us realize of the segregations here
and there, public and private, friend and enemy, inside and
outside. On the other hand, circulation pathways connect the
segregations with entrances which noted the boundaries of it. The
entrances clarify that there are differences between kampong
parts and the other particular parts surrounding them and also
play roles symbolically to forbid or control the accesses that
connect those two parts. Therefore, the permeability of framing is
a prerequisite which should be owned by a block of a city.
The entrance road is connected to the kampong road
systems. In West Java it is known by the term of jalan jajahan
which is actually a soil pathway used by pedestrians to access an
area. In the studied kampongs, it can be recognized that the jalan
jajahan is apparently an important element in the forming of
kampong space configurations. The routes of jalan jajahan are
formed by some factors, i.e.: the boundaries of land possessions
(farms or ranches), the easiness and the convenience of
1
pedestrians. Kampong roads are determined by the evolution of
jalan jajahan which have been there when the kampong are still
relatively not occupied. Kampong dwellers really pay attention to
the jalan jajahan when they have to do dividing of the lands.
The role of the jalan jajahan is not the determining factor
that forms kampong space configurations in the beginning, but
mostly is the factor to determine the start and ending points of
circulations (origin and destination). Kampong dwellers can
change the routes of jalan jajahan to be continuous. The changes
are usually done according to the possessions of the lands or the
positions and orientations of their homes.
Kampong space configuration systems are formed
incrementally by individual buildings. There are no global forms
which are planned before, hence basically the configurations are
determined by houses positioning versus the existing houses by
not closing chances of physical accesses to other buildings. The
existence of social harmony values among the kampong dwellers
make it possible to happen. It clarifies what has been stated by
John Lang that an organic growth process as such is assured to
be controlled by a set of rules or social realities (Lang, J., 1994:2).
1
The pedestrians always bring bearers with weights, guide cattle, even carts for
delivering agricultural crops.
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Kampong space configurations really depend on

kampong dwellers decisions (individually or collectively) in
positioning their houses. However, their actions of building
houses cannot be apart from guidelines or rules which
subconsciously guide them in building and positioning the
houses. Differ from the formal planned space configurations,
circulation patterns in kampongs do not determine the building
locations and orientations but, on the contrary, are the results of
building arrangements which are completely controlled by
kampong dwellers.
7. SPATIAL LINKAGES BETWEEN KAMPONG AND CITY
The spatial linkages between kampong and city is a
connection between the inner and the outer of city blocks.
From empirical studies of the three kampongs, framing processes
of city blocks really determine the integration of kampong spaces
in the city. The correlation is able to be understood as a part to
whole relation.
Framing process
The kampong framing process which occurs to the three
case studies basically is determined by the transformations and
the changes of building in the outer city blocks. Based on the
findings from the three case studies, framing process tends to
narrow kampong territories. However, it is very rare that framing
process eliminates the access that can connect kampong with city
roads/corridors. An access is a permeability attribute of kampong
framing. Framing permeability is a condition that determines the
spatial linkages between the kampong and the particular city part
surrounding it. The access to the kampong is a territory under
direct control from kampongs residents, although the access lies
on the frame zone. The control is expressed by building a gate on
the entrance road, even by narrowing it. The framing process and
the control of kampongs entrance causes kampong is equal to a
gated community which is recently very common developed in the
exclusive real estate.
The framing process is usually followed by the
penetration of formal buildings in the outer city blocks into
kampong. The penetration causes the alterations of land
possession rights from kampong territory to the city. This process
is called kampong formalization. The resistance from kampong
community to the land right alterations was very logical because it
would cause the decrease in territory and kampong community
members. Sociologically, it could be understood because the
power (politics) of a marginal group (under privilege) often relied
on the extent of occupied territories and the number of group
members. The resolution that happened was that kampong
dwellers asked for compensations to provide or improve public
361

infrastructures /facilities in addition to the payments that were

given to the kampong lots owners. It showed that the framing
process is a mediation process between social strength
(kampong) and capital strength (city).2 The framing tends to
instigate segregations (social and spatial), which have been
existed, to become more.
Part to whole relation

The part to whole concept sees the spatial linkages
between kampong and city as a system. The relation is a concept
which stated that an element always exists in a bigger
environment in a unity of a system which has a particular
arrangement. Kampong relation to the system of city goes on in
two ways, i.e.: spatially and trans-spatially. Firstly, kampong
spatial-physically must be connected with the city. Secondly,
kampong does categorical separations, i.e. conceptually the
kampong dwellers segregate between us (kampong) and them
(city). The trans-spatial relation enables the orientation of
kampong values to be realized in the use of space and social
interactions outside kampong.
Kampong demolishment influences the city life system as
it loses one of its elements. Even if it is demolished, kampong will
grow again because it is a self-regulating settlement and is
needed by the city. Differ from a formal housing, kampong lives
because it has a self-ability. Like the city, kampong has complete
social facilities; stalls, kiosks, salons, garages, tailor, etc. The
existence of a kampong in the city centre is inevitable. Physically,
kampong is a low cost settlement in the city which is needed by a
part of city dwellers, while the city is a place to make a living.
Formal settlements do not always try to be close to neither
business nor commercial districts. However, kampong has to be
in a strategic location, close to the workplaces, as the kampong in
the village is always close to the farming land. It is different from
urban village developments which are recently done in developed
countries which are usually located in suburban areas.
8. CONCLUSIONS
Kampongs roles in a city

Kampongs position in urbanity depends on its roles in a
city. Its roles in a city can be explained with steps as follows:
1. Understanding the raison detre of kampong in a city is due to
its function as one of urban dwelling types which
accommodate a huge number of urban population;
In the different scale (building), it was also the same as what was stated by Kim
Dovey (1999) in the book Framing Places: mediating power in built form.
362

2. Understanding the kampong reality as an endogen force

which forms urbanism in Indonesia, and
3. Understanding modernization not as a westernization but as
an acculturative process between local and foreign values.
Kampongs roles as a character giver

Kampong has a unique spatial configuration and different
from other city parts. The uniqueness makes kampong has a
character and even plays a role in building the city character.
Ways to understand kampong as a city physical character builder
are as follows:
1. By understanding a kampong and a city as one genre. Both
of them are artifacts. A city is a more complex one which
consists of lots of parts. A whole city character can only be
explained by recognizing parts of the citys characters.
Kampong is an artifact which consists of simpler buildings
which are not monumental.
2. By searching for the areas character structure. It is difficult to
understand by its various attributes. The structure can be
represented by a space configuration.
3. By distinguishing the kampong and city configuration. The
difference is the main prerequisite to understand the
characters. A character cannot be noticed without comparing.
The quality of the spatial linkages between the kampong

and city blocks
The quality is determined by the permeability of the
framing. Physically, it is formed by the kampong entrance roads.
It is said to be a membrane in osmosis process. The flow through
the membrane is not the same. The kampong informality flows
greater to the city rather than the city formality to the kampong.
Therefore, it can be concluded that kampong plays a role in
urbanity forming in Indonesia. The quality of the spatial
connection is determined by the quality of the systems elements
which consist of four parts, i.e.: [1] outer parts (urban blocks), [2]
frames, [3] connection paths, and [4] inner parts (kampongs).
REFERENCES:
Balbo, Marcello (1993), Urban Planning and the Fragmented City
of Developing Countries, Third World Planning Review,
vol. 1(15), hal. 23-35.
Colquhoun, A. (1989) Modernity and the Classical Tradition:
Architectural Essay 1980-1987. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Dovey, Kim (1999), Framing Places: Mediating power in built
form, London: Routledge.
Drakakis-Smith, David (1981), Urbanization, Housing and
Development, London: coom Helm.
363

Gans, H.J. (1962), The Urban Villagers, New York: Free Press.
Harvey, D. (1985), Consciousness and the Urban Experience:
Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Haryadi (1989), Residents Strategies for Coping with
Environmental Press: Relation to House-Settlement
Systems in a Yogyakarta Kampung, Indonesia,
Unpublished Dissertation, The University of Wisconsin.
Jellinek, Lea (1998), Jakartan Kampungs under Siege, dalam
Freestone, R., The Twentieth Century Urban Planning
Experience, Proceedings, The University of New South
Wales.
Kimaryo, Jacob L. (1996), Urban Design and Space Use: a case
study of Dar es Salaam City Centre, Lund: Department of
Building Functions Analysis, School of Architecture Lund
University
Lang, Jon (1987), Creating Architectural Theory, New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
Rostow, W. (1971), The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Siregar, A.S. (1990), Bandung-The Architecture of a City in
Development: Urban Analysis of a Regional Capital as a
Contribution to the Present Debate on Indonesian Urbanity
and Architectural Identity, PhD. Dissertation, Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven.
Tjondrosugianto, Parwoto (1981), Housing Arrangement for Low
Income Urban Families, unpublished Master Thesis,
Institute of Social Studies the Hague.
Trancik, R., (1986), Finding Lost Space, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company.
364
Figure 1: The Position of 3 case-study Kampongs in the City Center
KAMPUNG
[PART]
KAMPUNG
[PART]
KOTA [THE WHOLE]
KAMPUNG
[PART]
Gang/gerbang
bingk
ai
KAMPUNG
[PART]
Gang/gerbang
365
KAMPU
NG
city as terminus
trtransformed
community saved
comm. transformed
Figure 3.: Theoritical Approach to Urban Kampong
rejection
paradigm
h. resource
paradigm
economic
paradigm
community lost
welfare paradigm
conflict
paradigm
Social Reality
acculturation
paradigm
Theory of Social Changel
Physical Reality
evolution
paradigm
Figure 2.: Part to Whole Relation
Gang/gerbang
KOTA [THE WHOLE]


GATED COMMUNITY AS A SOCIAL

SEGREGATION IN HOUSING ESTATE
IN MEDAN
Magister Architecture of Engineering, School of Postgraduate Study,
University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
Abstract
The rising trend of gated community is happening in
almost all over big cities in the world, include in Indonesias big
cities such as Medan. Gated communities are perceived to
provide better security and an assurance of safety. Besides of
that, it is also a symbol of prestige and clustering the life style. It
is obvious that the city planner will see a trend living in gated
community, so it is important to study the social interaction in the
housing estate and neighbourhood area around the estate
include its impact to the city planning. The research is doing in
two oldest housing estate in Medan city which are Taman Setia
Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. Primary data will
be analyze base on the back ground of gated community by
(Blakely and Snyder, 2002). They said, there are three reasons of
established the gated community which are : security, prestige
and life style.
Keywords: gated community, social segregation, housing estate
Introduction
The housing estate in a city is formed based by social
attribute of a community. This condition happens in many cities in
developing countries which are developing quickly. Housing
estate segregation can be seen as a product from imbalanced
income or ethnic which become the characteristic of community
concentration in a city. For example, people with middle or lower
income will live in unorganized housing estates and people with
higher income will live in an organized housing estate.
The existence of gated community in Indonesia is formed
first by ethnic similarity (Stoyanov, 2004) like Kampung Bali,
Kampung Arab, Kampung Cina etc. Then in early 70s, marked by
government effort to motivate private company involved in
housing is making the second type of gated community formed.
However, organized housing development by developer cannot
be separated with the other housing estate. The new organized
housing estate is often become exclusive among other housing
estate. Other than making social conflict between these two
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housing estates, the room pattern formed in Indonesia cities is a

combination that shows the organized and unorganized housing
estate. (Syaukat, 2005)
The gated community housing is directly giving trouble to
both city planner and government as the city organizer (Winarso,
2005) . This research is to examine gated community housing in
Medan by studying two cases of gated community housing that
has been formed earlier in Medan which are Perumahan Taman
Setia Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. This
research report will be divided into four sections which are
literature review, research methodology, analysis, and research
result ended by discussion and suggestion.
Literature Review
Gated community is a closed housing area where the
public room is legally privatized. Gated community limited access
is usually run by occupant association who arrange and run the
rules (Roitman, 2005; Thuillier, 2005; Atkinson, 2005).
Following( Blakely & Snyder, 1999) , the community concept is
describing the intensity of general value which is expressed by
someplace by its occupants. Based by the concept above, there
are three clasification category of gated community and each
category has it own different reason of community forming and
the function of gate in each category( Wu, 2005 ). The three
categories are:
1. Lifestyle community, is a community with a collection of same
interest. The gate function is to clarify the division of general
facility in the area and general facility outside the area
2. Prestige community, is a community formed as a result of
social differentation. The gate function is as a sign of
environment quality
3. Security zone community, is a community formed as a
reaction of lackness of security. The gate function is more to
the practcal function which is to get secure feeling.
Gated community is typically located in suburban area,
even the area in the city is developing the same development(
Grant & Jill, 2005 ) and there are tendency that the community is
occupied by homogenic social class which are middle or higher
social class.
Theoretically, there are three arguments on gated
community which are(Le Goix,2005 ) :
1. Gated community as a physical form and real expression
from
social
alteration
after
industrial
revolution
(fragmentation, individuality and increasing community).
2. Gated community as an indication city trouble like social
classification as an example
367

3. Apearrance of eleite private community is in contradictionwith

prosperity distribution system with a result of giving
assumption that public service is not efficient
Gated community background
( Leisch, 2002 ) says that there are many things that
makes gated community appears and develop rapidly in
Southeast Asia which are:
Many gated community in Southeast Asia shows the
combination of socio-economic, culture and security
backgrounds
In a colonial cities in Southeast Asia, residential area is
always divided foloowing the ethnics which are: European
community, native population and those two are divided by
Chinese population
Gated community in southeast asia can be seen as a
combination of social needs, security and investment
However ( Grant, 2004; Atkinson & Blandy, 2005 )
observed that why gated community is developing from the
housing profit to each city stakeholder:
Housing consumer
This housing type is a reflection of critics to modern city life
because lack of safeness and then popularized by public
media. Life in gated community is giving sense of identity of
community that has strong attractiveness especially for the
proper people
Developer
Gated community is relatively medium investment and can
increase the project value that has limited housing facility
Government
Gated community is giving better tax income while the
government is responsible in making public faculty that has
been supplied by developer
Gated Community characteristics
Based by ( Irazabal, 2006 ) who said that gated
community characteristic is the concentration of the occupants
which divide the social difference which is important for their
identity. Especially in housing area that has local public faculty for
the occupants with different lifestyles. That place is becoming a
symbol from the occupants social identityThat place is tend to be
occupied by a community with homogenic class which are mostly
middle or higher class.
(Blakely & Snyder, 1995) identifies gated community in America,
which are:
1. Lifestyle community. This type is first appeared created by
developers to increase peoples consumerism for recreation
368

and comfortness. This Community group is consists by three

type: older family community / retired, Golf club and
recreation community and new city. New city is housing
development in large scale with a purpose to create perfect
comfortable life for the occupants with comprehensive
environment facility.
2. Prestige community. This type is generally based by status
and economic classes. This community is created by the
occupants itself unlike the lifestyle community. The
environment facility in it is not comprehensive like the lifestyle
community. This community is consist of three types which
are: community of high income and famous, community of
middle or higher income / worker class and professional
community or middle class. In this community, prestige and
image is an important thing. Other than that, privacy and
security is considered later by occupants.
3. Security zone community. This community build fences and
gate as a security mechanism. Occupants change housing
environment into gated community by closing all access and
hired security officers. This type is not only occupied by
middle or higher income community but also middle or lower
income community and public housing. The housing for
middle income community in suburban area and small cities
changed into gated community
Gated community influence and implication for city planning
(Thuillier, 2005) who did the research about gated
community influence in Buenos Aires, Argentina said that the
development of gated community has important social
consequences because it change distribution from social
community in city spaces and create new form from the relation
between both of them.
(Mc Kenzie, 2005) said that the appearance of housing
management privatization is making the appearance of two
community class which are middle or higher income community
and middle or lower income community.
The appearance of gated community is making a dillema for city
planner because it helps to find planner objective needs in
planning housing development with higher density. But in other
side, this social segregation is against the good planning principle
like: making inhabitants integration and continuity and fairness in
service.
Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity
pattern but also the city form and function. ( Landman, 2000 ).
Long term snowball effect will make negative influence in city
continuity in things like spatial arrangement in the same manner
as effective and functioning arrangement in city environment. Othr
369

than that, privatization also has conflict potency between

occupants and government in managing housing area.
Research Methodology
The purpose of this research is to see if gated community
in Medan is making social segregation more distinct which is
happening in big cities in Indonesia and observe the implication of
gated community to the development of the environment around
it. ( Hun, 2002). Religion, social status, culture and geographic
origin are always the reason to social segregation in Indonesia.
But what is the reason of the bordering wall existence? (Leisch,
2002). Research is conducted by gathering primary data and
secondary data.
Primary data is giving questionaire to both occupant of
gated community and people around gated community. The
question is mainly about the condition and the situation of gated
community and the influence to social interaction that happens in
the housing and people around the housing.
Secondary data is data of housing area development spatially
before and after the gated community exist in that area.
Secondary data is analyzed by observing gated community
existence toward area development spatially.
Area Observation
Criteria for choosing the location are housing with the
size of > 300 head of family to observe the completion of housing
support facility and social interaction that happens inside and
outside around the estate. These gated community are old
enough to observe the implication of gated community existence
toward the environment area around it.
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah is a housing area
that included as the first elite housing in Medan. Perumahan
Taman Setia Budi Indah is located in Kelurahan Tanjung Rejo
between Kecamatan Medan Sunggal and Medan Selayang in
Medan. Right now the Taman Setiabudi Indah area is consist by
three sub area which are Taman Setiabudi Indah Area I, Taman
Setiabudi Indah Area II and Bukit Hijau Regency. This housing is
developed phase by phase, which is started by phase 1 in year
1984 by opening housing area with 46 hectares wide then in 1985
it increased into 60 hectares and in 1987 the housing reach 160
hectares which is called Taman Setiabudi Indah phase I and
Kawasan Eksklusif Bukit Hijau Regncy (BHR). The next
development is the additional development of Taman Setiabudi
Indah II 40 hectares wide. Until now the total area of Taman
Setiabudi Indah is reaching 200 hectares. Total houses built and
occupied is around 3000 unit with with the total of occupant is
370

around 15000 inhabitants. With the development of this housing,

it becomes the activity generator on Southern part of Medan (
WPP E) and the development of other planned housing in Medan
all at once(Syaukani, 2004).
Figure 1. Taman Setia Budi Indah

Perumahan Johor Indah Permai
Perumahan Johor Indahis developed between 1982
1998. Development is done by 2 phase which are Johor Indah
Permai I and Johor Indah Permai II. These phases of
development has been physically bordered with fences and
located beside each other. However the general facilities are
used together. Facilities available are quite comprehensive like
sport field, health clinic, small stores and religious building. Total
371

of housees are 682 units with high occupation level which are
92%. Near the area there are school from elementary school to
the senior high school which are SD, SMP, and SMU Harapan III
which are the education facility for Medan Johor area. This estate
is the first eastate being developed in Jalan Karya Jasa. After this
estate growth to the phase II, some estates are appears in Jalan
Karya Jasa such as Perumahan Citra Wisata, Perumahan
Karyawan and so on.
Figure 2. Perumahan Johor Indah Permai

Analysis and Research Discovery
Perumahan Johor Indah Permai
In 1985, PT. FUJI AGUNG UTAMA which move in
propety becomes the developer in a housing development in
Jalan Karya Wisata area. This housing is named PERUMAHAN
JOHOR INDAH PERMAI. This housing is occupying area
approximately 10.5 hectares widein first phase of development
and approximately 8.6 hectares in the second phase. The total
are approximately 19.1 hectares. Total of building units are 682
units. House type consist by five types which are : Type 36, Type
45, Type 54, Type 100 and Type 120.
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Social interaction that happens in Johor Indah Permai complex

are mostly done periodically through:
1. Religious activity, usually once in two weeks
2. Social gathering
3. Sport usually in the early evening or holiday
4. Interaction on holiday while walking around the house
The place where the occupants dong their social activity are:
1. Mosque
2. Sport field
3. Streets
4. House
5. Childrens playground
The inhabitants in Johor Indah Permai are mostly
newcomer. This is known by survey result and data about
inhabitants ethnics which are Malayan, Bataknese, Nias,
Minangkabau, and Javanese. But from many kinds of culture and
customs, there are no problems until now. So, culture and
customs does not influence the form, room formation and the
functions.
According to gated community characteristics( Blakely &
Snyder, 1997 ) , then Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is included
into gated community and the type is security zone community.
The majority of inhabitants answered that security is their first
criteria to choose their housing location there. The majority of
inhabitants are middle income people with profession as private
industrialist and professional people. Housing security system is
managed by the developer cooperated with inhabitants. Social
interaction happens periodically between occupants in the
housing. Social interactions to neighboring people are quite high.
It can be seen from since the housing is developed, there are
commercial area appeared in the area around it, with the result
that this housing has become activity generator in Jalan Karya
Wisata area, then followed by the development of another
housing complex along Jalan Karya Wisata.
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah
Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah complex is the
biggest housing complex (with 1425 units of house) in Medan
Selayang area. With entrance access from Setia Budi Street,
which are one of the main street in area WPP E Medan, which
makes the occupation level in this housing complex is quite high
compared to other housing complex.
In field observation, social interaction activity happens
mostly on open area in the housing complex. Activities happens
mostly in the early evening when the occupants arrived from
workplace or school
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The most crowded activity centres are

Sport field
Marketplace
Playground
Entrance access of the housing complex
Social interactions which are done periodically by housing
inhabitants are:
Once a week Tai Chi on Sunday morning
Quran recital once a month in each housing location
Social gathering in a smaller inhabitants housing community
(each block)
According to the gated community characteristics (
Blakely & Snyder, 1997 ), Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah is a
gated community with combination of prestige community and
security zone community. In the core of the complex is built house
clusters (Perumahan Bukit Hijau) which is fenced and gated as a
sign of prestige community. The inhabitants in this housing is not
quite interacted with the with the community around them but the
existence of this housing open a work field to people around by
working as household helper. Social segregation between
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah with people around it is
clearly visible.
The existence of this housing toward the environment
around is giving positive implication. This can be seen by the
development of other housing in Medan Selayang area, Setia
Budi road expansion, and completion of ring roadway in Medan.
Frequency of social interaction
with neighbour
Relative in housing estate

60
90
50
Persentase
Persentase
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
40
30
20
10
10
0
Periodicaly
Rare
No Answer
1 Family
2 Families
Tasbih
Johor Indah
Figure 3. Frequency of social interaction
3 Families
> 4 Families
Relative
Frequency
Tasbih
Johor Indah
Figure 4. Relative in housing estate
Analyzing primary data by compared between these two

housing estates, the result shows that relationship in the
neighborhood is more closely in Perumahan Johor Indah Permai.
55.5% of the resident are periodically doing activities together
such as : sports, Quran recital and arisan. In Taman Setia Budi
Indah, residents background are from higher income level, so
374

that the social interaction are less closely. The pull factor of the
resident choose their neighborhood is the relative who stay in the
estate. The result shows that 32.1% of the Perumahan Johor
Indah resident choose to stay in the estate because of a lot of
relative also stay there.
Research Discovery
From the research output we can summarize the
discovery related with social segregation that happens:
Although the fence and gate looks intimidating, in gated
community however, outsider is not prevented to pass the
gate. Even the facility in the complex can be used by
outsiders as long as the housing manager can control the
security. This policy attracts people to live in gated
community ( Grant, 2004 ).
Social interaction in gated community is well enough between
inhabitants. This happens when there are activities that
connect them like social gathering, religious gathering and
sport activity.
Segregation that happens between community and people
outside community around them will not make horizontal
conflict as long as each side can used each other existence.
This condition also happens in ( Syaukat, 2005 ) research in
Perumahan Taman Yasmin in Bogor city
Organizing gated community housing area with the owned
facility has its own life space apart from the community
around it and giving their own impact toward internal structure
of the area. But the impact doesnt have negative social effect
as long as the gated community supporting facility still can be
used by people around and does not prevent the facility
usage exclusively.
Gated community implications toward the development of the
area around it are:
Gated community has implication to transportation network
inside the housing complex because of transportation
network management responsibility transfer from city
government to housing management developer. It needs
government response from government toward the
development of gated community housing visually. Response
by giving KASIBA (Kawasan Siap Bangun) and LISIBA
(Lingkungan Siap Bangun) are one of the positive action from
government
Gated community can provide more space for people by
creating a compact form of a city. This condition is based by
concept of multi function design in a housing area
375

A great design orientation, green open area quality design

which is used in gated community could become good
implication toward city room formation around
Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity
pattern but also city form and function
Discussion and suggestion

According to (Williams, 2005) , there are three factors
that influencing social interaction in a housing area. The first one
is personal factors include personality, personal dynamic, and
behavior influenced by human background. In gated community,
homogenic occupants background will make the social
interaction in the housing area is high but for social interaction
toward people outside the housing area is not positive depending
from what kind of social interaction is happening and the
differences of personal factor is happening. The second one is
social informal factors which include relation between one
individual to another individual or community and sources that
enables for an individual to inflence their social interaction with
others (example: financial source, time source and health
source). Social interaction that happens between Perumahan
Taman Setia Budi Indah which make a work field opportunity for
people around it and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai which make
commercial and trade activity to the people around it developed.
The third one is social formal consist by organization and
structural policy( decission making process, social structures and
organization activity). The existence of Perumahan Taman Setia
Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is making
positive growth and development of city zone especially in Medan
Selayang and Medan Johor area. Area development is then
followed by inhabitants growth, increase of economic activity in
related area. This development is influencing the city
management and policy maker to develop this area into new
settlements area.
From the discussion above, social segregation that is
happening in gated community is not always making a negative
implication toward the concept of ideal city planning. But the
differences and segregation that happens can combine well if it
can be manage positively. However in one side privatization has
potential to create and strengthen the responsibility distributionof
of
general
facility
and
housing
infrastructure
managementbetween occupants and local government especially
in managing housing supporting facility so that this condition
needs special rule from local government.
376

References
Atkinson, Rowland; Blandy ,Sarah (2005) Introduction :
International perspectives on the new enclaves and the
rise of gated community, Housing Studies, 20 (2) :177 186 .
Blakely E.J & Snyder (2002), Fortress America Gated
Communities in the United States, 2 nd edition, Brooking
Institution Press, Washington.
Grant, Jill (2002) Mixed use in theory and practice, Canadian
experience with implementing a planning principle, Journal
of the American Planning Association, 68 (1) : 71 - 84
Grant, Jill (2004) The planning and policy implications of gated
community, Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 13:1 :
70 88.
Grant, Jill (2005) Planning Responses to Gated Communities in
Canada, Housing Studies, 20(2) : 273 285.
Hun, Kim Jee (2002) Research Notes on the making of gated
community : a study of an inner city neighbourhood,
Jakarta Indonesia, AJSS, 30:1 : 97 108.
Irazabal, Clara (2006) Localizing urban design traditions : gated
and edge cities in Curitiba, Journal of Urban Design 11 (1)
: 73 96.
Landman, Karina (2000) Gated communities and urban
sustainability : taking a closer look at the future,
Proceedings Strategies for a sustainable built
environment, Pretoria, 23 25 August 2000.
Le Goix, Renaud (2005) Gated Communities : Sprawl and social
segregation in Southern California, Housing Studies, 20
(2) : 323 343.
Leisch ,Harald (2002), Gated Communities in Indonesia, Cities,
19(5) : 341-350.
Mc Kenzie, Evan (2005) Constructing the Pomerium in Las vegas
: A case study of emerging trends in American gated
community, Housing Studies, 20(2) : 187 203.
Roitman, Sonia (2005) Who segregates whom ? The analysis of a
Gated Community in Mendoza, Argentina, Housing
Studies, 20 (2) : 303 321.
Syaukani, Achmad (2004), Kajian Pengaruh Permukiman
(Housing Estate) terhadap tingkat pelayanan jalan, Studi
Kasus : Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah Medan, Tesis
Program Pasca Sarjana Universitas Sumatera Utara.
Syaukat (2005) , Masyarakat Tergerbang, Kajian Pengembangan
Perkotaan Program Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia.
Thuillier, Guy (2005) Gated Communities in the metropolitan area
of Buenos Aires, Argentina : A challenge for town
planning, Housing Studies, 20 (2) : 255 271.
377

Williams, Jo (2005) Designing neighbourhoods for social

interaction : the case of cohousing, Journal of Urban
Design, 10 (2) : 195 227
Winarso, Haryo (2005) City for the rich, paper presented at the 8th
International Conference of the Asian Planning Schools
Association 11 14th September 2005, Penang Malaysia
Wu, Fulong (2005) Rediscovering the Gate under market
transition : from work-unit compounds to commodity
housing enclaves, Housing Studies, 2 (2) : 235-254.
378

TRADITIONAL FORT OF KERATON

YOGYAKARTA AND SACRED AXIS
INFLUENCED SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL
AND MODERN PERIOD
Department of Architecture, Engineering Faculty, Atma Jaya Yogyakarta University
Corresponding authors: idach@mail.uajy.ac.id
Abstract
Keraton Yogyakarta had its owned teritory inside the
fortification. North and South axis is the sacred axis for the
Javanese people. These aspects influeced development of the
city. Social and cultural developments took place inside and
outside the fort according to periods of city development. There
were four periods of city development i.e. tradisional period,
Indische period, colonial period, and modern period. Each period
had its civilization characteristics. Javanese, Dutch, and Chinese
held cultural background in the city. Intepretive-historical method
tries to explore that there were zone territories reflected from
building appearance in the peripheries of the fort to accomodate
socio-political aspects in every period.
Meaning and identity in the core of Place Theory could be
found in the historical precedent of the peripheries. Intra and extra
muros paths had position as structural form (linkage theory) to
show development pattern by using functional categories,
periods, and symbolic expressions. Functional categories are
spiritual force, temporal power, and economic energy.
Historic precedent is used to assume building function
and establishment. Historic precedent could also be accompanied
by contextual phenomenon to support quantitative data. Location
and building function in the peripheries are analyzed based on
field study and maps in 1900 and 1925. The 25-year duration is
determined by historic precedent of building architectural
character in every group year.
Traditional pattern of urban structure, axial organic, and
compositional form, had role to form urban development pattern.
Social and cultural acculturation is happened in the area around
traditional territory i.e. the fort. Acculturation between JavaneseColonial and Chinese-Colonial functioned as political approach by
using build environment to less the power of fort and sacred axis.
Social and political influence could be seen in different category
379

between field data and map study. The differences are used to
indicate culture acculturation of Colonial, Chinese, and Javanese.
Keywords: acculturation, city developments, fortification, sacred
axis, socio-political aspects.
INTRODUCTION
Yogyakarta is traditional and noble city. It has
cosmological and sacred axis, complete the presence of energy
in the traditional city. The fort and the axis formed the territory to
enclose Sultan authority. The specific character of Yogyakarta in
colonial period was powerful existance of Kraton (palace) to
control urban space dan community, but in the same way
1
controlled by colonial power.
Kraton is centre of the axis and center of Sultans power. Sultan
had a very important position. The fort bordered the first city of
Yogyakarta. Sultan had authority inside and outside fort (intra and
extra muros).
Districts at edges of the fort were affected by sacred axis.
The fort and the authority could form social and political
responsive by means of building simbolic expression. Sociopolitical transformation in community settlement was designated
with building appearance in accommodating activity and symbolic
communication.
Building appearance could indicate sosio-cultural
influence and acculturation, more over socio-political policy in the
community at that time.
Research area was in the periphery of Kraton fort.
Buildings data were represented by their exterior expression of
multicultural element in Javanese, Dutch, Chinese, and Islamic in
the period 17- 20 centuries. This research implemented historicinterpretive method by means of building mapping dan visual
documentation. Interpretation of the objects compared with
historical data and moments of importance.
The result of analisys can be part of recommendation and
consideration to urban design and urban planning policy in
conserving local value and history.
Surjomihardjo (2000), p.11. Yogyakarta menarik untuk dikaji, karena dalam

perkembangannya, kota ini pada mulanya merupakan kota kraton di pedalaman
yang diawasi pemerintah kolonial (sehingga dua kekuatan kepentingan, yaitu
kekuatan tradisional dan kekuatan kolonial, bertemu di dalamnya). Kurun waktu
yang dipilih, masa akhir abad ke-19 sampai awal abad ke-20, berkaitan erat
dengan proses pasifikasi Hindia Belanda dan makin mendalaminya pengaruh
politik dan ekonomi kolonial ke daerah pedalaman di Jawa. Suatu proses yang
menimbulkan perubahan dan pembauran.
380

THE SACRED AXIS AND THE TRADITIONAL FORT

Sacred axis of Yogyakarta connected the major points in
Javanese cosmology. Axis between north and south, had points
of meaning at Merapi-Tugu Pal Putih-Kraton-Panggung KrapyakLaut Selatan. This sacred axis holds the centre of reference for
urban design since traditional era until now.
Inside and outside paths of the fort passed through gates
called plengkung. According to historic documentation, there were
5 plengkungs at the fort, namely plengkung Wijilan, Plengkung
Ngasem, Plengkung Joyoboyo, Plengkung Tamansari, Plengkung
Gading, dan plengkung Gondomanan. But now there are only 4
plengkung, yaitu Wijilan, Ngasem, Tamansari, dan Gading. The
plengkung could have important position as origin and destination
related to urban development. The traditional territory was defined
by the palace, the plengkungs, and the fortification.
Market
Church
Loji Kebon
Vredeburg
Loji Besar
Dutch housing
Plengkung Ngasem
Plengkung Wijilan
Dutch housing
Plengkung Tamansari
Plengkung Gondomanan
Plengkung Gading
Photo 1. Map of Kraton Fortification
381

THE INFLUENCES
ARCHITECTURE
IN
CITY
DEVELOPMENT
AND
It seems to be rather difficult to discover some order in

2
the theoretical perspectives used in Indonesian urban studies.
Town have definitions, i.e.:
1. the town as a man-made material environment
2. a centre of production
3. a social community
4. a cultural community
5. a controlled society
The town can be defined in the first place as man-made
material environment. This formulation directs the analysis to the
morpholocial aspect and covers the architectonic, spatial and
environmental ordering in relation to the socio-economic and
cultural backgrounds. The town can also be defined as a centre of
production. This opens a broad perpective on the organization of
production on the one hand and regional and international
relations on the other hand. The definition of the town as social
community is rooted in a systems approach. It can be in
functionalism or conflict theory. The perspective of the town as a
cultural community directs attention to the way people manage to
carry on in the town, their perception of the urban environment,
their ways of living, subcultures, acculturation of various cultures
and the structure of cognitive systems. The town is managed by a
system of local authorities.
Definition of town can be understood as an approach to
analyze acculturation process. It is important to understand four
development in Indonesia cities, i.e.:
1. early Indonesian town
2. Indische town
3. colonial town
4. modern town
In The Image of the City, urban character can be
analyzed in three factors, i.e. Identity, Structure,and Meaning.
Indonesia cities had mainly similar figure with composition of
palace, square, market, port, and fort. Traditional town had
structure based on cosmological and socio-cultural background.
The figures of noble city were circular compotition with hierarchy
from centre to periphery. Indische town was the first influenced
town of colonial authority in Indonesia. Modern town had
transitional process from western modernisme to independence
condition.
Nas (1986), p.14
382

Space itself can assume strongly marked attributes.3

Urban space can be defined by means of building relation, scale,
space geometry, and building characters. Location, function, and
period of building expression can be considered to find sociopolitical influence in building development at fort perphery. In the
colonial period, there were social stratification that dominantly
influenced cultural background, namely: Javanese (Moslem),
Dutch, and Chinese.
Chinese Influence
Chinese living district is called Pecinan or China Town.
Chinese had history in relation to Javanese noble, Sultan
Hamengkubuwana I. One of His soldiers was Tan Jin Sing, with
his honourable mention as Secodiningrat. Secodinigrat Dalem
was demolished and turn to Bank Indonesia. Chinese influence
expanded with the origins in north and south of Kraton. Rumah
toko or shop houses were the perfect solution to accommodate
economic and domestic aspect. They expressed acculturation
process with building, function, and personality.
Chinese architecture adapted with tropical architecture.
The results of adaptation were high ceilings, ventilations,
openings, high gable walls and long roof to reduce radiation and
glare. The weight of the roof, with its projecting eaves, is
transferred to the wall by sets of wooden brackets. The houses
had narrow width and long in longitudinal axis. There was a
terrace in the two-story faade. Simple faade was related to
function of house and comercial. This condition was different to
the luxorious style of KLenteng in detail and colour. The first
location was in the eastern side of the fort, where klentheng was.
Dutch shop houses were similar to Chinese shop houses in their
steep roof.
Islam Influence
As a part of Mataram Islam in the last period, Kraton
Yogyakarta had employee to serve religious division, called
kepenguluan. They lived near Masjid Agung, an area provided by
Sultan Hamengku Buwono I. This place then was called
pakauman or qoimuddin or kauman.
Kauman had wide area, bordered by Kraton and colonial
complex. The paths in the district are very close and secured with
1 meter wide connecting houses. Social interrelation was strongly
close and maintains the solidity in the same background of
Moslem society.
3
Design of Cities, p.17
383

Islamic architecture came to Indonesia in 14-15 centuries

with adaptability to the last condition. There were characteristic in
the firstly period of Islam, namely tumpang roof (imposed roof),
splitted gate, gate with door frame, clay material figures on top of
the roof. There was even ornament of two splitted wings in the
gate.
Islamic ornament never used animal or living symbol.
Khaligrafic carving took place at walls inside and outside house,
dome, and ceilings. Plant ornament emphasized to estetic
function. Geometric form was used in polygonal repetition, like
stars, circle, etc.
Colonial Influence
The Kota Yogyakarta 1880-1930: Sejarah Perkembangan
Sosial was explained that aristocratic people of Yogyakarta
conceived adaptability process to colonial situation. In this
process, cultural contact was happened between traditional
power and colonial power. Colonial condition was included:
1. People were involved in economic and political domination by
foreign minority.
2. Foreign minority was possibly had control over bumiputera
majority.
3. Industrial civilization had contact and conflict to pre-industrial
society.
4. Difficult situation between two civilizations made the
subservient role to which the colonial people are subjected as
instruments of the colonial power.4
Urban space became a responsible space for interaction,
development, and stressing another status.
Urban planning in colonial period reflected Nederland
cities in 16-17 centuries. Old cities of Nederland were located with
fort and moat, connected outside by gates. There were four
functions, namely spiritual force, temporal power, and economic
energy, and symbolic expression. Religious building, noblemans
palace, market, and square were typology of building that forming
the urban space.
Housing in colonial cities in 17-18 century are similar to
Dutch building. The characteristics are:
Long houses
narrow 20 m width 110 m long
steep roof
faade with two level
few openings for ventilation
4
Ibid, p.2
384

roof in long form and big in steep roof (close to Chinese

buildings)
Indisch style developed later. This house had wide yard. It was
usually owned by dutch who married Indonesian woman.
In the 19 century, there was evocation to appreciate local
architecture. Building design adapted to local style with
permanently using Europe style. Hindian influences were
Indonesia and Cina. There are verandah and parallel rooms next
to each other. Shop houses with verandah reflected acculturation
between Chinese, Dutch, and Indonesian architecture.
Policy of elimination Rodi in 1870 evoked establishment of private
bureau and business. With the process of storing, production, and
distribution, there were new types of buildings to facilitate new
needs.
In 1920-1930, there were combination of local
architecture and modern principles of architecture. In these years
colonial housing had new expression with single house, one story
house, with clay as roof material, plastered walls, and jati window.
This house was constructed on the plinth of stone. The second
type was two stories building with garage and pavilion.
HISTORIC INTERPRETIVE
Fort in the Palace Periphery was as border of authority
teritory. It determined urban identity in Indische and Colonial
periods. Intra and extra muros had role in structuring identity and
meaning.
Fort had east, west, north, and south side. Plengkungs
were principle points to define the mapping of buildings.
Plengkungs is the identity of a district. The analisys was also
starting from these points. Network of circulation in the means of
paths, inside and outside the fort, were indication of urban
development direction with reference to the sacred axis and
plengkungs.
Historic precedence was used to assume building
functions and year of establishment. The categorial data also
considered contextual phenomenon when buildings were
constructed, for instance Muhammadiyah movement and political
situation.
Building characters were grouping in every 25 years
period. Archives of building establishment supported the definition
of year and building characters. Field observation also helped
configuration of data, for instance information by interview or year
establishment carved at the wall. Historic maps of Yogyakarta
could be traced to compare the existence of buildings.
385

Table 1. Year Periodically Assumption of Building Appearace and

Function
Berjajar
min. 3
rumah
1850-1875
Traditional
Period
Satu rumah
1875-1900
Indische
Period
1900-1925
Colonial
Period
>1925
Modern
Period
386
House:
steep and long roof
colonial building similar to Chinese
building
narrow width about 20 m and long
in longitudinal axis
faade with two level
front terrace, few openings
House:
large house with wide yard
Alternative function: education,
church
House:
Hindian style, with Europe and
Chinese elements
Open terrace
Alternative function: government,
shophouses
House:
One story house: simple, stone
basement or platform
Two stories: added with garage
and pavilion
Alternative function: government,
culture, Islamic style

Chinese-Colonial
Javanese-Colonial
Javanese-Islamic
Figure 1. Sacred Axis
Data and analisys explained that:

1. Acculturation predominantly went on periphery attach directly
to the fort. Although there were extra muros paths parallel to
the fort, acculturation did not directly open in the building
appearance.
2. There were efforts for emerging building characters in
precious period. Building character in <1900 emerged in
modern period (>1900).
3. Javanese and colonial acculturation is in south, west, and
north of the fort and in the Islamic area. The periode of
emerging was >1925. Chinese and colonial acculturation is in
east, west, and north of the fort. The periode of emerging
were 1900-1925 dan >1925.
Urban development had structural periods, namely
traditional city, indische city, colonial city, and modern city.
Traditional city had palace as centre and fort as border of
territory. Indische city indicated Chinese district development with
commercial function, spiritual force, and housing. Otherwise,
there was colonial district with spiritual force dan temporal force
function. Temporal function was related to governmental
authority. In colonial city, there were spiritual force, economic
energy, and housing and Chinese district. Modern city had
colonial district with economic energy and housing and Muslim
district.
387

Traditional
Colonial district and chinese district Colonial district Indische

Colonial district Indische
city. Function:
Indische city. Function:
city
temporal force, spiritual
temporal force, economic energy
Function: temporal force
force
Distrik Muslim bagian dari kota Kolonial. Peran :
Colonial district colonial city.
spiritual force, pemukiman
Function: spiritual force,
economic energyTradisional
Colonial district and urban
kampong Modern city.
Traditional
Function: economic energy,
Colonial district Modern city
housing
Function: economic energy,
housing
Colonial district Modern
city
Function: economic
energy, housing
Kraton
Traditional

city
Function: economic
energy, housing
Chinese district
Indische city
Function: spiritual
force, economic
energy
city
Function: economic
energy, housing
Traditional
Colonial district modern

city
Function: economic
energy, housing

city.
Function: economic
energy, housing
Traditional
Traditional
Figure 2. Mapping of Location and Function
Indische city was previously process to colonial city, so

that development of spiritual and economic function encreased.
Building periods indicated development of building starting from
the east-west axis with Chinese district shophouses to east side
of the fort. So there was a imagenary axis to interfere power of
the sacred axis.
CONCLUSION
Colonial goverment confined Chinese district and Islamic
district. Chinese district was adaptable with its economic function.
Islamic district was religious basic and emerged in modern city.
Socio-cultural acculturation and socio-political influence
went on area that close to radiiotnal territory. Javanese-colonial
and Chinese-colonial acculturation proved socio-political influence
in socio-cultural elements. The acculturation is a policy to reduce
power of the sacred axis and power of the fort.
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388

Groat, Linda, David Wang. (2002). Architectural Research

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Mann, A.T. (1993). Sacred Architecture. Brisbane: Element.
Mann, Richard. (1998). The Old City of Jakarta Today. Jakarta:
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Markus, T.A., P.Whyman, J.Morgan, D.Whitton, T.Maver,
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Ruang pada Masyarakat di DIY (Suatu Studi mengenai
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Surjomihardjo, Abdurrachman. (April 2000). Kota Yogyakarta
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Utaberta, Nangkula. (16-17 Juni 2004).Konsep Arsitektur Islam
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389

UNDERSTANDING THE DUALISM

IN CITY PLANNING1
Laksmi Gondokusumo Siregar
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering
University of Indonesia
e-mail : laksmisiregar@yahoo.com
Abstract
Human being has two sides giving them the possibility to
live, namely spirit and physical or soul and body. Starting from the
issue of these two sides of life, this paper will discuss the
relationship as far as the human life exists, starting from the
understanding that human existence as living creature is different
from other living creatures. Therefore in discussing about city
arrangement, it is better to start from the issues of human with
their lives. According to Merleu-Ponty, human arises as a
particular organization possessing two unsure inside, namely
spiritual unsure and physical unsure. Therefore, human does not
lives merely on his/her pyhsical, but they live because of their
spirit, too. These two sides of human life always go side by side in
undergoing human life. If the two are not in balance, there will be
possibility that human life will not run according to what is
expected. In other words, the two have to run in harmony, so that
they will guide human being into healthy life, body and soul.
Key words: human, spirit, manifestation, symbol, urban
Preliminary
The streamline of human life is the factor of the arising of
things around human life and able to support their life. Various
things around us are the manifestation of our lives, such as
buildings made by human for conducting better life. Clusters of
buildings will from cities, which becomes the social life of human.
City planning can express, in non verbal language, the
characteristics of its citizens. Because of the communication
power showed by the city planning, arranging a city has to be
followed by deep understanding of human life.
Human, in his/her lives, need many supports which will enhance
their existence. Besides human visible physical, human also
consists of soul, which also needs fulfillment. Both of these
1
Presented in International Seminar. The Knowledge City. Spirit, Character and

Manifestation. November 13-14, 2007. Department of Architecture University of
Sumatera Utara. Medan
390

matters cannot be separated one from another because of the

unique relationship between human soul and body. Starting from
this thought, therefore in city planning, we have to possess
understanding background about the entire human life. Not
merely about human to give concern to human physically, but
also from the spiritual side. Therefore, to fulfill human needs
entirely, in city arrangement/city planning, it is not enough to
create buildings or open spaces which can be enjoyed just
physically, but spiritually, the city planning has to be able to give
enjoyment/happiness for the society.
Related to the two matters which have to be fulfilled,
therefore development for the interest of citizens to live socially
have to be able to cover all human needs, both physical and
spiritual (body and soul). Development with thoroughly needfulfillment can be said as human development.
The Meaning of Dualism
Dualism is a philosophycal view emphasizing the
existence of two integral fields (worlds), can not be reduced and
unique.2 The examples of supranatural-natural, spiritual-material,
soul-body, visible world invisible world, actual reality
probability reality.
The oldest metaphysical dualism is Platos dualism. The
truely existence was merely ideas. Eventhough, he admitted the
existence of lower principles but opposite to ideas. Platos
dualism was also ethical as far as he identified the goodness of
ideas and crimes with the lower principles.
The characteristics of human being is multidimensional,
human being is consisted of soul-body-spirit. It is important for us
that human being is bi-dimensional creature. In human being,
there are two dimensions : spirit and matterial. 3 Human being is a
united singleness but in that unity, there is duality : spirit and
material. Spiritual and material cannot be reduced one to another.
Although they are contradict between one and another, but they
cannot be separated and cannot unbound one to another.
Spiritual and material in human being are two realities. Dualism
views determinism and human freedom as two realities which are
strange one to another.
Determinism is valid for human being physically, whereas
freedom is valid for human being spiritually. These two realities
which are strange one to another but they have to go along
together. According to Merleu-Ponty, a French phylosopher,
2
Bagus, Lorens 1996. Kamus Filsafat

Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta P
174-175
Snijders, Adelbert OFM Cap. 2004. Antropologi Filsafat Manusia. Paradoks dan
Seruan. Kanisius Yogyakarta P 105- 110
391

human being arises as an organization which consists of psycho

and physical unsure, subjective and objective, internal and
eksternal.4
Referred to various opinions about the meaning of dualims, it will
be the material for the complementary in the following
explanation, which is related with the planning of a city.
City Planning
Human efforts to place their activities in a certain
protected place is by building places, so that human being can
conduct their activities well protected and quiet. The protected
place, so far, is called as the realization of human being, named :
architecture. Architecture gives many chances for human to selfactualization. It gives particular meaning for human life.
Human being in their ways of life owns natural characteristis,
namely live in group and society. With these characteristics,
human build their living space and in group to form something
called city.
City is the compound of buildings, roads, places of
activities, settlements, recreational places and meeting places. 5
Basically, city is the total sum of places consisted of public space,
6
economical spaces, and theater, church, landmark and houses.
Urban design is the combination between city planning,
architecture, landscape, civil engineering and transportation.
Urban design refers more to physical city. Urban design can
create itself into visible form/facade buildings, design of a road,
and a realization of an urban area. The product of city design is
categorized into general form namely urban space and natural
space. Urban space is formed by the face of building with
the floor of city namely road, plaza, or other open spaces.7
Whereas, natural space as a space represents nature inside
and the surrounding of city.
Being realized or not, in human language of space, we can
always find the reflection of our will as human. Basically we have
particular sense of space and the way we use the space. In their
need of space, human has three important things, namely
8
stimulation, security, and identity. They will be explained briefly as:
a. Stimulation is the real and simple part of these three factors
to be understood. But this factor is more basic and less
glamorous then we used to be. The extreme form is boredom,
4
6
7
8
Merleau Ponty, dalam Brouwer, MAW.1988. Alam Manusia dalam

Fenomenologi. Gramedia. Jakarta
Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design : The Architecture of Town and Cities.
McGraw Hill. P 106
Gruen, Victor. 1964. The Heart of Our Cities . Simon and Schuster Inc, NY
Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan . Bandung P 61
Adrey, Robert, in Lawson, Bryan. 2003. The Language of Space. Architectural
Press. Amsterdam, NY, London, Sidney. P 18-39
392

not only is about something faded but very dangerous. The

experience of the lack of stimulation will continue, so that, it
will erradicate the subject from receiving information of from
outer world.
b. Security; we all have the very basic need in the stability
degree, continuity and predictable life. It may be sound
interesting for not possessing such things, but try to imagine
how depressing it would be for undergoing life which always
changes and cannot be predicted. We are dependent to our
sanity in knowing about the regulations. Two most depressing
things are moving home and holiday.
c. Identity is one of the important and basic things in the spirit of
human being. It is important to create and nurture identity.
According to Krier, urban space is all spaces lie in
between or out of buildings in urban areas. Urban space has to
be differentiated from certain prominent characteristic, in the
quality of detail management and activity in it. An urban space is
ideally surrounded by walls, floors, and has strict meaning to
serve citizens. Buildings can form its surrounding space so that
landmark and node can be formed.9
Some theories of urban design are :
a. Figure ground theory,10 is based on a main components
namely solid (figure) namely blocks of the buildings mass and
voids. They are the out space which are formed between the
blocks.
b. Linkage theory11. Linkage is the most successful glue in
writing the urban form where the building masses which
speak in the lingkage will form articulation.
c. Place theory, is the combination of the two prior theories. This
theory emphasizes the cultural and historical factors. This
theory gives the local shapes according to the potential of
the society so that the socio-cultural values can be accepted.
All of the theories above have to be concerned integrally
in the urban area planning, because those three theories are the
same importance. The ideology forms urban design, among
others are12:
1. Concern to urban aesthetic arrangement. Rome is the
example of using this ideology, with Piazza Saint Peters as its
open space.
2. Concern to social environment. This ideology is developed.
3. Ideal urban social environment which is expressed through
ideal physical environment.
9
Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. NY P 15

Trancik, Roger. 1986. Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co N Y. P 104-108
11
Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form. St Louis P 29
12
Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota yang Berkelanjutan.Bandung P 71
10
393

There are three physical environment influence for human,

namely13:
1. Environmental determinism; that physical environment
influences the perception and human behavior.
2. Environmental possibilism; that physical environment can
give chance/treshold towards human behavior.
3. Environmental probabilism; that physical environment gives
choices which are different for human behavior.
Those are various thoughts about city planning. They will
give further and deeper views for us to understand about certain
city planning. More than other dimensions which has to be
concerned in city planning, social dimension grows as the main
attention in the efforts to understand life values. Thus, it is time for
the process of city planning to involve experts in social fields,
such as anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, so that city
planning will not emphazise on merely physical issues.14
Discussion
In giving base to a city planning, it has to be realized that
dualism in the realization of media formation for human life.
Dualism has to be the starting point of city planning arrangement.
Therefore, the work of city design can be done entirely, serving
the body and soul of human.
Likewise dualism which is material/physical and soul/spirit. Two
unseparable things, therefore the planning of a city can be done
thoroughly and human.
The definition of human (according to http://www.m-w.com) is :
a. Function shows complementary verb
1. To represent human, to show the characteristic of human,
to adjust with human characteristics.
2. To become more human
b. Function shows nouns :
1. Refer to humanity
2. Doctrine, attitude, way of life according to human interest
and
value,
particularly
philosophy
refuses
supernaturalism and emphasizes on pride, value and
somebodys capacity to actualize him/herself.
The fulfillment of spiritual human need will lead to

13
Rapoport, Amos 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form : Towards a Man

Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design Oxford P 34
14
Siregar, L Gondokusumo 2005. Penyediaan Ruang Publik yang
MeManusiawikan Kehidupan Kota. Proceeding Seminar Nasional : Peran
Ruang Publik Dalam Pengembangan Sektor Properti dan Kota. Jurusan
Arsitektur Fakultas Teknik Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang 2005
394

something more human in the city planning arrangement. The

level of education which is still far from adequate for a developed
country like Indonesia, has to become the main priority in
developing the city planning. Therefore, it is an important duty of
local government as the decision maker in the arrangement of city
planning. Local government has to
fully realize that
understanding dualism is very important for fulfilling the needs of
the citizens, and it has to be done consistently. By conducting a
city based on the dualism above, where they have to go in
harmony, thus this will influence the characteristic of the citizens
and thoroughly the characteristic of a city will be more human. It
is caused by the balance condition between physical and spiritual
(body and soul). Balance for human life is very important,
because if we emphasize only on physical in the city planning,
there will be emptiness for the spiritual of the city, likewise
citizens who lack of spiritual fulfillment. Many of Citizens in
Indonesia do not realize yet the importance of their spiritual
fulfillment. It is caused by the low level of knowledge and
education. Because of this thought, it is something proper for the
officers doing the city planning to understand and apply the
human spiritual sides in general.
Conclusion
From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that
giving base on the complete understanding about human life is
important in city planning .
Human physical life, which is two-sided and always go together,
has been clearly discussed.
Dualism in the human is something unreducable. One
with another cannot go by itself, but the two have to go together.
Something which is not realized in their lives, human needs both
of them to exist in him/herself.
This can be the basic that the arrangement of city planning is a
human place of the citizens, to live, to exist, and to self-actualize,
well and entirely.
Therefore, city planning which is planned to serve the citizens,
and it is an obligation to be based on the fulfillment of
psychological and physical needs of human being.
References
1. Bagus, Lorens. 1996. Kamus Filsafat. Gramedia Pustaka
Utama Jakarta
2. Brouwer MAW. 1998.Alam Manusia dalam Fenomenologi.
Gramedia Jakarta
3. Budihardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan.. Alumni Bandung
4. Gruen, Victor. 1964. The heart of Our Cities. Simon &
Schuster Inc N Y
395

5. Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form.

Washington University Publications. St Louis
6. Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. Rizzoli Int. N Y
7. Lawson, Bryan. 1999. The Language of Space.Architectural
Press. Amsterdam, London, N Y, Sydney.
8. Rapoport, Amos. 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form :
Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and
Design. Pergamon Press, Oxford
9. Snijders, Adelbert 2003. Antropologi Manusia, Paradoks dan
Seruan Kanisius Yogyakarta
10. Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design ; The Architecture of
Town and Cities Mc Graw Hill
11. Trancik, Roger 1986.Finding Lost Space; Theories of Urban
Design Van Norstrand Reinhold. N Y
396

DESIGN AS AN INSTRUMENT TO IMPROVE

THE QUALITY LIFE OF THE POOR:
ISSUES FOR RESEARCH
Suparti Amir Salim
Doctor in Architecture, School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development,
Institute Technology Bandung, Indonesia
bupar@bdg.centrin.net.id
Abstract
The paper describes three key issues: urbanization,
Informal Sector and Settlement, and the Role of Architects that
considered important to be discussed to put design as an
instrument for creating inclusive society. There area several
challenges and need to be fulfilled to strengthen the position and
the role of architect and design in social transformation needs. It
needs urban development institution based on the principles of
good governance, sufficient knowledge on the problems and
issues regarding the provision of urban places for the poor and
the vulnerable, their need and their social characteristics, the
architect ability to negotiate development for the interest of all.
Both urbanization and dualistic characters of urban spaces raised
issues regarding inclusive society and how the architects, urban
planner and designer can have significant roles in urban social
transformation. But not only the designer institution have to be
strengthen but also the perception of other development actors
regarding design have to be changed. They should put design as
socially responsible activity
Keywords: informal
sector,
kampong
marginalization, segregation, urban
planning, urbanization
improvement
design and
Introduction
The objectives of urban planning and design basically to
fit the places with the socio-economic needs or the life style of the
urban people or the users. The objectives generally implied a
question how the lives of all citizens may be improved. But the
users of settlements, particularly urban areas, consist of many
communities. Each of communities has own interest, needs and
values, which may conflict to each other. That is why the
decisions related to urban design and planning to improve the
quality life of the citizens, tend to be the arena of power conflicts
among the actors involved and influenced by the development.
397

Healey mentioned that negotiations among actors involved in

development process would be influenced by the resources they
had. It means that the urban poor who has lack of resources no
information no technology and no capital- would not be able to
negotiate their interest with other actors who have more
resources or power. The implication of this situation is that the
poor will only have places unwanted by the better off, and may be
unwanted by the poor themselves. The replacement of Rusun
Pulo Mas with high-middle income apartment, showed the power
of market to develop urban places. The eviction of Pulo Mas
Rusun raised a clash between the inhabitants and the guards.
This incident reflected the powerless of the low income urban
people to defend their places wanted by them
One of the requisites to build a place is to fit its plan with
the city master plan. The master plan tend only to regulate the
urban land use. But it seems that there is no consideration yet on
how the socio-cultural and economic life of urban people would
and should to be organized. In housing development, there was a
regulation which determine the proportion of house type based on
income. Developers have to build 6 units of decent houses and 3
units for middle income people for one unit of luxury house. The
spirit of the regulation was the social integration through housing
plan and design. But it was generally neglected not only by
developers but local government as well, or they intrepreted the
regulation differently. The developers could build the portion of
decent houses somewhere else, or paid some amount of money
to local government instead of building the decent houses, such
as in West Java Province. Now the wide socio-economic disparity
among the urban people, can be seen clearly through the
different quality of urban settlement and or other urban facilities
for urban poor and the better off
The practice of urban places development through
market mechanism seem to be unfit with the aspiration to
implement urban sustainable development. This sustainable
urban development was based on the principles of good local
governance endorsed by the United Nations, that are (Srivanas)
Participation: requires freedom of association and expression
on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other
hand.
Rule of law: requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced
impartially and full protection of human rights, particularly
those of minorities.
Transparency: decisions taken and their enforcement are
done in a manner that follows rules and regulations.
Information is freely available and directly accessible to those
who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement.
398

Responsiveness: requires that institutions and processes try

to develop means to collate views and opinions of all
stakeholders and respond to them in a timely manner, and
within a reasonable timeframe.
Consensus oriented: requires mediation of the different
interests in society to reach a broad consensus on what is in
the best interest of the whole community and how this can be
achieved.
Equity and inclusiveness: ensures that all members of society
feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from
the mainstream of society. All groups, particularly the most
vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their
well being
Effectiveness and efficiency: the processes and institutions
produce results that meet the needs of society while making
the best use of resources at their disposal, the sustainable
use of natural resources and the protection of the
environment.
Accountability: an organization or an institution is accountable
to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions
Although in Indonesia there are many efforts to build

democracy and involving people in many development program
implementation, but it is still far away to have development
institution and process that fit the principles of good governance
mentioned above. In my view, based on my observation to
Bandung city, instead of reaching a good governance city, we
tend to be in involution process. Housing development in
Bandung carried out by the Dutch Government in the early XX
created integrated housing area for high income people, mostly
the Europeans, and the low income people, mostly Indonesian or
pribumi. Housing for different income people were arranged
through a hierarchy of circulation in such away so the housing
spaces changed smoothly from the high income people to the low
income. While the housing development in 1970s until 1980s
showed that the new housing development was part of city
development. But since 1990s the new developments have been
created many enclaves in the city area and its surroundings.
These new developments generally give no access to their
neighbors, the kampong inhabitants.
It seems that in Dutch era city planners and architects
had significant roles in shaping cityscape and created city for the
interest of all inhabitants. The very well known of them is Thomas
Karsten. He was a socialist and his decisions on city plan and
design were probably influenced by his ideology. The ideology of
architect and city designers, as well as city managers, may have
significant roles in city development. If they took side with the
399

people, their decision might for the benefit of all. Their ideology
and their political power are very important in creating city for all.
Their ideology and power may help creating city institutional
development based on good governance principles. But they
have to have sufficient knowledge and understanding the
problems and issues regarding the provision of urban places for
the poor and the vulnerable, their need and their social
characteristics as well. This will help them to be able to act fairly.
This paper tries to offer two urban development issues:
urbanization and sector informal. These are not new issues, but I
think we do not have sufficient understanding yet about these two
issues in the context of creating urban places for all. Urbanization
and sector informal are the phenomena of our cities that have
great potency to contribute to urban social and spatial conflicts. At
the fourth part of the paper, I will try to discuss the role of
architect and place designer as part of social development. There
will be no conclusion at the end of this paper, as the issues are
open to many answers and related to other important issues.
Urbanization, Globalization and Place Identity
Population movement has played a key role not only in
the growth of urban centers in Asia but it has strongly influenced
the social, economic and demographic structure and development
of those centers (Hugo, 2003:7). But not only urbanization, we
are now in the process of globalization as well.
A new
international division of labor, with an accent on globally
integrated production and the transnational corporation, has
dawned. The multinational corporation, which rose rapidly during
the 1970s, has now become common in every corner of the world
(Fu and Yue, 1996:9). We can see the negative sides of the two
process, as a process of impoverishment and the marginalization
of local and national economic actors. But on the other hand job
opportunity is increasing. Looking a job abroad is now becoming
easier. Generally working in foreign countries can get much more
money rather than working in Indonesia. It means that from
foreign countries, some Indonesian peoples will have potency to
improve the quality of their houses at the place of their origins.
But could the local government and the community use this
potency as an engine to improve the quality of their settlement in
a wide sense, not only the houses owned by the workers.
Maletis mentioned that there was a causal link between
urban population growth and increases in poverty. The majority of
the new urban entrants is poor and tends to settle in povertystricken neighborhoods among others in similar or worse
economic conditions (Smith). On the other hand, some bussines
and urban jobs particularly those that related with multi national
corporation, can create affluent people. The urban poor are not
always the new urban migrant as well, they may be the local
400

people. Urbanization can make the local people to be

marginalized. The migrant can take more benefit from the local
resources rather than the local people. According to my general
observation and some qualitatve data, mostly the actors in
bussiness areas and the owners of relatively luxury housing at
many locations in Bandung city are not the local people
(sundanese). Issues regarding the marginalization of the local
people were often discussed in many mass media. It was said
that the owners had to live outside the house while the guest lived
inside the house.
Affluent individuals and families are more likely to interact
only with other affluent people. They do not only dominate the
urban spaces, but they have much location in rural areas too.
They tend to live in a low permeability housing with guards that is
well known as gated community, and likewise the commercial
areas and buildings. Modern malls and shopping centres were
designed as such, so there is no trickle down effect to the low
income local people areas lived near this modern commercial
activities. Spatial and social segregation exist between the poor
and the affluent, whereas their location is close by.
The target group of place development, either
commercial buildings or housing, in a modern city is differentiated
by different socio-economic background of them, not by their
socio-cultural background. But the socio-economic background of
people tends to coincide with the ethnic background. That is why,
if urban development policy was based on market driven, it will
mean that the development would only facilitate or gave benefit to
a certain socio-cultural group of people only. As the affluent
people are not the local people, they might need different identity
of the place with the local people. In my view, the local community
has a need to maintain and develop their socio-cultural life. The
phenomenon of mudik shows that there is a need to go back to
the place of origin or their home. On the other hand, the migrants
individual and families- need a place fit to their social
characteristics and identity
Plurality seems a big challenge which has to be
responded by the architects, urban planners and designers.
Creating inclusive society socially and spatially- lead to a
question on how the places for the affluent people have to
integrated and segregated with the poor one, to give opportunity
to the poor get gain from the economic power of the affluent. But
each of social group have place fit to their own need. The
settlement pattern in the central city of Bandung inherited by the
Dutch may give a picture about the spatial and social relationship
between different ethnic and socio-economic background of the
inhabitants. The settlement consists of large blocks separated by
city circulation. Houses of the better off located at along side the
road, but the lower income group mostly lived in the inner side of
401

the blocks or the kampong areas. The inhabitants of the kampong

had a good access to the main road and other part of the city.
I lived at the city centre part of Bandung many years ago.
I have a perception that social relationship between the
indigenous local people (sundanese or pribumi) with the Chinese
descent was relatively good. There was an economic network
among the medium/ large scale textile traders of Chinese descent
with the home industry / small scale industry of clothes making
ran informally by the local people. Around Lebaran, the Chinese
usually gave presents to their Moslem neighbour and relatives,
and the other way round the Moslems gave presents to their
Chinese neighbour and relatives around Imlek. Kampong area in
city business area made the place affordable by low income
people. They had also good access to the economic activities
existed in their area.
But social integration is not only the matter of design.
Socio-political and economic condition at the macro level will
determine whether a good network and social relationship could
be established or not. A good design will facilitate and help the
social relationship flourish. The question is whether the designers
or architects have to take first initiative to create inclusive
community, or whether they just follow the mainstream. In my
view, architect and urban designers have to be a powerful
negotiator in the urban places development process for the
interest of all. This means that the designers or the architects
have to able to give inspirations and influences other actors
particularly the local government- to act in the interest of all.
The present condition of Bandung city is very different
with the condition of Bandung fifty years ago. The old Ducth
settlement pattern may be unfit for th present situation. But the
settlement or modern housing development carried out by the
Dutch government in the colonization era gave a good lesson to
be learned. City seems to be treated as an integration of a
numbers of different settlement that had their own characteristic.
Each settlement or part of the city was planned and designed
differenty. But in each of settlement there were places for various
income group fit with their socio economic and socio cultural
need.
It seems that inclusive design may help creating more
integrated urban places that will be able to flourish social
integration. But how the marginalized local people to be able to
maintain their place identity, while the resources to develop were
in the hand of non local people, and or they become a minority in
their own place? It is also questionable whether the identity of
place has to change or has to be maintained. Another thing
related to urbanization is that the process of social change may
occur rapidly and very dynamics, while the buildings and space
more difficult to change. The architects and the developers tend
402

to want their creation to be lasting as well. These raise a

question: should and how the architectural design take place in
urban transformation.
Informal Sector and Settlement
Informal sector and settlement are the characteristic of
city in the developing countries. Since economic crisis in 1998 the
informal economics seem to have been growing more rapidly.
Many public spaces in Bandung, such as lapangan Gasibu and
Tegallega are used for temporary market (pasar kaget) on every
Sunday morning. Much kind of commodities are sold, from
agricultural product, food, clothes up to motor cycles. These
places used by people for shopping, eating, sporting and leisure.
The users of informal activities and places are generally low and
middle income people.
Up till now we tend to see the kampongs as a product of
informal economy or poverty. Our research and observation
showed that the urban kampongs located in the inner city tend to
be heterogeneous socially and economically. While the sociocultural background of the inhabitants of kampong in the city
periphery are more homogeneous, but economically they may be
heterogeneous. Informal sector and settlement are not always
identical with poverty
Many researches show that the kampongs inhabitants
can be happy and enjoy staying in the kampong, and many
people enjoy shopping in the informal commercial areas. But
there is a great tendency that city managers prefer the informal
one. Kampong tends to be transformed into apartment type of
housing (rumah susun). And it seem that government institution
only have very little attention to the need of low income business
men/ women for urban places to accommodate their business
activities
It was expected that those activities would disappear with
the growth of the economy. Contrary to earlier predictions, the
informal economy has been growing rapidly in almost every
corner of the globe, including industrialized countries it can no
longer be considered a temporary or residual phenomenon. The
bulk of new employment in recent years, particularly in developing
and transition countries, has been in the informal economy. Most
people have been going into the informal economy because they
cannot find jobs or are unable to start businesses in the formal
economy. But work in the informal economy cannot be termed
decent compared to recognized, protected, secure, formal
employment (ILO, 2002:1)
ILO also mentioned that there has also been increasing
flexibilization and informalization of production and employment
relationships in the context of global competition and information
403

and communications technology (ICT). More and more firms,

instead of using a fulltime, regular workforce based in a single,
large registered factory or workplace, are decentralizing
production and reorganizing work by forming more flexible and
specialized production units, some of which remain unregistered
and informal. It means that most of urban population in Indonesia
will remain work in the informal sector in the future. The informal
way of earning money seem influence how people use their
space.
People work in informal sector tends to have no spatial
separation. They use their house for their income generating
activities. Their living room can be their working space as well;
they may be use public space for their activities. The way they
use their housing and the urban spaces seem to be different with
them who work in the formal sector. The question is whether the
informality is a way of life, and whether the informality should be
seen as a part of socio-culture characteristic, the way people
arranges and uses their space, and this way of live should be
responded by design.
Architects tend to organize space according to its
function, and most of us consider the informal people used the
urban spaces improperly. Many urban dwellers and urban
managers regard the informal sector activities as disturbing and
breaking the law. On the other hand the local authority seems
never to consider the urban spaces needed by the low income
informal sector seriously. They focus their interest to the formal
one. The spatial problems raise by the informal sector are similar
with the urbanization phenomena mentioned above, so as the
challenge: how design can contribute to create inclusive society.
The Role of Architect and Design in Social Transformation
The third issue is about the role of the architect.
Development is a result of negotiations amongst the actors
involved. They, who have more resources, will dominate the
decisions. Knowledge is only one of the resources the actors may
have. How knowledge uses and how far it can influence
development decisions, it will depend among other things on the
ideology of the actor, and the appropriate role of the architects.
Can architects have a strategic position in development decision
process? How? It seems that we have to change the architectural
institution which regulates the position of architect in the
development process as well. But we may not know yet what kind
of change we need.
Margolins mentioned that since the Industrial Revolution,
the dominant design paradigm has been one of design for market,
and alternatives have received little attention. And there has been
little theorizing about a model of product design for social need.
Nor has attention been given to changes in the education of
404

product designers that might prepare them to design for

populations in need rather than for the market alone. They also
raised a number of questions which I think we should try to
answer (2002:8): What role can a designer play in a collaborative
process of social intervention? What is currently being done in
this regard and what might be done? How can agencies that fund
social welfare projects and research gain a stronger perception of
design as a socially responsible activity? What kinds of products
meet the needs of vulnerable populations?
In my opinion, in Indonesia design tend to be regarded as
a micro element only in urban development. Most people consider
design relates only to the beautification of place or building, and
so, it is only a matter of rich people who can pay the cost and the
price. There were some architects who worked for poor
community, but the scope of development they involved relatively
limited. It was mostly not related with creating spaces for all in
macro context. It seems that many efforts have to be done:
improving the institution, the knowledge, the education and also
the perception of other development actors regarding design as a
socially responsible activity
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406

THE KNOWLEDGE CITY: WHOSE KNOWLEDGE?

A Case Study of Jakarta
Department of Architecture, University of Indonesia
Abstract
Knowledge as Foucault argues is power. It embodies as
episteme within society. Formation, transformation of a city has
closely been related to a constitution of its society. Indonesia is
constituted by huge continuum of society ranging from the tribal,
class-divided up to capitalist societies. Recent urban settlement in
Indonesia represents this continuum. Its plurality represents a
dual-society. The triadic cultural theme of knowledge-powerspace discloses the spatial formation of a city. Scarcity of urban
land stimulates conflict and those powerful will win.
This paper critically assesses the episteme of architects
and planners that assume consensus approach to city formation.
A city has been envisaged as merely composition of matters. A
city is not what appears or manifests; it is about what Lefebvre
calls informe liminal form that conceals its connectivity and
rupture. Analysis focuses on the constitution of society in
Indonesian cities that shows maps of social practices with no
traces. Any society will presume knowledge of its own that
manifests its practices over urban space. Findings have shown
that the city in Indonesia is a map of a disintegrated-social
calculus; and that the weakest are marginalized.
Keywords city, knowledge, power, space, and constitution of
society
I will refer the term knowledge city in this seminar to a city

that develops and is based upon knowledge. Knowledge here
applies to general knowledge that human being may acquire and
is not confined to that of scientific. Knowledge is a product of
human culture non-material one.
A city and the rise of social are two sides of a coin. The
rise of social is in existence because of the emerging plurality of
human existence in a place called polis or city. In turn, the human
condition of plurality is essentially the condition of all political life.
This condition permits or enables individuals or groups to have
authority, control, and domination over others. Under the
condition of plurality, humans take various forms and degrees of
social integration according to their common knowledge/value
and interest. From this societal phenomenon in a polis or city it
407

has been invented the idea of private/public realms. The social

demands public affairs and interests invested in a city to ensure
that people have the equal right to live, act in it.
Indonesia is a multicultural society in which it remains
being constituted by all types of society, that is, tribal, classdivided, and class (capitalist) society. Their locales place and
setting of interaction represent their respective public image.
Who Build a City? A city is build by its people or society.
What kind of society? At present Western world, society is
predominantly produced, in a Giddensian sense, by a structure,
system and structuration called capitalism. It is relatively mono
dimensional as Herbert Marcuse terms it. A city is market center
in this sense that governs its formation. Social practices produce
locales that secure their everyday activities.
In Indonesian case a city has been created by
heterogeneous people, groups as a mix of tribal, class-divided to
capitalist society. It embodies a mix of differential knowledge and
worldviews. It is a calculus of a differential social formation. Each
group will perceive a city as their own image or imagining. Urban
generation and formation is governed by this various political
interests of the society such as government (pseudo public),
public, private, and popular sectors.
Understanding society means understanding how it is
constituted and how it practices spatially. In a significant disparity
among people in a multicultural society like Indonesia, the picture
is more than intricate and challenging. I will discuss this spatial
form in this context in terms of mandala to refer to designate a
structure of order, where the Great Man is represented in the
center of a circle divided by four, a symbolic representation of the
nuclear atom of the human psyche It is used to refer a centrality
of space that may be understood as a representation of the Self
or of the Selves man of power.
Perfect Mandala. In the past, especially in the Javanese
society, the city was primarily constituted by the court culture a
class-divided society. The dominant society spatially segregated
city localities, namely, the court culture or the ruling class from the
rest. The city-state or Kutha was arranged in a concentric mode
and the spatial order was conceived into five hierarchies: 1) at the
center was the Sultan as the sole source of power; its center was
reinforced by Sultans kinsmen such as 2) Nuclear nobility in the
kraton, 3) Nobility in the walled city and 4) Commoners and
muetihan villages of four corners; at the outer circle 5) rural
population in the countryside.
408

Figure 1.
Perfect Mandala
Mandala of the Conqueror. The colonial government
built their own cities to secure their interests. Coastal cities like
Jakarta was primarily built outward orientated as a terminal to
export resources accumulated from the colonies in Indonesia. In
this colonial scheme [knowledge], the idea of a city was a
collection of administrative buildings, colonial residences,
warehouses, and military camps. The Dutch shaped Jakarta as
Mandala of the Conqueror by building a square called Champ de
Mars (literally means Field of March). This signified the spatial
and military importance of Jakarta and of its government system.
This square is now called Monumen Nasional or National
Monument.
Under the Japanese occupation of about three and half
years, from 1942-1945, the morphology of Jakarta did not
change. The Japanese instead introduced a bureaucratic system
to the city administration, introducing several levels of municipal
administration called tonarigumi or neighborhood groups that
essentially was a technology of surveillance. This system was
effectively exploited by the New Order regime.
In the post colonial era nothing much has been changed.
Cities, especially Jakarta, are still representation of the powerful.
While societies develop and grow they are simultaneously
disintegrating into two extreme modes dual society. One
extreme enjoys connectivity by time-space distantiation and
disembedding mechanisms beyond locality; the other are suffered
from involution and marginalization. Disembedding mechanisms
such as money, symbolic means, English as the lingua franca
and the Internet help to lift out and activities in an abstract or
online form that were once embedded in particular material goods
and in places.
Mandala of the 'great man'. After independence in 1945,
the periods of history of Jakarta can be classified into the two
distinct politics and administration: the Old Order and New Order,
409

representing Soekarno's and Soeharto's periods respectively. The

Old Order took the period of 1945-1965. The New Order is the
period of 1965-1998. These orders were named by the Soeharto
regime exactly to distinguish their difference. During the Soekarno
period the country was still overwhelmed by the new social and
political condition, associated with the euphoria of freedom and
the overturning of imperialism. Soekarno faced internal problems
of disintegration of the outer islands in the Nusantara, who sought
to gain their freedom. Indonesian nationalism was Soekarnos
response. Soekarnos view of development was in direct
opposition to those of Hatta, his vice president. Soekarno insisted
that the revolusi belum selesai, or revolution was not finish yet,
and development was to focus on 'nation building'. Hatta, an
economist, had a more pragmatic view that Indonesia needed to
make more effort and give attention to the economic
development. However, Hatta lost political support, preferring to
step down from the political arena.
Soekarno, the first president of Indonesia, was born from
an aristocratic priyayi class, holding the title of Raden before his
name. Although he talked of his poverty, which was actually that
of the Javanese people as a whole, he claimed he belonged to
the common people.
After the Dutch formally transferred
sovereignty to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on
27 December 1949, Soekarno took his leave of Yogyakarta, the
Republics revolutionary capital, and returned to Jakarta, the
capital of the new Indonesia. Like other Javanese rulers in the
more distant past, Soekarno adopted of the regal which conferred
power upon him.
Soekarnos initial heroic accomplishment in the new
capital city was to replace colonial names, notably changing the
name of Batavia once again to Jakarta. His entry into the
presidential palace, formerly the residence of Dutch GovernorGeneral, was a moment of historic fulfilment. The Champ de
Mars, or Koningsplein, the vast square to the south of the palace,
was named Medan Merdeka (Freedom Square). The residency
became the Istana Merdeka (Freedom Palace).
Since Soekarno had graduated as an architect-engineer
from the Bandung Institute of Technology, he had been obsessed
with the building of the representation of the glory of Indonesian
struggle for independence in the capital city of Jakarta. In his
speech on the transformation of Djakarta Raya, he proclaimed to
[build] up Djakarta as beautifully as possible, build it as
spectacularly as possible, so that this city, which has
become the centre of the struggle of the Indonesian
people, will be an inspiration and beacon to the whole of
struggling mankind and to all the emerging forces. If Egypt
was able to construct Cairo as its capital, Italy its Rome,
410

France its Paris and Brazil its Brasilia, then Indonesia must
also proudly present Djakarta as the portal of the country.
(Soekarno 1962)
One-way for Soekarno to realise his dream of nation
building was through the built environment. He seriously put
forward modernity as a movement to liberate Indonesia from the
colonial and imperial remnants of the Dutch. Soekarno's ambition
in the planning and design of the Central Jakarta was seen as a
part of his larger political plans to enforce his authoritarian
regime.
Soekarno conceived of Jakarta as a portal for Indonesia,
a showcase of the country, albeit masking mounting economic
troubles and political instability. If the city of Jakarta were
spectacular, so it was assumed, was the rest of the country. To
realise his dream, he conceived Jakarta City spatially as a
sequence of spectacle. They constitute prestigious monuments,
buildings, and thoroughfares: a series of urban projects from its
portal, namely, the Kemayoran airport in the North of Jakarta to
the suburb of the South of Jakarta, Kebayoran. Along this route,
Thamrin and Sudirman Avenues, Soekarno placed different
monuments and prestigious buildings: the National Monument,
the Sarinah Department Store, the Hotel Indonesia and a
wellcoming monument (Tugu Selamat Datang), as well as
Sporting Complex or Olympic Stadium in Senayan.
Structuration of society was centred on nationalism and
ideologies put forward by Soekarno. Alternative ideas that were
related to a developmental economy were easily equated as
capitalist and worst imperialist. In this sense, the structuration of
the society became 'tribalistic'. Within such a political climate,
people obsessed with maintaining the size of political
organisations by accumulating party members down to the village
level to compete with their opponents. Consequently, social
spaces were developed to accommodate this fashion. Jakarta
became a spatial collection of fragmented political groups
attached to their respective domiciles. This fragmentation of
society was especially noticeable in kampung settlements. In a
political sense, different kampungs had different political basecamps. For example, different kampungs provided separate
bases for members and supporters of communist, nationalist and
religious parties respectively. In this period, it was common to
refer to a kampung as red, green or nationalist. Individuals felt
the pressure to be associated with ideological parties and
positions. Nobody could claim to be golongan putih, or neutral,
since such an individual could be branded as kontra revolus,i or
contra-revolutionary. Despite decades of change, today we can
still find such an attribute given to a kampung., Penggilingan is,
411

for example, daerah hijau, or a green area because most of the

population are members of the Islamic party.
In this situation, political ideologies, rather than class
status or the like heavily influenced social action. Surprisingly, the
different competing groups all regarded Soekarno as Pemimpin
Besar Revolusi, or Big Revolution Leader, and consequently,
were subject to Soekarno's charisma. Spatially Jakarta was
divided into three social spaces. Firstly, there were the Dutch
historic places, including residential areas were mostly acquired
by the government and a few Chinese businessmen. Secondly,
there were the 'heroic' spacse of nationalism as a representation
of the Self of the 'great man' - Soekarno. This was especially
evident in the centre of Jakarta as well as at the Nusantara.
Thirdly, there were the 'undeveloped' or 'untouched' kampung
settlements in the periphery that represented fragments of
golongans or political factions.
Mandalas of the 'powerful': Orderly Chaos. The New
Order is Soeharto's era. The great majority sees this period, from
1965-1998, as an era of pembangunan or development. Soeharto
and his subsequent cabinets of technocrats in the different
periods of the presidency implemented capitalism in the
Indonesian economy. He has authoritarian in approach of
Javanese background, his attitude to governance was informed
by his being a military general. With a diam or silence in
maintaining 'power', he reserved the decisions for every strategic
political and economic decision in the country for himself. In this
manner, he became the only centre for decisions that affected the
people's fate. Social practices became heavily depended on his
decisions, since no opposition was allowed.
Social closure through exclusion is inevitably identified
with him, his family and cronies. A common saying, publicly
mocks him and his cronies, says that Indonesia sudah habis
dibagi ke keluarga dan kroni-kroni Soeharto (Indonesian
geography has completely been dealt out to Soeharto's family
and cronies). Jakarta was no exception to this dividing of spoils
during the period. Urban planning has forced to ad hoc changes
due to the 'vital' investment of large companies. Business in
property speculation boomed along with the increase in both
industrial and service sectors. The unjustifiable multiplication of
property development projects related to high-income housing
took place in the greater Jakarta or in the JABODETABEK region
(Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi)
Jakarta became the city of spectacles. Beautiful
architecture lined along the thoroughfares, and in different places
was built single large property developments. Before the
proliferation of the property businesses, urban development in
Jakarta was exemplified by ribbon development criss-crossing the
city. Here and there are 'jungles' or enclaves of the unplanned
412

kampung settlements. In this mode of development, it seemed

that the local government simply let go planning controls, leading
to fragmentation, with projects appearing in 'any' places the
investors could get hold of. No efforts were made to control such
a development, which inevitably resulted in an increasing burden
on the main roads, with direct access to developments.
NUSANTARA
National
Monument
Sarinah Deparment
Store
Well-coming Statue
Hotel Indonesia
Senayan Sport Complexes
Figure 2.
Mandala of the great man - Soekarno. He manifested his Self into Jakarta.
Source: After Taylor,J. L. and D. G. Williams, 'Upgrading of Low-income Residential Areas in Jakarta and
Manila,' in Urban Planning Practice in Developing Countries, eds. J.L. Taylor and D. G. Williams, Oxford, New
York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris, Frankfurt: Pergamon Press, 1982: 239-58, p. 247
Climate of urban development, critics of the New Order, like

Rendra, a poet, emerged to write the following verse in Jakarta in
1977:
We are dominated by the dream
of becoming other people
We are strangers
in the land of our ancestors
Dazed, the villagers chase dreams
and sell themselves to Jakarta
Dazed, Jakartans chase dreams
And sell themselves to Japan,
Europe, and America.
This poem vividly illustrates the simulacra of Jakarta City.
The city becomes alien to its own people, becomes hyperreal. In
this sense, Jakarta becomes a territory that no longer precedes
the map. On Baudrillard's account, "simulacra are not only a
game played with signs; they imply social relations and social
power", such as that in the New Order government, when
413

'modernisation' was taking place through the ideology of

'economic growth' and through authoritarian government. The
signification of pembangunan or development conveys meanings
intended to economically increase the GNP. This was done by
letting resources be developed by advanced countries, and
physically by building a 'modern' beautiful city to promote
pembangunan. Jakarta as a Capital City was especially supposed
to provide services to achieve pembangunan. The services and
infrastructure was to conform to an international standard
characteristic of best cities in the advanced world. In short,
Jakarta should simulate the 'modern' city of the world. This
simulation inevitably depresses the 'real' map of the kampung's
social, economic, and political existence. It then re-emerges in
this subjugated map an authentic Jakarta known as
perkampungan besar.
Figure 3.
A caricature of King Kong, the land mafia on top of the
National Monument in Jakarta
In the late 1980s, an economic boom due, to the foreign
capital inflow to the country and the economic growth of the
country, had engendered a property boom, especially in the
commercial sector. The extensive land acquisition in the
strategic area of the Jakarta has phased out a number of
kampung settlements.
(Source: Taken from Kompas newspaper, M. Kusumawijaya, Thamrin-Sudirman Aaavenue, Jakarta: A Case
Study in the Problems of Modernization in a Developing Metropolis, International Workshop on Housing - 'Urban
Coherence and Housing Strategies', UNHCS and PGCHS KU Leuven, Bandung 1990, p. 6)
Following economic boom due to the blessing of the oil

prize increase by the end 1970s, Indonesia started its economic
plan (the controversial economic growth) in the New Order of
government. Primary cities, such as Jakarta, Bandung and
Surabaya, gained momentum for their development including
incessant migration from all over the country. In this period,
government sector, instead of public, was then and still is now a
dominant player in the economy where urban investments were
dominated by this sector. As a result, the government programs
and implementations were beyond the public control.
The destruction or penggusuran of kampung, both legal
and illegal (squatters) kampung, has been going on since the
1980s up to now. It underwent in either a formal way through a
process of negotiation and subsequent compensation, or paksa
(forced) with no compensation especially for those of squatter
kampung. Statistical data recorded by Urban Poor Consortium
(UPC) in Jakarta indicate that more than 170,000 households
evicted and about 8600 houses have demolished (Table 1).
414

TIME-SPACE DISTANTIATION
OTHER LOCALES
(VIRTUAL/RHIZOME)
LOCALE OF X
Production of
Social
Interaction
A
Medium
Outcome
Outcome
Medium
Medium
Outcome
Outcome
Medium
Reproduction of
social systems
A
Area of Conflict
Production of
Social
Interaction
B
Reproduction of
social systems
B
LOCALE OF Y
Production of
Social
Interaction
A
Medium
Outcome
Outcome
Medium
Medium
Outcome
Outcome
Medium
Reproduction of
social systems
A
Area of Conflict
Production of
Social
Interaction
B
Reproduction of
social systems
B
Figure 4. Structuration, Spatial Implication & the image of the city
Figure 5. Systemic destruction of kampung settlement and life.

a). Penggusuran in the 1985 in Bendungan HIlir, Jakarta (Source:
http://www.urbanpoor.or.id/galeri, 24 April 2004); b) Penggusuran in
Kampung Sawah, Jakarta 2004, (Source:
http://www.urbanpoor.or.id/galeri, 24 April 2004)
415

Table 1. Eviction in Jakarta, 1996 - 2002
DKI Jakarta
1990
DKI Jakarta
1991
3
4
DKI Jakarta
DKI Jakarta
1995
1992
5
6
7
8
DKI Jakarta
Greater Jakarta (Jabotabek)
Greater Jakarta (Jabotabek)
Flood canals & Kali Jodo,
Kelurahans of Pejagalan and
Penjaringan, North Jakarta
Pesing Polgar, Kedaung
Kaliangke, West Jakarta
Kamal Muara, Penjaringan,
North Jakarta
Under the overhead railway
lines from the Sawah Besar
Terminal to Mangga Besar
Terminal in Kelurahan Karang
Anyar, Central Jakarta
Jalan I Gusti Ngurai Rai, East
Jakarta and Kranji, Bekasi
River banks from Kali Kanal to
Kali Tanjung West Jakarta
Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East
Jakarta
Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East
Jakarta
Pulo Gebang Cakung East
Jakarta
Bonded Warehouse in
Kecamatan Cilincing, North
Jakarta
Kampung Baru, Kelurahan
Karang Tengah, RT 03 RW 01,
Ciledug, in Tangerang
Jan-December 1996
Jan-December 1996
Jan-December 1997
1998
TOTAL*
(Households
or buildings)
739 hh
8037
(buildings,
fences,
houses,
billboards,
and
canteen)
8.443 hh
754 hh
512
buildings
5.049
houses
45 buildings
6784
(shacks,
retail kiosks,
buildings,
people, and
houses)
265 hh
66,526 hh
61919 hh
350 houses
1998
667 houses
1998
208 kk
11 November 2000
300 kk
NO
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
416
LOCATION
DATE
2000
2000
31-Oct-00
50 hh
18-Jul-01
12 hh
01-Aug-01
16 hh
22-Aug-01
23-Aug-01
150 hh

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Kampung nelayan Ancol Timur,

North Jakarta
Tanggul Jagung, Penjaringan,
North Jakarta
Banjir Kanal, Teguk Gong, North
Jakarta
Kampung Rawa Das, Pondok
Kopi, East Jakarta
Pesing, Bantaran Kali Angke,
Cengkareng, West Jakarta
Pela Pela, Tanjung Priok, North
Jakarta
Bantaran Banjir Kanal,
Pejagalan, Penjaringan, North
Jakarta
Bantaran kali Banjir Kanal,
Penjaringan North Jakarta
Jalan Pegangsaan II, Kelapa
Gading, North Jakarta
Kelurahan Penjagalan,
Penjaringan Jakarta Utara
Cakung Barat Rw 09, Jakarta
Timur
Bantaran Banjir Kanal,
Penjaringan Jakarta Utara
Rumah PSK Pela-pela Tanjung
Priuk
Nelayan East Ancol, North
Jakarta
Kampung Baru, kelurahan
Cakung Barat East Jakarta
Kelurahan Pakuan , Bogor
Kebon Jeruk, Jl Budi Raya RT01
RW02 West Jakarta
Kelurahan Kelapa Gading Barat,
Kecamatan Kelapa Gading,
North Jakarta
Duri Pulo, Kec. Gambir, Central
Jakarta
Tegal Danas, kelurahan
Cikarang, Bekasi
Total
24-Oct-01
74 hh
29-30 October 2001
1200 hh
31-Oct-01
5.010 hh
29-30 October 2001
2000 people
13 November 2001
30 houses
13 November 2001
13 November 2001
720 hh, 500

people
27-Feb-02
350 houses
3-May-02
10 houses
30-May-02
15 houses
30-May-02
22 houses
24-Jun-02
100 houses
24-Jun-02
1 houses
5-Aug-02
31 hh
27-Aug-02
15 houses
30-Sep-02
28 -29-Sept 02
14 houses
7 houses
24-Oct-02
300 houses
31-Oct-02
16 houses
29-Dec-02
2 houses
170. 352 hh
, 8645
houses
*) The unit measurement is rather confusing since it mixes incompatible units
such as houses, buildings, people and households; while at the end the total
units refer simply to households and houses.
Source: Urban Poor Consortium Website, Data penggusuran di Jakarta Dari
Tahun 1996 sampai dengan Desember 2002,
http://www.urbanpoor.or.id/41.11.0.0.1.0.shtml, 15 May 2004
417

50-99 hectares
100-249 hectares
250-499 hectares
500-999 hectares
Over 1000 hectares
Figure 5. The private development patterns relative to their sizes that range
from 50 to over 1000 hectares.
Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang Wootton, Major
Residential Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JABOTABEK),
poster, 1996
Figure 6. The private development patterns of the shopping centers in Jakarta.

Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang wootton, Major Residential
Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JABOTABEK), poster, 1996
418

Figure 7.
Patches of Jakarta.
Kampung Kumuh or
destitute kampung in
Jakarta is located mostly in
North Jakarta where
industries are located
Source: Dinas Pemetaan
dan Pengukuran Tanah,
Pemetaan di DKI Jakarta:
Sejarah dan Prospek
Pengembangannya, 2000,
p. 57
LEGEND:
Worst Condition
Moderate Condition
Light Condition
Space of the Ruler

Government Office
Settlement of the privileged
Settlement of the
underprivileged
(kampungs) continuously
marginalized
Commercial/Capitalist
space
Panoptic enclaves
Figure 8. Simplified schematic urban spatial configuration of cities in Indonesia during the
New Order Mandala of the Powerful
419

Major Business
Section
ROYAL HOUSES
MOSQUE
SQUARE
HAMLETS (BANJAR)
Temple
Square
Government
Offices
Traders
Neighbor
hood
Government
Offices
Town Shrine
KING
MARKET
Temple
Chinese
Stores
Javanese
Neighborhood
MARKET
Secondary Business
Section
Railroad
Station
MOJOKUTO
Residential Areas
TABANAN
Figure 9. Perferct Mandala and Mandala of The Ruler

Schematic diagrams of Towns in Mojokuto, East Java & Tabanan, Bali.
(Source: Geertz, C., Peddlers and Princes. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago
Press,1963, p. 10 & 19)
Multiplicity of Mandala: Disorder and Hyper-real. After

the fall of Suhartos regime the country has been celebrated an
ecstasy of a sudden political freedom and reform or Reformasi,
while ignoring the fundamental factor that path the way of the
collapse of Suhartos regime, that is, severe economic crisis
following other country such as Thailand. Political freedom along
with the crumbling down of businesses increasing poverty
acceleration The implication of this abrupt change has been
swerving into However, this situation has not escape people from
injustice, since vestiges or remnants of old political culture are still
breathing in a rhizome. Economic crisis aggravates the political
situation. The country has been busy with political reform and
threatened against disintegration. In the one hand, political
autonomy to local government simply stimulates new form of
authoritarianism in the local governments. Cities reincarnate into
those of the past - the seat of rulers. The commons and
kampungs remain marginalized, and the latter continuously
densified until they surpass their ecological limits, hence, become
burden or pathological to the city.
In the other, the constitution of society has shift into a
different unusual mode. Political existence of people, namely their
aspirations, no longer refers to the existing political situation, but
to fragmented groups. It is an aggregate of persons, not just of
individuals without active participation. This is a collective spirit
that is created in which aptitudes, identities and individualities
dissolve.
Capitalism plays crucial role in the shifting of
structuration of urban society and its tradition. This creates a
420

manifold of social closure of exclusion. According to Maffesoli this

mass is then tribalised into little masses which are heterogenous
fragments, the remainder of mass consumption society, groups
distinguished by their members shared lifestyles and tastes.
Maffesoli terms it tribus. These are not tribes in the traditional
anthropological sense, for they do not have the fixity and
longevity of tribes.
Urban society evolves like fractals of which they are
constituted by very diverse tribuses. However, in a simplified
mode it is recognizable from its simply dual image of
capitalist/bazaar society. A city holds a derogatory name the big
village, or McGee perceives it more as a developed region called
kotadesa. A tribus that constituted by the common or popular
sectors reside in marginalized kampungs. The government sector
enjoys its privileged to reside in a center. Private sector with its
economic power has privileged to acquire what ever locale they
consider as economically strategic. The latter grows as
unstructured mushroom everywhere in the urban region, such as
condo, malls and hypermarket such as Carefour. There are
notable examples of a tribus formation both in economic and
spatial terms. The emergence of electronic cities spread all over
Jabodetabek. The exclusive commercial districts in Kemayoran,
Jakarta are named Cyber City. This is a clearly 'commercially'
intended term, since the word cyber refers to something virtual.
While the popular struggle for their urban space by means of
usurpation in any locale they can usurp.
Within the housing sector, the picture has been even
more schizophrenic. There are new real estate developments that
go beyond what they call market mechanism. Demand has been
generated by dream through media. Kota Wisata or literally Tour
City is an exemplary case. The city is finely designed through
multiple clusters of foreign names, such as Florida, Orlando, and
Barcelona. These are closely related to desire, to fantasies. They
are hyper-real. Economic terms of production and consumption
have lost their principal meaning relative to market; it is simply a
production of production and production of consumption.
Concluding Remarks: Princes and Peddlers
Aptly coined by Gertz, Peddlers and Princes is an
apposite metaphor for towns and cities in Indonesia as they
developed through history, especially those of inland. Such cities
were usually generated through imposition that constitutes a
mode of urban diffusion that is virtually inseparable from the
expansion of the empire, and is usually accompanied by the
establishment of an administrative organization designed to
sustain the value system of colonial power. The alternative to
urban imposition is urban generation. It is a mode of processual
421

change subsumed within the inclusive field of social differentiation

and stratification.
Indonesian cities remain or endure a mix between court
culture and popular culture. The urban formation is a
representation of power that may emerge as a very strong single
nucleus or multiple nuclei that are barely integrated; the most
crucial issues in this development are movement or traffic
management. The urban generation resembles the process of
colonization that has little connection or interaction with the
peripheries rather than among centers. In this process, public
realm that is manifest in space has been neglected. When ever
possible every public space is usurped by informal sectors.
Kampungs have developed into its limit and created ecological
problems in the city. Globalization also means the expansion of
capitalism. Global decisions further create local collisions.
The geography of the city in Indonesia is simply a map of
a disintegrated-social calculus incorporating a competing
knowledge within the society and unfortunately the weakest are
severely marginalized.
References
For detailed discussion see Giddens, A., The Constitution of
Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University California
Press, 1984.
Boulding asserts that the growth of public image depends on the
larger growth of organization and society. Boulding, K.E.,
The Image: Knowledge and Life in Society. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 1961, esp. Chapter 5.
Marcuse, H., One Dimensional Man. Studies in the Ideology of
Advanced Industrial Society, London: Routledge, 1964.
The term government in Indonesia is pemerintah (noun), perintah
(verb), to give order. This term may have historically
derived or originated from the court culture (compare to
letat est moi).
Franz, M.L. von, The process of Individuation, in C. Jung (ed.),
Man and His Symbols, conveived and edited by C. Jung,
Picador, 1964, p. 230.
Soemardjan, S., The Kraton in the Javanese Social Structure, in
Soebadio, H. and C. A du Marchie-Sarvaas, Dynamics of
Indonesia History, Amsterdam, New York, and Oxford:
North-Holland Publishing Company, 1978: p.222.
Giddens showed that modern society is characterized by timespace distantiation and disembedding mechanisms.
Traditional society is based on direct interaction between
people living close to each other. Modern societies stretch
further and further across space and time using mass
media and interactive media. See Anthoni Giddens. The
constitution of society, Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1984.
422

Legge, A. D., op. cit., p.20.

Legge, A. D., op. cit., p. 240.
Cited from A. Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial, London and New
York: Routledge, 2000, p. 54.
Wiryomartono, A. B. P., op. cit., p. 159.
See Boddy, T., 'The Political Uses of Urban Design: The Jakarta
Example,' in D. Webster (ed.), The Southeast Asian
Environment, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1983.
Also A. Kusno, op. cit., p. 51.
Karl Jackson writes "The truly powerful man is the one who sits
motionless while his enemies energetically posture and
exercise their power, giving the evidence that they are so
weak that they are forced to make the first move,
dissipating their power rather than concentrating it." Quoted
from Schwarz, A., A Nation in Waiting. Indonesia in the
1990s, Allen & Unwin, 1994, p. 46; see also Jackson, K.,
'The Political Implications of Structure and Culture in
Indonesia', in Political Power and Communications, eds.
Jackson, K. and L. Pye, p.41
Abeyasekere, S., op. cit., p. 237. Taken from the poem 'Song of a
Bottle Beer' by W.S. Rendra, trans. H. Aveling, State of
Emergency, Sydney: Wild and Wolley, 1980, p. 67.
Simulacra refer to simulation that is no longer that of a referential
being or substance. It is the generation by models of a real
without origin or reality. See Poster, M., Jean Baudrillard:
Selected Writings, Polity, second edition, 2001, p. 169
As quoted in Kellner, D., Jean Budrillard: From Marxism to
Postmodernism and Beyond, Polity Press, 1989, p. 78
In Indonesia public sector is an illusion unless the tax system is
reformed; firstly, because tax system has not yet an
effective instrument for government revenue; secondly, the
government is a wealthy sector because it has its various
modes business and corporations that are beyond public
control.
Meffesoli calls this social formation as 'groupism'. See M.
Maffesoli, The Time of The Tribes. The Decline of
Individualism in Mass society, London, Thousands Oaks,
New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996, p, 65, especially
Chapter 3.
McGee, T., The Future of the Asian City: The Emergence of
Desakota Regions, Proceeding International Seminar and
Workshop on the Southeast Asian City of the Future,
January 21-25, 1990, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp. 10-19; and
also McGee, T., Urbanization of Kotadesasi ?Evolving
Pattern of Urbanization in Asia, in F.J. Costa et.al. (eds.).
Urbanization in Asia: Spatial Dimensions and Policy Issues.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989, pp. 93-108.
423

The term Cybercity itself is somewhat controversial since the term

cyber refers to a concept that is not confined to a physical
dimension, such as dimensions in space, time,
bureaucracy, country, and institution. Jakarta Cybercity is
projected for a dwelling place of some 250,000 residents. In
addition to being a dwelling place, the city will also provides
hi-tech hospitals, malls, recreation centres, office spaces,
education centres. The initial 10 hectares of the
Cybercentre is planned for the construction of research
centre, software centre, and multimedia centre. Yuliawan,
K., 'Soeryadjaya 's Dream', Gatra, Number 20/VI, April 1,
2000, http://www.gatra.com/english/VI/20/LPT5-20.html;
Leonie Sandercock maintains that [if] city dwelling is in part
about the importance of memory and belonging, it is also
about pleasures of anonymity and of not having to belong.
These are closely related to desire, to sexual desires and
fantasies. Sandercock, L., Towards Cosmopolis: Utopia as
Construction Site, AD Journal, 1998, pp. ii-v.
Detailed publications on coastal cities are lacking as to compare
with those of cosmic inland. See Geertz, C., Peddlers and
Princes. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago
Press, 1963.
Wheatley, P. Nagara and Commandery. Origins of the Southeast
Asian Urban Traditions, Department of Geography,
Research Paper Nos. 207-208 (Double Number), The
University of Chicago, 1963, p.5.
Wheatley, p., op. cit., 1963, p.6.
424

MATERIALIZING ENVIRONMENTALLY
ORIENTED CITY1
I Made Benyamin2
Abstract
Historically a city generally develops in fertile low land so
that it supports an environment for human life. Therefore, many
megapolitan cities are in low area near the coast. The city then
develops to become a center for economic activities: production,
commerce, services, center for education, health services, politic,
socio-culture, etc. It is estimated that in 2008 more than a half of
world population, namely 3,3 billion people will live in urban area.
The number keeps increasing to 5 billion in 2030. This is due to
the flow of urbanization since the city has a strong appeal viewed
from various aspects.
The environment potential support of urban area tends to
decrease is marked by people force in using the marginal land
into urban area such as very high slope land, river bank, sea
shore, rail way side and so on by ignoring the regulations. The
city changes to inhumanistic place, survive in the slums, surface
water and ground water and polluted air, traffic jam and many
other inconveniences.. Therefore, implementing the Summit
Conference accord on Environment and Development (Earth
Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is not only a choice but a
need and a must in urban area.
Sustainable development is an integrated process of
economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects resulting in the
improvement of the peoples welfare continuously. No one of
these aspects can be ignored, if we want the environmental
functions work such as environment as a resource supplier, a
goods supplier, amenity, and waste assimilator.
The existence of slums in the city is due to a lack behind
of social overhead of capital (SOC) as a responsibility of the
government to directly productive activities (DPA). The gap can
be overcome when there is a long term development plan which
is transparent, followed consequently
from generation to
generation of authority in the city. Realizing the backwardness
from developed countries, there are dynamic efforts in developing
countries to improve economic activities of the community.
However, the limit is unavoidable, namely optimum economic
1
Paper presented in International Seminar on The Knowledge City: Spirit,

Character, and Manifestation, held in Medan on November 13-14, 2007.
Lecturer at the School of Economics and Head Study Program of Resource
Economics, Graduate Program, Hasanuddin University, Makassar.
425

when a waste graphic curve crosses with environmental

assimilative capacity. When this economic activity is going on, the
amount of waste in the environment exceeds the ability of
environment to assimilate the waste. This process will have a
negative impact on the functions of environment. To overcome
the problem, the urban area has to reduce the quantity and
quality of waste get into the environment. On the other hand,
there must be an effort to improve the assimilative capacity of
environment, for instance, city greening to reduce the air
pollution.
Poverty in urban area is closely related to various aspects
of environment, criminality, social unrest, etc. Therefore, the
framework of Millennium Development Goals Based Poverty
Reduction Strategy must be a priority in urban area. The poverty
problem must be a serious attention. The problems are due to the
unavailability of job opportunity, unprepared infrastructures,
settlement, and public service. Ignoring the migration
phenomenon means ignoring the needs for cheap houses for
poor population resulting in the mushrooming of slums.
I. INTRODUCTION
Since Carson (1962) published his book, Silent Spring,
attention to the aspect of environment on development not only in
the United States but also allover the world. Even the former US
vice president Al Gore, wrote in the preface edition of the book in
1994 as follows: The world cannot only be changed by
experienced politician, generals, and military dignitaries, but also
by the writing of a woman (Rachel L. Carson). The Al Gores
statement is not an exaggeration when America established The
Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which was really
inspired from Carsons book. And since 1962, The American
Congress has kept on doing studies, registration, and informed
new standards in production and the use of pesticides in
agricultural sector. America did not want to have environmental
damage again due to past mistakes in the use of DDT (dechlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane) in preventing plant pest. Further
development happened in April 1968 under the initiative of Dr.
Aurelio Pecci to hold a meeting in Rome resulting in a thought
The Limit to Growth. Not long afterwards in 1987 the
environmental aspect became the world attention when the
United Nations Organization established the World Commission
on Environment and Development chaired by a woman named Bo
Brrundland and this commission is known as Brrundland
commission which reported its work in 1990. The gist of the report
426

is the importance of environmental problem in each development

effort. This thought is in line with the Stockholm Declaration
(1972) : In order to achieve a more rational management of
resources and thus to improve the environment, states should
adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their
development planning so as to ensure that development is
compatible with the need to protect and improve the human
environment for the benefit of their population. (Principle 13) The
peak of World awareness toward the importance of environmental
problem is the organization of The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in
1992 producing a well-known Agenda 21. This Agenda produced
The National Council for Sustainable Development (NCSD) tied
the world to implement environmentally oriented development.
With this concept, the development effort and environmental
problem are two inseparable aspects but integrated effort
(Principle 4). This means that in each planning and development
implementation there must be aspects of environment in it. This
kind of development effort is known as Sustainable Development.
Globally this sustainable development is one of the seven global
issues. The other six issues are global climate change, ozone
depletion, population, preservation of biological diversity,
deforestation and desertification and safeguarding oceans and
water resources.
Materializing
sustainable
development
means
development in which economic, ecological, socioeconomic, and
socio-cultural aspects are integrated. If one of the aspects is
ignored in development planning, the realization of development
is unsustainable. The concept of sustainable development is done
in all development field including urban development planning.
More emphasis on urban area because urban population is
relatively dense as a center for production (industry) activities
producing industrial waste and a center for education, health,
socio-culture, politic, tourism, security, transportation, etc. The
complex multifunction of city, interdependence of socio-cultural,
security, and economic aspects needs to be planned to realize
urban sustainable development resided by dignified human that
can grow and develop to glory as Almighty Gods creation.
II. CITY POSITION IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The meaning of sustainable development as integration
of economic, ecological, and socioeconomic and socio-cultural
aspects can be illustrated in the following figure:
427

ECONOMY
C
B
ECOLOGY
D
SOCIOCULTURE
A = Sustainable Development; B = social Development; C = nvironmental

Dev. And D = People Centered Development.
Fig.1. Sustainable Development: Integrated aspects of Economy,
Ecology, and Socio-culture.
The figure shows only one space (A) indicating the

integration of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects.
The space fills the concept of sustainable development. If the
economic and ecological aspects are integrated, the concept is
called environmental development (C) which views the
environmental function as a resource supplier for production
process in economic activity. If economic aspect and sociocultural aspect is integrated (B), the concept is called social
development, meaning that development is an effort to improve
welfare without considering the aspect of environment. If
ecological aspect and socio-cultural aspect are integrated, the
concept is called people centered development emphasizing
harmonization of human relation with its environment, but ignoring
the achievement of economic progress. As an example in ethnic
Kajang in South Sulawesi, ethnic Baduwi in West Java,
unacculturated tribal groups sometimes refuse their villages to
build power network, because they are afraid of it as a new power
in their environment. Some of them also do not allow the building
of transportation to their area because they think it will damage
their harmonization with their environment.
In order to know more the concept of sustainable
development and its relation to the concept of urban
development, the following diagram shows the detail.
428

Number & quality

Human
Manpower
Recycling
Income, taste
Etc.
Cultivation
Conservation
PRODUCTION
DISTRIBUTI
ON
Rehabilitation
CONSUMTI
ON
Exploitation
Raw Material
Recycling
Waste
E= Amenity
E=GOODS SUP.
E=R.S
Waste
Waste
A>W
- Waste
A<W
Environment as Waste Assimilator (A)
Fig. 2. Detail Concept of Sustainable Development
Fig. 2 shows the concept of sustainable development as

the integration of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural
aspects. From the economic aspect, there are three activities:
production, distribution, and consumption. From the ecological
aspect there are four environmental functions: as a resource
supplier (E=R.S), goods supplier (E=GOODS SUP.), amenity
(E=Amenity), and waste assimilator (A). Viewing from the sociocultural aspect, the existence of human comprises number,
quality, income, taste, culture, etc.
The three aspects is related to one another. The flow of
production at the economic aspect is mostly determined by the
environmental capacity to keep its function as a resource
supplier. The production of waste exists as long as there is
production in spite of the human ability to do recycling. Flows of
waste from distribution activities (especially transportation) and
waste from human activities (household waste) will get into the
environment at last. If the waste gets into the environment is less
than the environmental assimilator capacity (A > W), the impact is
still positive to its functions. On the contrary, if the waste is
greater than the environmental assimilator (A < W), the impact is
negative to its functions. As an example of the river undergoes A
429

< W, the river cannot do its function as fish habitat, clean water
supplier, etc. The higher the demand for goods and services the
higher the demand for production and distribution activities; and
the higher the waste production, transportation waste (air
pollution) and household waste which have more burden to
environment at the end. In this situation the role of human who
has multi-dimension functions in one hand as manpower involved
in production and distribution activities and involved in
consumption activities on the other, has to play his role in
rehabilitation, cultivation, and exploration of resources activities.
The improvement of income, change of taste, and increase
number of man encourage economic effort which at the end
causing pressure to environmental functions.
To keep on the environmental functions, the man must do
their best to reduce the waste gets into their environment not to
exceed the capacity of environmental assimilator. This means
that before the waste is disposed to environment, the first thing to
do is waste processing, but this is very expensive.
The establishment of cities in the world is mostly in fertile
low land, sea shore where environmental support to human life is
adequate. Exception is found in developed cities in high land of
Latin America (Menno, 1992). Whereas, Sullivan (2000) viewed
the urban development from the commercial center and
development of transportation network. Cities located in sea
shore with various economic activities and keep increasing often
make the sea as the main waste bin for waste disposal. This
happens since many housings in the city, restaurants, workshops,
and other economic activities dispose their waste in the ditches.
When rain comes, all kinds of waste flow to the sea. If the quality
of water in the sea is for swimming, it contains bacteria E-coli
(Benyamin, 1997) causing diarrhea. The coastal water like this
cannot be used for swimming location. However, since there is no
much choice, those places are busy by visitors. In the long run it
becomes a negative promotion for the development of tourism
industry in coastal cities.
Urban environment used as ditches, rivers, and other
public property as waste disposal will sooner or later lose its
environmental function as a water supplier, healthy air, and other
environmental functions. The contemporary urban issues in
Indonesia especially at the time of flood, clean water difficulty,
noise, air pollution, piling up of waste and others are due to
disintegration of economic, environmental, and socio-cultural
aspects in urban development planning.
III. ANALYSIS OF URBAN SLUM AREA
Referring to Yotopoulus (1970), an urban area will
improve development measured by the increase of Gross
430

Regional Domestic Product (PDRB) when there is a continuous

balance in
invesment between social overhead of capital (SOC) and direct
productivity activity (DPA). The concept is shown in the following
diagram:
450
Cost of
DPA
G
D3
C
H
E
D2
Q3
F
D1
Q2
Q1
0
S1
S2
S3
Cost of SOC.
Figure 3. Minimum Cost Combination of DPA and SOC.
Figure 3, shows the minimum cost (investment)

combination of DPA and SOC which can produce Gross Regional
Domestic Product (PDRB) visualized by isoquant Q 1, Q2, and Q3.
Isoquant curve is a curve where combination dots of various
levels of SOC investment with various levels of DPA investment
producing the same level of PDRB. When the initial position in on
A, then there is addition of SOC with S1S2 cost, the surplus of
SOC does not increase the output directly. It can only press the
cost from DPA at the output level Q1 in B. The low DPA cost
causes profit margin and improvement of demand encouraging
the increase of production to Q2 in E. If further SOC development
exists by additional of fund S2S3, the production will increase to H
through F and so on. It is transparent in the implementation that
when there is a new road development (SOC cost increases) and
not very long afterward, various economic activities will be (DPA
cost increases) such as new housing, new stores, new
workshops, and others. The development of urban area like this is
good, because facilities and infrastructures (SOC) are built first
followed by economic activities of the community. Unluckily this
does not always happen due to limited cost for the SOC
development.
431

The other process is when the private sector (through

DPA cost) rapidly develop then the development is from A to C.
This means that the backwardness of SOC resulting in low profit
margin of the business. In the situation like this, political
suppression to the government will rise to accelerate the
development of SOC. If the SOC preparation increases, the DPA
cost is low so that the position changes from C to E. If the
process occurs again, the position will be reached in H through
movement from E through G and so on. Empirically, the
development happens more often in Indonesia. Economic
development of community in a certain urban area (through DPA
cost) develops very rapidly, where as the SOC development is
very slow. Then flood during the rainy season, conflict to the
access of going out the area, and other social problems which at
the end trigger political suppression to the government to build
the SOC immediately in the area.
If the government realizes it later, the development of
SOC , for instance, road will not be built accordingly knowing that
various buildings have been built in the area. The road will be
zigzag following empty spaces. When good planning is made, the
cost is very expensive because there are so many permanent and
semi permanent buildings to be evicted. As a concrete example,
the most well-known development of Kuta beach, Badung, Bali.
Viewed from the land use, Kuta coastal tourism area develops
very rapidly due to dynamic agglomeration in the area. Kuta
develops following Smiths Beach Resort Model (1993), with 9
stages of development from 1943 to 1993. The ad-hoc
development
and use of spatial arrangement ignore the
environmental support an seen from the backward of SOC from
DPA. The study revealed the relationship of these two variables is
very weak (R2=0,172, time series data 1971-1993) with coefficient
b is positive with very low score. The increase amount of
investment Rp .1.000.000,- in tourism industry (DPA) is only
followed by the increase in social overhead investment (SOC) as
mush as Rp.10,- only. If the foreign tourist visiting variable is
included in the regression equation, R 2 increases from 0,172 to
0,79. This indicator shows that investment in tourism industry
(DPA) only accounts the number of foreign tourist visits without
paying attention to the availability of socioeconomic
infrastructures (SOC) which is in the long run will inflict a loss to
local tourism industrial development (Benyamin, 1997). The
situation in Kuta Beach Resort is also found in other tourism
areas and thats why Smith (1993) made a Comprehensive
Integrated Development Planning Model concept to better the
tourism from Nusa Dua tourism area in Bali.
The other problem that make slum areas is the lack of
regulations about the minimum size of land in settlement area.
Population in slum areas is often trapped in poverty, making
432

them sell a part of their narrow land resulting the settlement area
narrower, roofs are very close to each other, etc. Inadequate
regulations and weak leadership causing the community build
their houses in marginal land, such as in steep land (>45 0), river
bank, sea shore without paying attention to regulations.
Urban community who lives in slum areas is like a person
who is misfortunate. Fire is common. After the fire, they struggle
again but unluckily fire happens again, so that they have to start
again from zero.The root of all problems stated is due to the flow
of urbanization. It is estimated that in 2008 half of the world
population, 3.3 billion people will live in urban areas. Most of them
are poor people. The same picture has happened and will
happen in some big cities in Indonesia, knowing that the
estimation of the Central Bureau of Statistics, urbanization
reached 68 percent in 2005 or 48 percent increase in 2005.
Several big cities in three provinces in Indonesia: West Java,
Yogyakarta Special Territory, and Banten will have urbanization
rate more than 80 percent. Whereas DKI Jakarta now has 100
percent urbanization rate with the number of population about 8,6
million. Moreover, it is estimated that the average of population
who go to Jakarta in the day is 6 to 7 million people or almost
close to Jakarta population. It is estimated that in 2025, Jakarta
will have become one of 21 megapolitans in the world, which has
population more than 10 million. (Kompas, July 3, 2007).
IV. TOWARD ENVIRONMETALLY ORIENTED CITY
A.
Overcoming the tendency of more waste (W) than
the ability of Environmental Assimilator (A) in Urban Area
The breaking of all economic activities in urban area will
cause the tendency of waste (W) to get into the environment is
greater than the ability of environment to assimilate (A) the waste.
Theoretically, the maximum production happens when W = A. If A
is supposed to be constant within a certain period, and W
increases with the increase of economic activities, then the
maximum production level can be visualized as follows:
W/A
Waste (W)
Assimilative Capacity (A)
Economic Activity
X (optimum prod. Level)
Fig. 4. Optimum Production Level
433

Because Indonesia belongs to a developing country

which is trying to catch up its backwardness from other developed
countries, then the economic activities must be improved. If the
maximum production (X) level is exceeded, then W > A, meaning
that this will have a negative impact on the environmental
functions (Fig. 2) This means the dream to materialize
sustainable development will never happen. Thus to increase
economic activities with maintain sustainable development
continuously, first, we have to lower the waste level (W); second,
increase the ability of environmental assimilator; and three,
combination of the two by lowering the W level and increasing the
A capacity.
Lowering the waste level (W) to environment has been
done, for example, by means of technical feasibility test, benefit
cost ratio and feasibility of environment through environmental
impact analysis (AMDAL). However, in it implementation, many
AMDALs are prepared just to meet the regulations of building
permit. It is also found that AMDAL study is just prepared when
the physical development has been started for a long time.
Remember, for example, Indonesias failure in a million peat soils
project in South Kalimantan. On the contrary, it is praiseworthy,
The Denpasar Sewerage Development Project (DSDP) in which
its AMDAL was built at the end of 1988. Although at the beginning
the AMDAL of this project in Badung regency, Bali got a lot of
challenges, but good socialization makes this project understood
by the community. The project is the waste management in which
the waste will be flowed from houses, restaurants, hotels, and
other economic activities by pipes to the center of integrated
waste management (IPAL) located in Benoa, Denpasar. Liquid
waste flowed is measured like drinking water measurement at the
Municipal Waterworks (PDAM) in Indonesia. The consumers will
pay according to m3 meter of waste disposed through the waste
pipes.
B. Overcoming the Slums in Urban Area due to SOC < DPA
It has been mentioned previously that one of the causes
of slums in urban areas is the lack of facility and social overhead
of capital (SOC) to investment of directlly productive activities
(DPA). To solve the problem, urban area needs to have a longterm planning. This long-term planning must be transparent,
known to public and obeyed by officials in the urban area from
generation to generation. Although the SOC development (for
example, new roads) is built step by step based on the fund
available; however, since it is built consistently according to longterm urban development, slums can be avoided.
434

C. Overcoming Urbanization Impact

The growth of urban population both naturally due to
births and migration causing poverty implies to a lot of problems
such as criminality, unemployment, and other socioeconomic
problem. The problems are due to the unavailability of job
opportunity, unprepared infrastructures, settlement, and public
service. Ignoring the migration phenomenon means ignoring the
needs for cheap houses for poor population resulting in the
mushrooming of slums. Due to immigration, the growth of informal
sector is unavoidable because formal sector cannot
accommodate the existing manpower. To solve the problems,
Rachmawati (Kompas, July 3, 2007) proposed the following:
1) Acknowledge the rights of the poor to the city, allow
migration, and prevent urban development.
2) Long-term vision in planning the use of land because
SOC < DPA for the use of perpetual urban space.
3) Planning integrated effort to support urbanization strategy
to the future.
D. Arranging public facility
Urban public facilities need immediate attention to
arrange are transportation, education, health, office, park,
archeological things, sports, prison, settlement, etc. In the field of
transportation, the city must prioritize public transportation which
is comfortable and punctual and schedule for arrival and
departure in each station. Location for Kindergarten education
must be 3 km away from the center for settlement. Junior High
School must be a little bit far about 5 km and Senior High School
about 7 km and so on (OSullivan, 2000). Each school must be
provided with adequate buildings and sports facility. This means
in the building of a school, size of location is very important. The
office buildings must be in one location for efficient and effective
public service. New parks must be provided besides improving
the old ones. Other public facilities must also be provided and
improved.
V. CONCLUSION
The environmental aspect must be viewed as integrated
aspects in urban development. Therefore, each sustainable
development effort in urban area must be studied profoundly of its
economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects.
If one of the aspects is ignored, the development will surely
cause problems which will affect the environmental functions as
economic resource supplier, goods and services, amenity, and
waste assimilator. The result of such development will cause the
malfunction of river as fish habitat, clean water supplier, and flood
in the rainy season, and lowering the environmental assimilative
capacity, etc.
435

The universe is a place where human being learns a lot

of things including diversity, equilibrium, and mutual dependence.
When the diversity and equilibrium are in danger, life is also in
danger, and social conflict occurs. Man often does not understand
that respect to nature and environment means respect to diversity
of life. Therefore, ecological footprint is very important to measure
the extent of our effort to exploit the nature in order to stop it (
Harliningsih, Kompas, June 28, 2007). Therefore, there must be a
serious effort to realize eco-urban, eco-village as an
implementation of profound beliefs that sustainable development
is not a choice, but a need. This is the basic essence of the
Summit Conference on Environment and Development (Earth
Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Poverty in urban area is closely related to various aspects
of environment, criminality, social unrest, etc. Therefore, the
framework of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)-Based
Poverty Reduction Strategy must be a priority in urban area. The
poverty problem must be a serious attention. In eradication of
poverty Chang cites Sachs: The End of Poverty, 2005 (Kompas,
July 2, 2007) putting forward six strategies. First, decentralization
of general management strategy to improve investment in remote
areas (slums in urban area); Second, conducting different kinds of
training to develop the ability of the community in the field of
public service; Third,
developing information technology to
advance the region in all sector of life; Fourth, overcoming the
gap between the have and the have not; Fifth, the government
must audit the wealth of officials and those who practice money
laundering; Sixth, monitoring and evaluating the community
investment. In line with an effort to eradicate poverty, urban area
as a center for economic, education activities, etc. needs to
arrange all facilities and public property as well as possible to
make an effective and efficient public service.
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437

MULTICULTURAL HERITAGES IN A CITY

AS PRODUCTIVE TOURISM PLACES
Wiwik D Pratiwi
School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development,
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
wdpratiwi@ar.itb.ac.id, http://www.ar.itb.ac.id/wdp/
Abstract
A city can be a place for productive tourism places.
Bandung, for example, has become a tourists' city and especially
benefited from weekend visitors from Jakarta. Visitors in the city
are offered attractions for leisure and consumption. The city's
attractions are dominated by heritages: from pattern of street
layout to the existence of a distinctive architecture, to the variety
of activities to create the city itself as a visitors' experience. These
conditions need a deliberate attempt to create the city as
multicultural places of consumption for both retail and tourism as
part of urban cultural management. This paper examines the
creation of the city as a tourism destination. It is argued that
changes to the process of capital accumulation in many cities
have led to the commodification of place at a local level. Part of
this process has been the creation of heritage as a tangible asset
and this is linked to changing patterns of consumer retail activity.
This paper argued that tourism should not be conceptualized as a
distinct activity but rather as a form of consumption in the context
of both local and global changes.
Keywords: heritage, consumption, tourism driven place design.
Introduction: Commodifying heritage and creating tourism
places
The arguments developed in this paper is an effort to
show that the use of heritage for the production of consumers and
tourism activities, through spatial designs within global
capitalizing societies, is not a source of decay or destruction if
adequately planned, designed, regulated and managed. On the
contrary, it can generate many cultural, economic and financial
benefits, with a limited rise in operational costs. Moreover, a
correct commercialization of built heritage as input for tourism
activities can produce an interesting shift from a static and
passive consumption of culture to a more complex and active
enjoyment of heterogeneous expression of built heritages.
438

As part of the tourism industry heritage is a cultural commodity.

As the past and its meanings are ultimately intangible, the
definition of heritage is debatable as it is constantly being
moulded, shaped, interpreted, bought and sold by groups with
varying interests. What remains constant, however, is the
historical sense of place embedded in the concept of heritage.
Places have meanings that are created for consumption by
individuals in communities. It is in consuming the meaning of a
place that the individual is linked historically and immediately to
the material and social worlds in which they are embedded.
People thus consume heritage to create a sense of belonging, as
the invention of heritage can empower people and their
communities by shaping a sense of identity (Rowlands 2002).
This process of creating identity relies on the interpretation of
specific heritage sites or material culture, interpretations that are
manipulated for specific ends. Cities with heritage sites and
trends in the interpretation of history do not merely exist for
nostalgias sake, but have a distinct relationship to the creation of
present social realities. As Kirshenblatt-Gimblett (1998) states,
heritage produces something new in the present that has
recourse to the past; in other wordsheritage is a way of
producing hereness. The hereness produced at a site is a
creation process that starts with a specific idea, site, or an
invention of a site. For heritage tourism destinations the
hereness is interpreted and developed by agents or agencies
from professional tourism operators for consumption by tourists
and other visitors, without whom the site perhaps has no
meaning. It is through the tourists experience that a sense of
place and hereness is formed for tourists and visitors
(MacCannell 1989).
While a shared sense of heritage is part of the process by
which groups create their own corporate or shared identity, the
powerful role that place plays in the negotiation of the meaning of
self can be marketed and sold to tourists seeking to create or
change their own sense of identity. It is this marketability or
commodification that has permitted the heritage tourism industry
to prosper. Yet heritage is a mode of cultural production that
relies on the past for authentication, which occurs through local
materiality. Those wishing to purchase a heritage experience
must receive value for money. Heritage destinations thus must
have some sort of historical validation, whether authentic or
fictive, for it is this validation that provides both a use value and
an intrinsic value to an experience consumed at a heritage
tourism destination. In recent decades the tourism industry has
co-opted heritage as a vehicle for displaying or showcasing
cultural aspects of a particular nation, region or community. This
trend towards the use of heritage has led to the recent attention
many heritage places have received from the tourism industry,
439

especially sites in areas of redevelopment and economic revival.

After all, a heritage destination must have both a sense of place
and a compelling narrative to sell to the tourists (McKercher and
du Cros, 2002).
Commodified Places
Over the past two decades, the importance of place
within advanced capitalist societies as a focus of theoretical and
empirical concern has drawn attention from a variety of
disciplines, from architecture (Yacobi and Shechter 2005, Poesori
and Adji 2005), anthropology (Rotenberg and McDonogh 1993) to
cultural studies (Bird, Putnam, Robertson and Tickner 1994,
Carter, Donald and Squires 1993) to human geography (Harvey
1989, 1994; Soja 1989) and sociology (Budd and Whimster 1992;
Cooke 1989, 1990; Harloe, Pickvance and Urry 1990). Although
offering different perspectives, a number of common issues can
be identified and summarized as follows.
First, spatial relations within capitalist economies have
been radically restructured since the early 1970s, due in part to
the decline of old industries and the growth of the service sector.
This can be seen in the evident trend towards spatial
decentralization, such as the putting of new retail and
manufacturing developments on the outer urban fringes and the
development of new growth centers of the economy based on
financial and service sector employment.
Second, investment capital is increasingly mobile, so that
cities, towns and regions now negotiate directly with multinational
corporations and institutions (Mulgan 1989). Central government
policies in many countries, for example, have consistently
stressed the need for local councils to act less as providers of
services and more as entrepreneurs in order to compete in the
marketplace and sell themselves to prospective investors and
employers (Atkinson and Moon 1994; Fretter 1993; Harloe et al
1990). Consequently, those with assets or interests in a place find
themselves engaging in place marketing strategies in competition
with other places (Harvey 1994). Such changes in the political
economy have been matched by changes in patterns of
consumption and employment. As the leisure activities shifts
away from mass consumption and mass marketing (package
holidays) towards flexible consumption and niche marketing
(short breaks, special events and shopping as an entertainment),
places have sought actively to create themselves not only as
locations of investment opportunity, but also as places of
consumption in order to capitalize on the productive
tourism/leisure market (Ashworth and Voogd 1990; Hall 1993). In
this way, the urban environment itself becomes a commodity to
be bought and sold not only to corporate interests but also to
individual consumers.
440

Competition between localities for inward investment has

also led to the adoption of policies that encourage the
development of culture and the arts (Bianchini and Parkinson
1993; Griffiths 1993), which are perceived to add "cultural capital"
in addition to other benefits that regions and more distinct
localities have to offer. The existence of a lively cultural scene
creates a positive image of a place with a high quality of life,
which may be the factor that tips the choice in favor of investment
in one place rather than another. In short, the global processes of
capital accumulation are made possible by a revaluation and
commodification of urban space at a local level.
The processes of revaluation and commodification of
place for tourism destination are not simply driven by economic
criteria. The creation of tourism destinations involves a
relationship of the material practices that rise the urban landscape
and the symbolic meanings that are imposed upon or
appropriated from it. In this way, the existence of spatial and
places designs for tourism destinations occurs, that is, ways of
interpreting or reading a townscape as the collections of a
particular set of values (Budd 1992; Duncan 1990; Harvey 1989;
Zukin 1990, 1992). Although it is possible to talk of dominant
images or design of place, it is important to bear in mind that
symbolic value, meaning and image are not simply given but are
conflicted or competed, actively involving processes and
strategies of inclusion and exclusion (Bourdieu 1984, 1993;
Duncan 1990; Harvey 1994; Mills 1993; Robbins 1993; Rotenberg
and McDonogh 1993). The creation and interpretation of these
place design, therefore, depends on the prior interests or
positions of dominant groups who have vested interests and
control over the urban environment as much as those who are
residents or visitors or tourists (Meethan 1995). One particular
example is provided by Ashworth (1990), who identifies four
different readings of the city of Groningen: those of the architects
and historians, the legislature, the planners and managers, and
the tourists.
As a distinct activity, tourism involves the visual
consumption of signs and, increasingly, representation and
staged events in which urban townscapes are transformed into
aestheticized spaces of entertainment and pleasure (Cooke 1990;
Featherstone 1991; Jackson 1994; Lash 1990; Lash and Urry
1994; Ley 1989; Mullins 1991; Urry 1990a, 1990b). Within these
places of consumption, defined by Ashworth and Tunbridge as
tourism-historic cities (1990:3), a variety of activities can be
pursued, such as eating, drinking, watching staged events and
street entertainment and visually appreciating the heritage and
culture of place.
Although the creation of spatial design that emphasize
the heritage of place is necessary for tourism destinations in
441

cities, the kinds of activity undertaken by visitors extend to more

than just visual consumption and the purchase of souvenirs and
services. As has been show in many tourist destination cities in
Indonesia, increasingly, the boundaries between tourism, leisure
and shopping have become blurred. In scholarly writing, for
example, Jacobs (1993), Jansen (1989), Jansen-Verbeke (1990)
and Mullins (1991) have drawn attention to the symbolic
importance of heritage nostalgia in attracting shoppers who
consume tangible goods as much as signs and the appearance of
patterns of consumption that can be described as retail
gentrification of spaces that provide the opportunity for "leisurely
and recreational shopping" (O'Brien and Harris 1991:114). In this
sense, the design of place consumption include not only the place
itself, and the activities within it that mark it as a tourism
destination with built heritages, but also indicate opportunities for
a wide range of associated consumers activities.
Similar to tourism as global phenomenon, the
commodification of place and the activities that commercializing
spaces are linked to global, national and local issues of
production and consumption in which economic advantage is
sought through the creation and maintenance of spatial design. In
turn, this requires the exploitation of a set of values that can be
read from the urban environment, part of a process that links the
production of the urban townscape to the enjoyment of tourists.
One of the central elements to this process is the importance of
heritage as an asset in the competition for economic and cultural
advantage between places.
Citys Heritages and Regulating the Protection
Heritage is a concept that seems to carry a plausible
meaning, the transmission of cultural property from the past to the
present. Although legislation protecting buildings, monuments and
landscapes has been enacted in Bandung as well as Indonesia
generally, it is only in recent years that a concern with the
preservation of the past has achieved a broad appeal with the
emergence of what Hewison (1987) has termed the heritage
industry. The past two decades or so have seen significant
changes to the ways in which heritage has been defined at a
variety of scales, from the international to the national, regional
and local (Boniface and Fowler 1993; Corner and Harvey 1991;
Haskell 1993; Jackson and Penrose 1993; Lowenthal 1985; Miller
1987; Samuel 1989; Short 1991; Uzzell 1989a, 1989b; Wright
1985). Although heritage has different definitions, it can be
viewed as the preservation or reconstruction of material objects,
which isolates them from the history through a process of
recontextualization in which abstract qualities (the nation, the
people, the locality, the past) are attributed to, or embodied in,
designs of material culture and localities, designs that emphasize
442

the continuity of the past in the present. Ross, for example, writes
that the protection of the urban environment "...emphasizes our
continuity with the past, and our achievements as a nation and as
a series of communities" (1991:175).
For example, from the late 1960s onwards, successive
governments in the United Kingdom have instituted a variety of
measures designed to preserve and protect certain elements of
urban landscape from what are deemed to be inappropriate
developments (Larkham 1990; Mynors 1989; Ross 1991). In
1967, under the Civic Amenities Act, local authorities were given
the power to designate certain localities as conservation areas
within which development was restricted. In addition, they were
also empowered to compile lists of buildings considered to be of
architectural, cultural or historical importance. Since then,
subsequent regulations have reinforced this legislation, and the
number of conservation areas and listed buildings has risen
dramatically.
The rapid growth of protected areas and buildings was
due to a number of factors. Urban heritage is a commodity
perceived to be under threat at both a national and local scale
due to the spatial restructuring and in terms of aesthetics as a
reaction against the perceived uniformity of modernist architecture resulting in the emergence of postmodern styles of
building that emphasize local and regional vernacular styles, the
"aestheticization of the past" (Cooke 1990:54). The creation of
heritage can, therefore, be seen as an attempt to establish
historical identity in the face of global change. A shift of focus
from prestige buildings and monuments to the vernacular and a
associated intensity of the elitist aspects of history as scholarship,
its spreading appeal to a mass audience, and the emergence of
heritage as a form of mass consumption.
Given the contested nature of a nation's heritage (Samuel
1989; Corner and Harvey 1991), this is hardly surprising. The
significance of the regulations perhaps lies more in the
institutional frameworks they established and the dominant values
that they encapsulated. As this section has shown, the
development of heritage and tourism as linked phenomena
comprises the following interrelated elements: first, the spatial
restructuring of commercialization and/or capitalism and the
decline of industries; second, the competition between localities
for investment; third, the commodification of the built environment
in which heritage became a tangible asset; and fourth, the
emergence of heritage as enterprise. These elements, in turn,
were aided by the introduction of regulations that sought to
protect the urban environment. Changes of this sort, however, are
mediated by locally specific conditions and locally specific
strategies for the preservation, control and exploitation of the
heritage of place.
443

Bandung: Heritages and Consumption

Bandung is now one of the most important tourism
destinations in Java particularly, and Indonesia generally. After
the operationalisation of Cipularang toll-road which links the City
of Bandung and Jakarta, an estimated of 1.9 million visitors each
year come to Bandung for week-ends and especially shopping
(Badan
Pusat
Statistik
Bandung
2005,
http://www.bandung.go.id/images/download/BAB8_BDA2005.pdf
page 255). As well as being the site of events, the city of
Bandung also contains the tangible evidence of a long history.
The historic core of Bandung City contains a wealth of built
heritages. A street pattern that dates from the colonial era, and a
variety of architectural types and styles from the early 19th
century to the present. These distinct features of Bandung that
mark it out as different and in some senses unique and from
which are derived spatial designs of place. Recently, among the
more well-known attractions for the visitors are the factory outlets
along the Dago street which originally built for housing in colonial
era.
The Bandung city history dates from 1488 when the first
reference to Bandung exists. But from ancient archeological finds,
we know the city was home to Australopithecus, Java Man. These
people lived on the banks of the Cikapundung in north Bandung,
and on the shores of the Great Lake of Bandung. Flint artifacts
can still be found in the Upper Dago area and the Geological
Museum has displays and fragments of skeletal remains and
artifacts.
The Sundanese were a pastoral people farming the fertile
regions of Bandung. They developed a lively oral tradition which
includes the still practiced Wayang Golek puppet theatre, and
many musical forms. "There is a city called Bandung, comprising
25 to 30 houses," wrote Juliaen de Silva in 1614.
The achievements of European adventurers to try their
luck in the fertile and prosperous Bandung area, led eventually to
1786 when a road was built connecting Jakarta, Bogor, Cianjur
and Bandung. This flow was increased when in 1809 Louis
Napoleon, the ruler of the Netherlands, ordered Governor
General H.W. Daendels, to increase defenses in Java against
English. The vision was a chain of military defense units and a
supply road between Batavia and Cirebon. But this coastal area
was marsh and swamp, and it was easier to construct the road
further south, across the Priangan highlands.
The Groote Postweg (Great Post Road) was built 11
miles north of the then capital of Bandung. With his usual
terseness, Daendels ordered the capital to be relocated to the
road. Bupati Wiranatakusumah II chose a site south of the road
on the western bank of the Cikapundung, near a pair of holy
444

wells, Sumur Bandung, supposedly protected by the ancient

goddess Nyi Kentring Manik. On this site he built his dalem
(palace) and the alun-alun (city square). Following traditional
orientations, Mesjid Agung (The Grand Mosque) was placed on
the western side, and the public market on the east. His
residence and Pendopo (meeting place) was on the south facing
the mystical mountain of Tangkuban Perahu. Thus was the
Flower City born.
Around the middle of the l9th Century, South American
cinchona (quinine), Assam tea, and coffee was introduced to the
highlands. By the end of the century Priangan was registered as
the most prosperous plantation area of the province. In 1880 the
rail line connecting Jakarta and Bandung was completed, and
promised a 2 1/2 hour trip from the blistering capital in Jakarta to
Bandung.
With this life changed in Bandung, hotels, cafes, shops
sprouted up to serve the planters who either came down from
their highland plantations or up from the capital to play in
Bandung. The Concordia Society was formed and with its large
ballroom was the social magnet for weekend activities in the city.
The Preanger Hotel and the Savoy Homann were the hotels of
choice. The Braga street became the promenade, lined with
exclusive Europeans shops.
With the railroad, light industry flourished. Once raw
plantation crops were sent directly to Jakarta for shipment to
Europe, then primary processing could be done efficiently in
Bandung. The Chinese who had never lived in Bandung in any
number came to help run the facilities and vendor machines and
services to the new industries. Chinatown dates from this period.
In the first years of the present century, Pax Neerlandica
was proclaimed, resulting in the passing of military government to
a civilian one. With this came the policy of decentralization to
lighten the administrative burden of the central government and
Bandung became a municipality in 1906.
This turn of events left a great impact on the city. City Hall
was built at the north end of Braga to accommodate the new
government, separate from the original native system. This was
soon followed by a larger scale development when the military
headquarters was moved from Batavia to Bandung around 1920.
The chosen site was east of City Hall, and consisted of a
residence for the Commander in Chief, offices, barracks and
military housing.
By the early 20's the need for skilled professionals drove
the establishment of the technical high school that was sponsored
by the citizens of Bandung. At the same time the plan to move the
445

capital of the Netherlands Indies from Batavia to Bandung was

already mature, the city was to be extended to the north. The
capital district was placed in the northeast, an area that had
formerly been rice fields, and a grand avenue was planned to run
for about 2.5 kilometers facing the fabled Tangkuban Perahu
volcano with Gedung Sate at the south end, and a colossal
monument at the other. On both sides of this grand boulevard
buildings would house the various offices of the massive colonial
government.
Along the east bank of the Cikapundung River among
natural scenery was the campus of the Technische Hoogeschool,
dormitories and staff housing. The old campus buildings and its
original landscaping reflect the intelligence of its architect Henri
Maclain Pont. The southwestern section was reserved for the
municipal hospital and the Pasteur Institute, in the neighborhood
of the old quinine factory. These developments were carefully
planned down to the architectural and maintenance details. These
years shortly before World War II were the golden ones in
Bandung and those alluded to today as Bandung Tempoe
Doeloe.
The war years did little to change the city of Bandung, but
in 1946, facing the return of the Colonial Dutch to Indonesia,
citizens chose to burn down Bandung in what has become known
as Bandung Lautan Api, Bandung Ocean of Fire. Citizens fled to
the southern hills and overlooking the "ocean of flames" penned
"Halo Halo Bandung," the anthem promising their return. Political
unrest colored the early years of Independence and consequently
people flocked to Bandung where safety was. The population
skyrocketed from 230,000 in 1940 to 1 million by 1961. Economic
prosperity following the oil boom in the 70's pushed this further so
that by 1990 there were 2 million inhabitants.
Present day Bandung is thriving. As home to more than
50 schools of higher education, there is a vibrant collegiate
atmosphere. The Institut Teknologi Bandung is well-known in
Indonesian education; the Universities of Padjadjaran and
Parahyangan receive students from all over the country. The
National Hotel Institute, the National Railway Institute, the Senior
Officers Military Institute, the Women's Police Academy, complete
the education facilities in the city. The excellent fine arts offerings
have produced an artist colony of excitement. In 1987 the city
extended its administrative boundaries toward a Greater Bandung
Plan (Bandung Raya) Plans for the city include higher
concentrations of development outside the current city centre, in
an attempt to dilute some of the population density in the old core.
446

There can be little doubt that the Alun-alun of Bandung

has been an outstanding commercial success and has been
much imitated. A spatial design of the city centre surrounding
Alun-alun is not as a survival but as an immediate experience, an
imitation of the past. Although this raises questions concerning
the nature of authenticity, what is also significant here is the
explicit linking, or exploitation, of heritages as a form of
entertainment and commercial enterprise, representing the
emergence of a new form of consumption, heritage as
entertainment. With the development of tourists attractiveness to
the heritages of urban Bandung, numerous guided tours and
walks of the city had been one of the growing areas of tourism
activity within the city. Activities such as these are, like the large
attractions, creating the city as a place of spectacle and entertainment, inscribing particular stories or narratives on the urban form
through a specific reading of the city's heritage.
The development of the Bandung city as a tourist
destination can thus be seen as a process that had three distinct
phases, through which the city has changed function from a place
of production to a place of consumption through the revaluation of
the urban environment and the creation of distinct spatial designs.
In addition to the planned and unplanned changes that have
occurred to the revaluation of the city in terms of its townscape,
and the rise of heritage as attractions and mass entertainment,
there have been equally significant changes to the pattern of retail
trade. Although tourism can be isolated as a distinct form of
consumption in some respects, in others it should be regarded as
part of the overall pattern of consumption evident in contemporary
society, the revaluation and commodification of the city itself as
an arena of consumption. This can be seen in the changes that
have occurred to the retailing profile of Bandung, as already
noted, forms of retail gentrification are often associated with
tourism activities.
Shopping Around
In common with many other towns and cities, certain
kinds of retail activity, most notably convenience goods, formerly
within the city relocated to out-of-town and greenfield sites
(Bridges 1976). While the city was receiving ever increasing
numbers of visitors, there was also a corresponding rise in retail
outlets dealing with comparison goods. These changes to the
nature of retail trade within the city center can be seen as a direct
result of the increase in tourist numbers. It is recognizable that
without the volume of visitors the city received, it would probably
not have the range of shopping facilities it enjoys today.
447

Figure 1. Map of Bandung and the pattern of street layout.

(Source: http://wikitravel.org/en/Bandung)
There was a tendency for specialist or comparison shops

to be clustered in the vicinity of the different zones within the city,
Jalan Cihampelas is jeans street, Jalan Dago is factory outlets
street, etc. The levels of trade in those zones are above the
national average and that the turnover of floor space for
448

recreational goods is above the national average, all of which are

attributed to the demands of tourists especially the week-enders
from Jakarta. In the meantime, the city center of Bandung and the
shops therein seem to indicate a certain affluence, though
whether this is a reflection of Bandung's inhabitants or its visitors
is open for question.
Despite this apparent success, retailing of all kinds faces
continuous pressure to satisfy the demand of tourists and visitors.
In order to respond to this, the entrepreneurs have instituted
creative strategies in order to maintain their own shops and
Bandung's position in the retail hierarchy. The way each touristsdriven-retails responding is to compete on different terms by
making shopping in their particular shop a special experience: a
combination of its unique environment, cultural, administrative
and particular facilities coupled with improved and expanding
shopping facilities that would provide an unbeatable.
The revaluation and commodification of the townscape is,
therefore, seen as a response not only to the demands of the
tourism market, but also to the demands of creative retail
strategies. Much of the charm of the Bandung's townscape stems
from its shops because by virtue of the positive nature of retailing
they lend it a visual variety and liveliness which forms attractive
places to the distinct of the architectural pieces. With the day-today needs of the population being increasingly serviced by
supermarket developments, the center of the city has become a
spatial design of consumption that involves both the pursuit of
leisure shopping and sightseeing, which also reflects current
trends within the retail sector as a whole.
Bandung city center, now facing competition from out-oftown centers and other tourism-destinations-zones, often seek to
combine shopping, entertainment and leisure facilities with local
and regional heritage themes, which, in effect, creates distinctive
designs of place. One such is the Dago Street, a discount factory
retail outlet built adjacent to a university campus and zoo. In Jalan
Riau, designed in heritage style factory outlet as well as Chinese
atmosphere shop, seeking to combine images of the built
heritages with contemporary consumption. In other cases,
idiosyncratic elements are added in order to emphasize the
uniqueness of place, such as the provision of many eating
facilities at the front of he factory outlets as well as mini open-air
market.
These developments represent the emergence of new
spaces of consumption that are dependent on the attraction of a
heritage theme for their economic viability. Both have been built
on land that was formerly occupied by small workshops and
warehousing and, although new, the style of architecture and
design is overwhelmingly that of the past. The paving in both
cases is constructed from the materials favored by the particular
449

company, the shopfronts are constructed in pseudo-colonial style,

offering a postmodern pastiche of an imagined colonial era; both
are paved in traditional materials and furnished in heritage style.
However, none of these developments would have been
possible without the active encouragement of the local council. It
is clear that in regard to the development of the city center, the
council exert considerable control over not only the physical
appearance of the townscape, but also to the pattern of activities,
such as allowing street entertainers and buskers to perform, that
are carried out within it.
Conclusions
The city of Bandung can be seen as a microcosm of
recent changes to the urban environment that work on a variety of
spatial scales, from the global to the national, regional and local.
The processes that gave rise to the production of the townscape
of Bandung, and by extension to other towns and cities, have now
become subsumed and revalued under the production of a
national and local heritage in which the processes of history are
commodified and organized as designs of objects and spaces for
leisure consumption.
Although a reflection of national trends, in particular the
growth of heritage as entertainment, spectacle and mass
consumption, the production of these tourism destination designs
is mediated at a local level through the actions of the local
entrepreneurs and other stakeholders, such as property
developers and those in the heritage industry. The intrinsic
demand of tourist destination uniqueness have been able to exert
aesthetic controls over the environment, as well as the activities
that take place within it, in a deliberate attempt to create the city
as a site of consumption for both retail and tourism. The relation
between these two activities can be seen in the ways in which the
designs of place that emphasize the city as a place of the past, of
heritage, have been used by property and retail developers in
their attempts to ensure economic success, and the ways in
which retailing is viewed by the entrepreneurs as an activity that
contributes to the overall vitality of the city center.
Tourists and shoppers visiting Bandung are offered a
series of tourism destination designs in which heritage dominates,
from the pattern of street layout to the existence of a distinctive
architecture, to the variety of activities and spectacles that seek to
create the city itself as an experience, to the gentrified retail
outlets in short, as a series of opportunities for leisure and
consumption. Developments such as Dago Street are, however,
pedagogic in intent, bound in the same patterns of production and
consumption as much as the developments of Cihampelas, the
same processes of aestheticizing and commodifying the past as
both an experience and a consumable object: neither is reducible
450

to the other. Inasmuch as tourism involves the consumption of

space, time and signs, so too do the activities associated with
shopping in the tourism-destinations city.
Acknowledgements
This paper is an elaboration of previous writing within the
topic of planning process and tourism. The author gratefully
acknowledges the continuing supports of all colleagues in the
Centre for Tourism Research and Housing & Settlement
Research Group, the Architecture Study Program, Institut
Teknologi Bandung as well as the Jagaddhita members.
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453

SPIRIT ACCULTURATION OF TANGERANG

CITY EXISTENCE
Hinijati Widjaja
Lecturer of Landscape Architecture Trisakti University Indonesia
www.hinijatiwidjaja@plasa.com
Abstract
This paper is the urban anthropological review, by using
an approach related to the reward and consideration towards
cultural heritage in the modernization of Tangerang city, and
alteration towards communitys environment, as a separate life
unity in the old city of Tangerang.
VOC of Netherland had inheritance water block building
such as fortress, which in the past, Japan has destroyed most
part of Tangerang city, China arrived on 1700s continuously from
the Fukkien, and also spread out knowledge during trading, and
also expanding new areas, developing housing areas, and also
socializing meaningful symbols related to Betawi, Sunda, and
Javanes Ethnics which has resided there.
In the developing of Tangerang city, also considered as
the centre city of the Republic of Indonesia, and characteristics of
the Tangerang city, occurred in a developing manner. And also
has experienced
several developments in the history of
Tangerang city.
The year of 2000, has occurred the expansion of
Tangerang city into municipality. Thus, Tangerang city has
become more developed and the commercial areas also highly
developed not to mention the increased number of industries. And
the main road of the city which lies from North to West, with the
consideration to fulfill the efficiency of time and distance
requirements. Therefore, also impacted towards the city physical
form, which became more modernized. However, it appears that,
the physical development of Tangerang city has ignored the
characteristics pattern of the cultural heritage, as the inheritance
of the ancient, which somewhat eroded, without considering and
respecting the whole heritage of the city in the past context. For
instance, the old market China Town (Pecinan) and Karawaci in
the Center City of Tangerang. Which also evidenced as the
disintegration towards an importance which caused the eroded of
the spirit and the characteristics of the city itself.
Key Words: Urban Anthropological of Tangerang City, Spirit
Acculturation.
454

INTRODUCTION
Background
Urban development is highly developed, despite any
consideration of cultural and historical elements, which cause the
vanished image of a city. The preservation of a historical area
perceived not only as the past romanticism, nor the antidevelopment or modernization, however, to provide the idea of a
critical area development towards environment, by considering
areas potentials inheritance of the past. Experiences of the
developed countries showed that, old buildings have tourism
potentials and tourisms existence plays a major role in increasing
the countrys cash revenue.
In developing Tangerang city as the base of the capital
city of the Indonesian Republic. Which its characterizes not
inherently occurred and developed, however it evolves and
experienced several concrete developments in the history of
Tangerang city, which was related to other countries such as :
VOC of Netherland that heritance water dams, and several forts,
which robustly built and known as the Makassar Fort. Thus, with
the arrival of Japanese, which destructed several infra structures
and Tangerang city files. The Japanese arrival has caused a
drastic decline towards city quality and the remain heritage of the
Netherland was the water dam.
On 1700, Chinese population migrated from the Fukkien
of China, which brought trading knowledge, opened and
developed the housing areas, and also socializing life meanings
which applied on the old town which also known as the China
Town. The arrival of China population has contributed the
development and has altered the Tangerang city into a more
colorful city, which will leads an identity, a city that was built and
patterned based on the Chinese Philosophy. The development of
Tangerang city is closely related to the base history.
The current development, without considering the form of
heritage in the past, which breed an area of highly impacted by
the history. Tangerang city has experienced a cultural
degradation which also eroded the acculturation spirit of a city,
which also known as the cultural characteristics itself. The current
development as the basic changes of Tangerang City to support
Jakarta city, and also to covered th migration flows, urban
industrialization and also to achieve a modernization.
Objective
The objective of this paper is to observe about the
anthropologic aspect of the Tangerang
city, by using an
approach related to the reward, cultural heritage consideration in
the city modernization, and also understanding the human living
area as a living unity of the old town of Tangerang.
455

A glance of Tangerang city History

A glance of Tangerang city history is rather difficult to be
separated to the old town area, which is Pasar lama on the side
of the Cisadane river, which is the first housing area of Chinese
population in Tangerang city. Foreigners arrived to invade and to
take over cities of Tangerang, which at that moment, there were
inhabitant such as Sundanese, Betawi and Javanese. Netherland
was the first that ruled the Batavia, which later came out also
ruled the Tangerang city which at that moment the name was still
unknown. Netherland VOC built many forts by the Cisadane
riverside. However, unfortunately, until this very moment, those
forts has been destroyed by the time of Japans arrival, the only
remain fort of Netherland is several water dams with height of
15m, which also functionalized to supply drinking water of the
Tangerang people.
The name of Tangerang city is closely related to the
history of Tangerang
city formation. Based on the 112
manuscript which was arranged by S. Suradiningrat, the name of
Tangerang named after the tanggeran which means tanda (in
Sunda language) or a sign. This sign then was built as the sign of
the territorial border of Banten Region which ruled by the Hindia
Belanda. That sign could also be seen on the West side of
Cisadane river or on the down road of Otto Iskandardinata Street,
Kowang Jaya region, Kecamatan of Gerendeng. Thus, the name
of Tanggeran altered into tangerang, which was changed due to
the pronunciation influence of ng of Ambon ethnic and Makassar
in Tangerang. While according to the encyclopedia of Van
Nederlandch book, 1971 : 273, which referred to the fort is forts
built by the Netherland troops by the Cisadane riverside, lies
along the Pakulonan to Tangerang city. Those forts were built
around the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, on the fall
of Banten people to several areas ruled by the Netherland. After
netherland successfully ruled the Tangerang city in 1684, thus,
arose several housing areas around the forts such as Kampung
Gerendeng, Kampung Karawaci, and Kampung Kalipasir.
Those three areas were finally established as the capital
city of Tangerang , which followed by the Japanese troops
destroyed part of the Tangerang city, after the Japanese troops
fled Tangerang, then, Chinese people arrived continuously, along
with their cultural values, and interacting with local people. Thus,
Tangerang city established as the Tingkat II regional area on 27th
February 1993 and has settled the Kotamadya (Municipality) as
the capital city on 2001.
Land Uses in Tangerang City
Based on Undang-Undang Number 2. of 1993 related to
the Tangerang city formation, administratively have several city
borders such as :
456

North : Tangerang region (Kecamatan of Teluk Naga and

Sepatan)
South : Tangerang Region (Kecamatan of Curug, Serpong and
Pondok Aren)
West : Pasar Kemis Region and Cikupa
East : DKI Jakarta (West and South of Jakarta city)
Tangerang city with length of 17,729,746 Ha, and the
population on 2003 of 1,487,000, and the population density of
9,037 life/km2, the city physical growth showed the length of city
built, which is 12,331 hectare (68% of whole city), thus, the
strategic remain of the city will be conditioned into the developed
city, therefore, there are still many lands left which could be used
as the housing area and spread along the Tangerang city. The
fast growth of Tangerang city also supported by the existence of
International Airport of Soekarno Hatta which part of its area
included into the Tangerang city administration, and the gate of
Indonesian air transportation area also offered an opportunity
towards a widely development of trading activity and services.
Along with the kecamatan expansion, the regional area and
villages were also expanded, which also accelerated the
Tangerang city development and to follow the development of
Jakarta city.
Initially, in Tangerang city, there were only 20 Kelurahan
and 37 villages, thus, after the expansions, there are 87
Kelurahan and 17 villages (data of PMA-PMDN Tangerang city of
2002). The expansions and status increase of several villages
into municipalities was aimed to increase the service towards
community. The regional land planning (RTRW) and The Detailed
regional land planning (RDTR) showed that, the land uses of
Tangerang city consists of : housing (5,988 Ha); industry (1,367.1
ha), trading and service (608.1 Ha); agricultural (4,467.8 Ha);
Sukarno-Hatta Airport (1,816.9 Ha); others (819.4 Ha); unused
(2,66.4 Ha).
According to Couch, urban area have an un static
characteristic, which altered constantly, whether related,
expanded or internal restructured as the respond of several
economic and social pressures. Process of how extent the
changes impacted, the development will influence physical
structure and urban renewal, could be perceived as the physical
changes or function changes or the land and building uses
intensity, which could no longer be avoided as the influence of the
economic activity and social pressure towards the city. And also
according to Simond (1998) in a wide meaning, the renewal of a
city, is an effort to reconstructed several parts of big city.
Initially, Tangerang city development was sacrificing the
physical appropriateness and city features, because the industrial
sector could overuse the land and fresh air for public use, even,
457

the tourism sector development also has forgot about the

communitys culture, which could be used as the area potential.
According to Simond (1998), city formation is an
expression of a function which arranged in a suitable manner
related to space, time and environment. A good city planning
should be able to express time, technology and idealism, because
city perceived as the organic unity which accorded to the past
roots and oriented towards future.
If we ever visited Tangerang city in the past two decades,
it gives an impression a strong oriental culture, particularly in the
old city, the expression of a properly structured city form, whether
in time, space and the relatedness to the natural environment,
fresh air, and the whole unity as an organic unity, currently, it has
changed rapidly and growth into a developed city, which
neglected the old town feature. With the development of
Tangerang city, currently, there are many people which visit to
perform many tasks, whether services or business activities, and
Tangerang city was intended to perform trading and industry
activities, housing center developments, even according to the
Kepres Number. 54 of 1989, Tangerang should allocate 300
hectares of its lands for industrial uses.
Thus, the core relationship of the existed culture, related
to the city planning of Tangerang, wholly, partially, could be
stated inversely. Past population has created a more meaningful
and functional cultural environment, and for certain activity
structures, whether maintaining a horizontal or vertical
relationship, and also the land planning system, has been a
tradition of local community. And if there was a change, thus, the
land planning system core should be used as the base of the
changes pattern. Because it appear that, the environment has
been established by the city government was not always similar
to the requirements, and concepts or cultural models of partial
community in Tangerang city of the old town.
Currently, the distribution pattern of building was
randomly formed, almost un patterned, while based on the
building history in the old town, the pattern was lied on the back of
Cisadane river, and leads to the old praying house in the
Tangerang old town, and traditional architectural of Chinese there
is a building majority character of the Tangerang area. The similar
condition was also occurred to the inhabitant, the understanding
about housing were more acculturated with the density of city
modernization, as well as the communitys living needs that lives
in the old town.
City government with its administrative system has
formed a system of city planning which principally, arrange the
land planning as well as any elements in the city, which this kind
of arrangement also related to the infrastructure arrangement,
sites and several housing, waste water development system,
458

living prosperity arrangement. Tangerang city planning

development which continuously developed with no consideration
from the cultural and historic roots, could lessen the image of a
city. Because that sort of arrangement could not be arranged
properly along the way, due to the imperfect land planning and
city planning, and also due to the government officer negligence
in evaluating, implementing rules and the lack of coordination
inter related departments.
Initially, Tangerang city was formed and built by a native
inhabitant and newcomers, to fulfill several activities which
perceived critical and could only be implemented the fulfillment of
the urban population. In the perspective history of Tangerang city
has been developed, because the population number increase
and due to the service functions, whether nationally or
internationally. Which occurred towards Tangerang population of
the old town that less knowledgeable of the essence of the city
planning, thus, the land uses of Tangerang city which were
implemented by the community, whether individually or
simultaneously for their own interests. Lands in Tangerang city
were used to built buildings for the commercial and business,
entertainment, recreation and industrial purposes, therefore, city
planning was established in written in the document form., while
in practice, Tangerang city has developed based on the city
activities, thus, it resulted an impression that, Tangerang city has
been developed, without any city planning as its guidance.
Thus, any change in the Tangerang city planning in
recent times, has created modern physical pattern, by using
modern technologies and in modern the communitys living
activities. Thus, the heritage character patterns as the old time
heritage was eroded particularly in the old town, housing buildings
changed into several office houses with numerous desires and
fantasies of the owners, without considering the old town form of
the Tangerang city which has been stated in the concept, and
considered to be built based on the universal harmony by the old
time community, consists of a relationship balance between
human and God, balance between human and others, and
balance between human and their environment.
CONCLUSISON
The anthropology review of Tangerang city was
considering the context of Tangerang city have an influence and
influenced by the foreign countries lives, such as Netherland,
Japan, and China, which, finally, China people established an
area which called the old town (Tangerang China Town).
Development of Tangerang city was occurred for almost 3
decades, and has experienced a rapid changes, and also
providing positive influences towards development activities
particularly towards economic activities, thus, also made this area
459

as the base of economic development whether nationally or by

the DKI Jakarta province, however, in the development of
Tangerang city, also experienced a degradation with the eroded
spirit and city characteristics, which also used as the evidence as
a disintegration of a purpose. Thus, in changing or creating a
natural or physical environment towards a new environment,
should be accorded to the cultural concepts in order to fulfill
communitys requirements of Tangerang city, thus, the meaning
and character of the living structure whether human or the natural
environment structures could be preserved.
460

SLUM AREA ON DELI RIVER BANK

Wirsal Hasan, Edhy Mirwandono
Doctoral Program of Environmental Management, University of Sumatera Utara
Email: Wirsal@usu.co.id, HP 0819863979
Abstract
A slum is an urban settlement of makeshift houses with
few or no basic services and crowded, unhealthy living conditions.
Usually slums are inhabited by people who cant afford to live
anywhere else. They are often found on the outskirts of cities or in
dangerous areas where no one else wants to live.They are
generally neglected by governments and residents often have few
of the rights of other citizens.. Although slums are labeled as
illegal, in fact the people living there are very important to the
economies of cities. It is their hard work that keeps industries
going and drives economic growth. Urban slums may be located
on the river bank, exposing residents to higher levels of water
related disease and air pollution disese. Because they are
unplanned, slums usually have no basic services like running
water, sanitation and electricity. There are no toilets, garbage
bins, street lights, roads, parks, playgrounds, schools or
healthcare centres. The most serious problem that the basin is
the impact of the Deli River Water on public health. There has
been not only a rapid increase in the prevalence of water-borne
diseases that were already known. Such problems, historically
considered rural, have now become urban as well, as sprawling
slum settlements along side the Deli River. Swiming use of Deli
River water can have benefits to health and also adverse health
effects if it is polluted or unsafe. Recreational water users may
also be exposed to hazards such as excess heat, cold and
sunlight. Recreational users of water may be at risk of serious
and potentially fatal diseases. Its not enough for governments to
ignore slums and the millions of people that live in them. If we can
work with slum dwellers to provide skills training and improve
living conditions, many of the poor will find a way to change their
lives forever. The objective is to work towards the upgradation of
physical and social conditions through application of appropriate
technologies with active participation and involvement of
Government, NGO and the community for providing an improved
living conditions for the inhabitants of the slum settlement.
Key words: crowded, unhealthy living conditions, improved living
conditions
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INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is a global phenomenon which results in the
lack of housing provisions and settlements in the cities. The huge
and unceasing demands for housing cannot be met. In the
developing countries, the problem is more complex because the
population growth in such countries is faster than that in the
developed countries. The capability of the government or the
private sectors to provide housing formally, for example in the
form of real estate and housing developments, is highly limited
and touches merely people from the upper and middle classes.
Meanwhile, the low-income people remain untouched and leave
to fend for themselves. This results in the mushrooming of
informal housing areas with the characteristics of being crowded,
dirty, not following formal regulations, and whose inhabitants are
mostly poor.
A slum is a district of a city or town which is usually
inhabited by the very poor or socially disadvantaged. A slum is
only based on the social-economic level of the population that live
in an area. The overgrowth population of most big cities in
developing countries has produced almost the same phenomena
on their physical performance. Large flow of people in
urbanization process has produced many slum areas. Most of
these people have to recognize that they cannot afford dwellings
with standard quality. Ironically most of these slum areas are in
strategic location, such as in downtown, which has high-economic
value. These phenomena are reasonable. Some of them work as
a low-level employee at local business sector, and the others run
their own business as a support for more established business in
the area, and most of them are informal, such as: food stalls at
illegal bazaar area.
A person who lives in a slum is unable to move away
from the slum because of their economic status. Slums can be
found in most large cities around the world. Recent years have
seen a dramatic growth in the number of slums as urban
populations have increased in the Third World. According to a
recent UN-Habitat report, 327 million people live in slums in
Commonwealth countries - almost one in six Commonwealth
citizens. In a quarter of Commonwealth countries (11 African, 2
Asian and 1 Pacific), more than two out of three urban dwellers
live in slums and many of these countries are urbanising rapidly.
According to the UNDP 1997 Human Development Report, and
the 2004 United Nations Human Development (UNHDP) report,
Malaysia has the highest income disparity between the rich and
poor in Southeast Asia, greater than that of Philippines, Thailand,
Singapore, Vietnam and Indonesia. The UNHDP Report shows
that the richest 10% in Malaysia control 38.4% of the economic
income as compared to the poorest 10% who control only 1.7%.
Kuala Lumpur as the capital of Malaysia has an increasing
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number of squatters, shanty towns and slums, and is also seeing

an increase in criminal acts such as snatch theft, robberies, and
rape.
CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of a slum include: crime,
unemployment, suicide rate, low level education, low level income
and low quality housing. A slum is not based on the race, ethnicity
or religion of the people in the area. Slums are usually
characterized by urban blight and by high rates of poverty and
unemployment. They tend to be breeding centers for many social
problems such as crime, drug addiction, alcoholism, high rates of
mental illness, suicide, and despair. In many poor countries they
exhibit high rates of disease due to unsanitary conditions,
malnutrition, and lack of basic health care.
In many slums, especially in poor countries, many live in
very narrow alleys that do not allow vehicles (like ambulances
and fire trucks) to pass. The lack of services such as routine
garbage collection allows rubbish to accumulate in huge
quantities. The lack of infrastructure is caused by the informal
nature of settlement and no planning for the poor by government
officials. Additionally, informal settlements often face the brunt of
natural and man-made disasters, such as landslides, as well as
earthquakes and tropical storms. Many slum dwellers employ
themselves in the informal economy. This can include street
vending, drug dealing, domestic work, and prostitution. In some
slums people even recycle trash of different kinds (from
household garbage to electronics) for a living - selling either the
odd usable goods or stripping broken goods for parts or raw
materials.
Though the terms are often now used interchangeably,
slums and ghettos differ in that ghetto refers to a neighborhood
based on shared ethnicity. Slums are also different from favelas
or shanty towns, in that they consist of permanent (if low-quality)
housing rather than less-durable shacks of cardboard or
corrugated iron or newspaper. Densely populated area of
substandard housing, usually in a city, characterized by
unsanitary conditions and social disorganization. Rapid
industrialization in 19th-century Europe was accompanied by
rapid population growth and the concentration of working-class
people in overcrowded, poorly built housing.
MANAGEMENT PROBLEM
This kind of management is really a complicated one; it
involves a number of people with their own characteristics, as
many as their number,most of them are low-educated, and based
on-their economic difficulty they put improvement of their builtenvironment on the last priority. People don't get a right picture of
463

the resettlement process; they are not sure that the future forms
of their housing will give them a better environment; and they are
not sure how they can get the house based on their recent
income. There are also some doubts about the feasibility of
building technology applied on the projects, which is proposed
using fabrication method. The technology isn't well recognized
and it has made people doubt how far this technology can adapt
their typical built-environment, as they need. In some countries,
leaders have addressed this situation by rescuing rural property
rights to support traditional sustainable agriculture, however this
solution has met with open hostility from capitalists and
corporations.
It also tends to be relatively unpopular with the slum
communities themselves, as it involves moving out of the city
back into the countryside, a reverse of the rural-urban migration
that originally brought many of them into the city. Critics argue
that slum clearances tend to ignore the social problems that
cause slums and simply redistribute poverty to less valuable real
estate. Where communities have been moved out of slum areas
to newer housing, social cohesion may be lost. If the original
community is moved back into newer housing after it has been
built in the same location, residents of the new housing face the
same problems of poverty and powerlessness. The condition is
the result of unsatisfactory housing management, unavailability of
supporting regulations, and non-operational of housing
management institutions.
In addition, the land status is also a big problem.The land
status is varied, mostly are state-owned land without any legal
certificate, and a few are self-owned land. Their strategic
locations along with the strong aim of local government to have
an ideal city have made these slum areas a potential target. As it
can be reflected from the above description, the complicated
problem existing in the area has made the effort difficult to be
implemented. Different perception of each involved party is the
most handicapped factor:
(1)People cannot capture the real picture of what their
built-environment
most
likely
in
postdevelopment
era.(2)Government cannot see any other alternative than moving
people away from the location and giving payment as
compensation for their property. It seems that they cannot get the
ideal model of revitalization of existing ideal concepts.(3)Private
sectors are not convinced about the prospect of the projects in
economic perspective.(Hamid, 2001)
EXAMPLES OF SLUM AREA MANAGEMENT
1. England passed the first legislation for building low-income
housing to certain minimum standards in 1851; laws for slum
clearance were first enacted in 1868.
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2. In the U.S., slum development coincided with the arrival of

large numbers of immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries; laws concerning adequate ventilation, fire
protection, and sanitation in urban housing were passed in
the late 1800s. In the 20th century government and private
organizations built low-income housing and appropriated
funds for urban renewal and offered low-interest home loans.
3. Diadema, Brazil, is an exclusively urban municipality with a
high population density, i.e. the second highest density of the
state and the third highest in Brazil. In 1983, a housing policy
was started which recognised the existence of slum areas.
This policy proposed the upgrading of these areas, giving the
guarantee to land access and community participation. From
1989 to 1992, there were interventions in 92 slum areas,
representing more than 50% of the areas existing at that time.
The interventions were aimed at the access to infrastructure
and urban services, concentrating on the implementation of
basic infrastructure, pavement and drainage. The
interventions in the initial periods were more concentrated on
maintaining the maximum number of families and on
upgrading the areas. Thus, instead of concluding the
upgrading in concentrated areas, it was opted for a gradual
approach in many years.Thus, regulatory instruments for the
real estate market that facilitate the access of low income
groups to this market are being created. The Democratisation
of City Management: Already a lot is known about the chaotic
situation of the majority of the Brazilian cities and the cities in
Latin America. Its poverty, related with the lack of income and
employment, basic sanitation, health and decent housing
conditions, is growing; just like the rates of environmental
degradation and of deterioration of the quality of life of the
population. One of the suggested alternatives to confront this
"chaos" has been to look for a "Sustainable Development". A
lot of experiences has been arrived at by various
governments,
non
governmental
organisations and
community groups, trying to combat poverty and to recover
the environmental quality. The democratisation is optimising
the public investments, attending the majority of the
population (Diadema).
4. In 1969, 60% (or at least three millions people) of the 4.8
millions inhabitants of Jakarta lived in dirt-poor settlements.
Confronted with such a problem, the city government then
launched a kampong improvement program called the
Muhammad Husni Thamrin Project, which had been a
success until 1999. Finally, there was a solution to the
problem of the paradigm that saw kampong as a source of
problemsthis solution was what Turner called urban as
solution, a development model known as the participatory
465

development as it applied the approach of involving the

community. However, in 1985 the Government of the Special
Capital Territory of Jakarta changed their housing policy.
They then employed a city rejuvenating program and
developed high rises. Since 1993, more high rises were
developed by tearing down slum areas and building high rises
on the sites. Such approach is known as the technocratic
development approach. Here, the community is not involved
and there are no comprehensive studies. Meanwhile, the
urban settlements in Jakarta grew rapidly at the beginning of
the 1970sannually, the city saw an increase of 100- 150
hectares of new kampongs alongside the crowded slum areas
that had already existed before. With such a growth, the need
for housing cannot be met by using the model of providing
finished products.The policy of developing high-rises had
been magnified between 2000 and 2006, consuming an
expense of not less than one trillion rupiahs, and this policy is
still applied to this day. This invites some questions: Can the
technocratic approach handle the problems of slums and
poverty? Can the policy of providing finished products
(supplies) eliminate poverty as according to the target of 11
Millennium Development Goals? Does this approach befit the
principles of sustainable development? There are two models
of housing developments that we can choose: the model of
participatory development, or that of the technocratic one.
(Runi Elsanti,2006).
5. The Kampong Improvement Program. The Muhammad
Husni Thamrin Project (MHT) grew from 1969 until 1999.
International agencies such as the World Bank and UN
Habitat thought of it as a successful, low-cost project that had
improved the quality of life in the slums. This approach had
benefited no fewer than 5.5 million inhabitants of Jakarta.
Nationally, at least 15 million people living in more than 400
urban areas of Indonesia had been similarly benefited. Since
the beginning, the project was meant to be an investment for
humanity, or something that Melvin Mark defined as social
betterment, which is defined as a social policy or social
program.City managers still consider the projectwhich was
launched in 1969 and managed to improve the reputation of
Jakarta and the Indonesian government at the timeas a
spot-on project in handling the problems of urban settlements.
The limited funds, the myriad urban problems, and the
increasing number of city dwellers were the challenges at the
time and they remain so to this day. The MHT Project has not
been about mere physical improvements, but about other
things as well, just as Ali Sadikin, the governor of Jakarta in
1977, said, I think that the group of city dwellers who have
been forced to live in the margins of the slickly-built city are
466

the ones who need more assistance for experiencing the

products of our developments.The launch of the MHT Project
in 1969 was a milestone in city management and city
planning. Just like the changes in Western Europe after the
industrial revolutioni.e. the changes from bureaucracy
planning to advocacy planningthe MHT Project recognized
kampong settlements as a part of the urban fabric. Such
informal settlements were thus complemented with urban
services such as the infrastructure and amenities. In 1980,
the MHT Project received an award from the Aga Khan
Foundation. During the Third Five-Year Development cycle of
Indonesia, the central government adopted this approach and
used it as a national policy to tackle the problems of urban
housing and settlements. In the Second Habitat Conference
in Istanbul, Turkey, in 1996, the project was still considered
as the right project that could be adopted to manage the
problems of settlements in developing countries. At the Cities
Alliance launching in Washington, D.C., in 1999, the project
was still mentioned as a reliable project. In 2004, Wolfensohn,
the then World Bank President, announced it as the Global
Best Practice. As Sach mentioned, to be able to tackle the
problems of slum and poverty, basic urban services must be
provided, especially the infrastructure, the sanitation, and
clean water facilities. In the MHT Project, these are
complemented with the development of education facilities
(elementary school buildings) and health facilities (Public
Health Centers). (Runi Elsanti,2006).
6. Policy Changes: From the Kampong Improvement to the
High Rise Development. In 1985, the subdistrict of Tambora
saw the city rejuvenation program, then the subdistrict of
Karang Anyar followed, after a burning calamity stroke this
area. The development of high rises aims to eradicate poverty
and slums. What took place later on, in just a short time, was
a shift in the targeted population. More than 90% of the
people who lived in the high rises were the middle class
people, and this meant that the government continuously
subsidized the people who neither needed nor deserved the
subsidy. High rises then became a monument of stacked-up
slums, with the consequences that they were unsustainable
and required continuous subsidies. During international city
management trainings, the advice given is always not to use
Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Israel as a
reference for housing and settlement policies, because those
countries have high GNPs and a lack of land. Their social,
economic, cultural, and political backgrounds are also
different from those of Indonesia.There have been no MHT
Projects since 2006, while there is an increasing number of
high rises. The private sectors develop luxurious housing
467

complexes all over the city, offering modern settlements and

an illusion about Jakartas having no urban problems. There
is a huge gap between the massive attention received by
formal settlements and the neglect suffered by the informal
settlements. While the works of planners and architects are
meant for the people from the upper and middle classes, the
poor are left to fend for themselves. (Runi Elsanti,2006).
7. The Development of a Thousand High Rises. Since the
visit of the Vice President Jusuf Kalla and the political elites
several months ago to Cengkareng, there have often been
announcements about the plan to build high rises. In every
city, there will be high rises for low-income people who used
to live in the slums. Cities will become tidier, there will be no
slums, and this also means an eradication of poverty. The
high rises will be built at city centers, close to work, which will
in turn result in less traffic. At a glance, it seems to be an
interesting initiative; unfortunately, it is not preceded by
researches or observations on the experience of developing
high rises. There is also the possibility that the Vice President
had received erroneous information, especially as the object
of the Cengkareng visit was the high rise that had been
donated by the Tzu Chi Buddhist Foundation. It was a high
rise with 1,100 units, built by Yayasan Cinta Kasih (The
Compassion Foundation) on the land owned by the National
Housing Agency, and the Government of the Special Capital
Territory of Jakarta then supplied it with tenants. (Runi
Elsanti,2006).
8. The high rise had been built to move settlers from the slums
around the Angke riverbed. After these settlers had been
living in the high rise for more than two years, in-depth
interviews with some of them revealed that at least 40% of
the tenants had not been paying rents for three months.
Meanwhile, the elderly people who had been placed in units
on the upper grounds had never paid the rents. When asked
how they had lived on the riverbed, they said that they used
to have spaces in their house, which they could rent out.
What can we rent out now? they complained. They received
meals out of their neighbors pity, and from subsidies from the
high rise managers. There were a lot of such tenants. On the
other hand, a family whose head had worked at the National
Train Company could live there happily due to the low rents,
the adequate facilities, and the low cost for education, along
with the subsidies in the form of free school uniforms, bags,
hats, and books.This explains that moving the poor from the
slums to the high rise will not eradicate poverty. Such
development model, which is better called social housing, is
not sustainable due to the continuous subsidies required. If
the government is to adopt such a model, it means that we
468

will change from the principle of the government as the

enabler to the principle of the government as the provider. It
means that more funds will be required. At the same time, we
should consider the question of whether housing problem is
the only urban problem in Jakarta and other urban areas.
(Runi Elsanti,2006).
9. IT (Information Technology) has big potentials to be
implemented in facilitating urban resettlement program in
Indonesia concerning the importance of developing
databases for resettlement process and its mechanism.
However what has been discussed in this paper tend to be
qualitative analysis. Although in some parts the author
couldn't avoid from attempts to define some questionable
system, there should be further detailed analysis stressed on
IT environment itself. It can be either supporting or
conversely, weakening the idea. Through IT application
private sectors participation can be explored in more realistic
manner and it is different from recent mechanism where their
involvement seems to be artificial. This makes the project
more applicable since project cost mostly generated from the
existence of private sector participation. A concrete step of
resettlement process needs to be defined. However, it is
clearly a complicated matters and there are potentials of
using IT in order to bridge all complicated aspects involved
because of the IT characteristic. IT application in this project
shows an ideal format of its application in developing
countries, where a controversy usually emerges between the
need to apply new technology to accelerate the development
and losing job field because of its application. (Hamid).
10. The new "ecosystem" that will replace the slum was
conceived by Mukesh Mehta, a U.S.-trained architect whose
firm is the project's manager. Mehta has become India's preeminent slum-rehab guru: He has taken on a handful of
similar projects in other cities including Hyderabad and
Ahmedabad, and he wants to replicate his model of replacing
slums with sustainable ecosystems across the country and in
other emerging economies. Mehta's firm, M. M. Project
Consultants, where he is chairman, is also overseeing a
project to resettle and rehabilitate between 60,000 and
80,000 families in a slum stretch near Mumbai's international
airport, in order to make room for a project already underway
to upgrade and expand infrastructure there. India
Knowledge@Wharton spoke to Mehta and Sanjay Reddy,
CEO of Mumbai International Airport Pvt. Ltd., about the
impact these projects will have and any potential challenges
that lie ahead.For the Dharavi rehabilitation, 26 consortia
469

comprising 78 companies have filed preliminary bids. The

project's total cost is estimated at Rs. 9,250 crore ($2.3
billion), covering housing, civic infrastructure and amenities. It
will be distributed across five contracts valued at between Rs.
1,000 crore ($250 million) and Rs. 2,500 crore ($625 million)
each. Winning bidders will pay a "premium" to the
government in exchange for the development rights. Mehta
says the state government could collect premiums totaling as
much as Rs. 4,000 crore ($1 billion), which will come out of
the developers' profits.Mehta says bidders that meet
prequalification criteria will be short-listed by the end of
September, and then asked to submit detailed proposals. By
early December, he expects to announce the successful
bidders, and ground should be broken by January of next
year. Mehta's model is designed to cross-subsidize free
housing and infrastructure with for-sale housing and
commercial space. Under the plan, developers will provide
free housing of 225 sq. ft. to each of 57,000 families. These
would be one-room studio apartments with an attached bath
and kitchen, plus related utilities and amenities including
schools, colleges, hospitals and parks. The developers will
offset their costs with for-sale housing and commercial space
at market rates. Some of that will come from the market
prices residents and commercial establishments like shops
will be required to pay for space greater than 225-sq.-ft. A
portion of the developers' revenues from these for-sale
properties will accrue to the government as a premium.
(Knowledge@Wharton).
11. The eThekwini Municipality which governs Durban and
Pinetown has embarked on a slum clearance programme
which means the steady demolition of shack settlements and
a refusal to provide basic services (e.g. electricity, sanitation
etc) to existing settlements on the grounds that all shack
settlements are now temporary. In these demolitions some
shack dwellers are simply left homeless and others are
subject to forced evictions to the rural periphery of the city.
Abahlali is primarily committed to opposing these demolitions
and forced removals and to fighting for good land and quality
housing in the cities. In most instances this takes the form of
a demand for shack settlements to be upgraded where they
are or for new houses to be built close to where the existing
settlements are. However the movement has also argued that
basic services such as water, electricity and toilets should be
470

immediately provided to shack settlements while land and

housing in the city are negotiated. The movement has had a
considerable degree of success in stopping evictions and
forced removals, has had some success in winning the right
for new shacks to be built as settlements expand and in
winning access to basic services but, with the exception of
one piece of land in Pinetown, has struggled to win access to
good urban land for quality housing.From its origins in a
rejection of the representative role of local councillors,
Abahlali have also argued very strongly for direct popular
democracy (i.e. popular counter power) as a goal and mode
of struggle. In practice this has meant democratising
settlements that were run on the basis of various forms of
authoritarianism, refusing to participate in (state) electoral
politics and seeking to force all would be representatives of
the poor (in government, NGOs, churches, universities etc) to
'speak to us, not for us' with a view to building the power of
the poor against the rich rather than advocating for a counter
elite who will represent the poor against the rich. Abahlali has
had great success in building popular power outside of the
councillor system and in winning the right for the poor to
speak for themselves in the media and in various kinds of
engagements and encounters. However in a number of
settlements the struggle against unelected authoritarian (and
often armed) local elites, who often try to deliver the
settlement to a political party in exchange for petty favours, is
ongoing.( Abahlali).
REFERENCES
1. World Bank, Thematic Group on the Services to Urban Poor,
Washington DC, May 2000.
2. Hamid,B. Implementing Information Technology; an
Alternative for Urban Resettlement Program, Dimensi Teknik
Arsitektur No.29, No.2, Desember 2001:126-133
3. Indonesia Progress Report on the MDGs, 25 Agustus 2005
4. Runi Elsanti (penterjemah), Seeking a Sustainable Model for
Housing Development, Karbon, Jakarta, Februari 2006
5. SPARC and its work with the National Slum Dwellers
Federation and Mahila Milan, India
6. Diadema: Consolidating Innovative Alternatives of Municipal
Management
Brazil
471

7. Building
New
Ecosystems
in
Mumbais
Slum,
Knowledge@Wharton, September 06,2007
8. Abahlali base Mjondolo, From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
9. Wirat Krasachat , A.T.M. Nurul Amin, Gender, Household
Socio-Economic Characteristics and Residential Water Use in
Bangkok, School of Environment, Resources and
Development Asian Institute of Technology, P.O.Box 4, Klong
Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
10. Afroza Ahmed, UNICEF Experience on Sanitation in
Bangladesh: The Challenge Ahead, Project Officer, WES
Section UNICEF-Bangladesh
11. Michael Mattingly & Haryo Winarso, Urban Spatial Planning
and Public Capital Investments: The Indonesias Integrated
Urban
Infrastructure
Investment
Programme,URBAN,
Development Planning Unit 9 Endsleigh Gardens, London
WC1H 0ED
472

FUNCTIONAL TRANSFORMATION IN FORT

OF YOGYAKARTA PALACE, A CASE
OF OCCUPYING ADAPTABILITY
IN HISTORICAL AREA
Dina Poerwoningsih and Pindo Tutuko
Architecture Department, University of Merdeka Malang, Indonesia
Jl. Puncak Jaya 36, Malang
Telp/Facs. (0341) 584293, (0341) 7070636
Corresponding author : dipi88@yahoo.com
Abstract
Yogyakarta, no doubt is still keep typical problems about
historic urban area. Many elements of Yogyakartas townscape
have a serious problem, particularly in facing with physical and
visual degradation. One of those elements is The Fort (benteng)
of Yogyakarta Palace (Kraton), beside Tamansari, and Dalems (
the noble resident). The fort actually assembled the city structure
morphology by its positions surrounded the Palace, formed by the
wall inside in width 3 meters and hight 3 meters. Its a symbol for
the birth of new power in Yogyakarta in 1755. Nowadays, parts of
fort begining ruin, then in 1969 the Palace permitted that area to
be built a vendor and social activity. Gradually that area became
a residential community. Only native people permitted to occupy
that area, of course within a frame of The Palace regulation. The
Fort still shown a latent function for sake of defense, but not in the
same way as old city did. Its like a buffer that keep the palace
away from the outside influence, especially in land right.
The charisma of Palace was a prior reason of resident for
still occupy in those area which had many constraint. One of
these constraint is limited space in dimention about 3 x 4 m2 for
one family.
This paper attempt to present about adaptability of
resident to keep at their accupied, while still maintain their
obedience on The Palace regulation. The study shown that the
resident tend to adjust their physical setting in order to
accommodate domestic activities within a strategic way, a
compromy way not to run against the Palace permission.
Key words: fort of kraton, occupying adaptability
Introduction
Benteng, the Fort of Kraton Yogyakarta (FKY) was one of
initial element that form traditional city structure of Yogyakarta,
together with Kraton/Palace, Tamansari/Watercastle, and
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Dalem/the Nobles Residence. Its no doubt as another historic

cities, preservation and conservation becomes one of important
issue within the discourse of citys growth. FKY visually dan
physically, there is just only quarter part that still remains. Now,
for the other and greater part, there was became a residential. So
FKY is facing a serious problem that is a significant
transformation physically.
The change of FKY of course was began from
communitys need to get a residence and to live in Palace
enviroment. Besides, existence of FKY in the centrum of city with
its stratetigal accesibilities was attracted people to live in.
Nowadays, FKY is characterized with a contemporary urban
environment , follows Tamansari that was transformed at first.
There was so many theories can explain about that. Empirical
data was shown about pressures of urban crowding on the
historic urban area. The land provides a chance for the resident
and urban people to benefit from its value which never undergoes
a decrease. In this way, the population growth, social change of
the FKY resident are relevant and significant to direct a wide
range of understanding. We should understand towards basic
social needs of community, values in which living activities, and
1
environmental behaviour of people to developt its community.
With the increasing challenges of development, the
palace environment is faced on a critical situation. The palace
environment lies precisely in the domain where it could either be
pulled back into the preservation as an historic monument or
undergo modern developtment. An understanding of the link
between social culture phenomena and the palace environment is
urgently needed. It is important to understand to preserve
Benteng Kraton as monumental/historic building without also
considering the context of contemporary needs.
By the transformed benteng as a residential area, is there
any challenge for FKY to hold its existence for the future?
Considering historical value and symbolic value of FKY, there is
no doubt that its existence should be held to strengthen the
identity of Yogyakarta City. When we discuss the process and
developtment of urban area, we deal with dynamic characters of
the city. Maintaining the city identity using the architectural
heritage means understanding the position of the heritage within
the dynamic context of city development. So, understanding how
2
the people or community live in an urban heritage is important.
1
2
Ikaputra 1995;108
Spiro Kostof,1992
474

Figure 1. Research Area in Fort of Yogyakarta Palace
Figure 2. Situs of Fort That Still Remains
475

We was studied toward an interesting phenomena about

how people of FKY residence behave spatially. This paper was
based on generall issues of how people of FKY attempt to make
an adaptation spatially or physically within a limited space or
place. It was a psychological approach indeed. Particularly, from
the empiris, we found an unique stereotipe that we considered
have a competence to contribute for the attempt of heritage
preservation and conservation.
Units of research are housing about 103 house within
total population of 300 unit/family. We also studied toward
community way as a dominant open space in FKY residence.
Related with those psychological aproached indeed, so
methodology we used was methods and techniques within it.
According to Sommer (1980), to obtain data there were
observation, kuesioner, and interview. Observation technique in
the study was Behaviour Mapping. By this way can scrutinized
and identified how people doing and have done.
Historical Outline of Yogyakarta Palace Fort
The existence FKY do not get out of existence Kraton
Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat as a core of Yogyakarta city. Kraton
Yogyakarta as a centre of new power in Java developed by Sri
Sultan Hamengku Buwono I after he sign of Agreement Giyanti (
Palihan Nagari) at 13 Februari 1755. That name of
Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat conceived by a place domicile Sri
Sultan Hamengku Buwono I, but physically Kraton Ngayogyakarta
Hadiningrat have not been built yet.
Kraton was in the physical experience of several times
related with transfering of Sultan domicile. In the same year of
March 13th, Sultan did proclamation Hadeging Nagari Dalem
Kasultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat Sultan in Pesanggrahan
Ambarketawang. Still in the same year October 9th, Sri Sultan
Hamengku Buwono command development capital of empire
Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat in countryside Pacetokan in forest of
Beringin. One year later on 7 October 1956, Sri Sultan Hamengku
Buwono I entered Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat and took a
possession of gedhong Sedhahan. Start of this year Sultan began
to build assorted of supporting building and place for governance
activities. What he did was not only fulfilled just function aspect
but the political aspect, strategic, technical, and religion
philosophic.
From strategic aspect, development of kraton consider
maturely was strategy of security defender, political, and the
cultural social. Cepuri Kedhaton represent ring (defense radius) of
especial defender, Baluwarti (Benteng) of following jagang ( kind
of canal) represent ring of first defender, Code river and Winongo
river represent ring of second defender, Gadjah Wong River and
Bedhog River represent ring of third defender, and also the Opak
476

River and Progo River represent ring of fourth defender. Related

with effort of preservation urban heritage of element which playing
a part, the wholedefender become a hand in glove braid in
strengthening Yogyakarta City Identity.3
Physically, FKY built at first from the wall as thick as 3
metres and high 3 metres. The top of FKY was used for area of
observation by prajurit. It was also a kind of trajectory which can
be blew cart. FKY was built with structure of geometric form of
square in principle, with a few element of building as tetenger /
sign of certain place for example in the form of gate (plengkung
and regol), and tip of fortress corner (pojok beteng). Nowadays
some of element have fallen to pieces, most because natural
disaster and war, some of other because element ruining of local
people.
Functional Transformation of Fort.
Disappear or destruction of most fort building, was also
caused by condition of growth of Kraton Yogyakarta. That area of
the rest FKY which fall to pieces so that become an opened area
out of condition and ownerless. The condition forced the
unrightious attitude of Kraton at period of Sri Sultan Hamengku
Buwono IX to permit citizen of local society which did not have
own house to build house above of the areal.
According to permission of Kraton by year 1969, originally
allowed to be built was region of West side, then the North, South
side, and at last East side. Permission passed to a dweller with a
few the conditions agreed on between settler and Kraton. The
Conditions covered of size measure of land which divided fairly
for the width of 3 x 4 m2, with building was in form of kotangan (
high wall 1 metre above of land and the rest from light
materials), building not allowed to be built by a horizontally and
also vertically, and also status of magersari which can be asked
at any times by Kraton compensatoryly 1/3 from building price.
Term Functional Transformation refers to change its
physical and spasial of fort became an residential environment
above the rest of FKY. Occupying process happened step by step
which can be depicted through area permukiman cut off.
Regeneration process from all dweller, supported by the reason
of economics, and also its weakness of straightening by Kraton
for agreement order by Kraton have caused building growth
become to tend to uncontrolled. Physically also spasially FKY
become a really different setting indeed.
Lampiran Perda Kota Yogyakarta No. 6 Tahun 2004
477

Figure 3. Urban Environmental Landscape on ex Fort.
As with condition like this, we should be ask how the

existence of fort in this time have opportunity toward the effort
strengthening identity of Yogyakarta City? Most of the existing
building nowadays is permanent building. Result of observation
show some related/relevant stereotipe with location of existence
of house posed at from tables following :
Table1. Building Condition in Research Area
Area A
Area B
Area C
Area D
Area E
Permane
nt
16
14
14
15
12
Building Conditions
Semi
Non
Permanent
Permanent
4
1
4
5
12
4
totally
16
14
20
24
29
103
Generally the result of research shows that most dweller

society ( 73% responder) is native people from environment
around of Kraton Yoyakarta. Result of interview shows most
dweller of strong having a mind to linger on environment of the
rest FKY. Observation towards condition of house of all responder
478

also strengthen that mentioned above, related especially with

limitation of existing site or space.
Social Characteristic of Social Culture of Dweller
Social Culture of dweller was shown by keguyuban (such
kind of Tolerancy) as generally socialize Java. Observation shows
social interaction existence which is very strong enough among
citizen marked with activity jagongan/nongkrong in some of spot
area. Physically marked with element permanen/temporer (in the
form of dingklik or permanent concrete). Keguyuban is also seen
from more formal social interaction for example in activity of
arisan and pengajian. Interview with citizen express that religious
activity ritual custom is also still conducted. The social activity is
generally conducted in common/ public facility in meeting room
hall which is exist in almost every RW in Kraton environment,
besides is also conducted in one of house own citizen.
Social economics in general is shown a middle economic
level downwards. There is still a lot of citizen, especially residing
in region of the rest FKY in part of east which have the income to
less than 500 ribu/KK. Prima facie of almost the dweller is
informal sector. In West region dweller at longest show economic
level of citizen which is high enough, marked by commercial
activity which is dynamic enough. Related by existence of
community residence on the rest FKY with the status magersari,
most dweller society said that they have known about the
existence of order and regulation in course of dwelling and also
building.
Table 2. Percentage of Resident Perception About Kratons
Regulation
Resident Perception About Kratons Regulation
Knowing about existence of order and agreement
from Kraton
Knowing about Status magersari
Knowing about widht area of building
Knowing about prohibition to developt building
vertically
Knowing about order of semi permanent
wall/kotangan
Number of
Responden
73
90
62
71%
87%
60%
96
93%
62
60%
Characteristic of Environmental Setting and Building Setting

Data indicates that most society have known existence of
regulation agreed on initially by Kraton and citizen, really do not
show correlation which are positive in the case of dwelling
behaviour. Entire responder explained that have renovated their
building about 1-2 times. Mostly the building nowadays represent
479

permanent building ( table 1). Building have experienced of

extension horizontally by widening building up to environmental
road;street, and also closed drainage/parit (inside in fort) so that
the width of building reach 4 metre more. Some responder even
own house more than 1 plot of land. This is showing the
possibility of there will be its process sales that caused the
transfer of property's statue. There are 45% the responder
owning house extended vertically. Thereby practically almost
entire poin from regulation have been prohibited by society.
Entirely of dweller behaviour was easily earn us to understand
that a modernity and population growth give pressure forcing
dweller for behavioral rationalization economical.
Nevertheless
other result of research show some
behavioral stereotipe dweller having the character of positive, in
way of strategic and compromise way. Its behaviour is very
importance to be studied in order to diging aspect of spasial
technically which can be rendered for the sake of environmental
future of both community and environment. Finding yielded are:
1. Substitutional Setting of Activities
Substitutional Setting of activities was happened on the
same place, but in a different time. Activities Setting can
occur with or without changing the physical setting of
space.That Spatial behaviour was shown by the case
occurred on the spasial behaviuor. It can be shown by case
of edge of street of Madyosuro used for berjualan with
different type of merchanidise at morning (bubur merchant),
daytime ( merchant bakso), and also the evening till the
nighttime ( noodle merchant & wedang ronde). Other similar
case was activity setting of domestic in the form of put to the
sun areal at morning till the daytime, then was used for
activity of social interaction (jagongan) at evening till its
nighttime.
Figure 4. Case of Substitutional Setting of Activities
2.
480
Communal Space and Fascilities

An environment permukiman which is embracing tolerance
pattern called keguyuban coexistence and will be more easy
to earn each other inclusively of sharing facility and space.
Energy limitation of environmental supporting and also the
limitation individually at this environment, pushing for the
space creation which can be used together either through
formal, and also informally. The facility found at facility MCK

case that is supporting domestic activity, hall RW facility for

formal social activities, and also simply open space beside
walk way for have the social interaction with other neighbour.
3.
Multifunctional Rooms in Dwelling

Multifunctional Rooms was occured in almost all of dwelling.
Limitation of site push at creation of communal space in
interior. Setting of house Interior with this concept is marked
by open plan, minimum partition use, having the character of
transparent and is not permanent. One of case is use
vestibule for the sittingroom, at one use the space to sleep,
sittingroom at one use for diningroom, even the next terrace
of house as the most public space is used to accomodate
activities of cleaning and cooking.
Figure 5. Case of Multifunctional Rooms in Dwelling
4.
Semi Vertical Building

Semi Vertical Building represent most unique case in our
research finding. Building with this concept is looked into by
a dweller represent the win-win solutionf in attitude
prohibitation of vertically building from kraton. High of
building with having 2nd floor was held in such a manner so
that do not strike in the physical, even like a kind of vent of
building tropical at colonial era by Dutch. Building with space
" semi", mostly used as stowage space, also for sleeping
room.
481

Figure 7. Case of Semi Vertical Building
Conclusion
Fort of Kraton Yogyakarta is facing the problem of how to
keep its own existence as a historic areas, meanwhile the
community living on it need a such better place to live. The
best approach is to maintain fort as the city identity as
possible as to understand the community living within the
dynamic context of city development.
Understanding the community living is including learning
spatial behaviour of community.
There are spatial and physical behavior of dweller having the
character of win-win solution
References
Ikaputra. (1995) A Study on the Contemporary Utilization of the
Javanese Urban Heritage and its Effect on Historicity.
Japan. Osaka University.
Kostof, Spiro. (1992) The City Assembled. The Elements of
Urban Form Through History. London. Thames and Hudson.
Moore, G. (1979) Environment-Behaviour Studies dalam
Introduction to Architecture. Mc Graw Hill.
Rapoport, A. (1969) House, Form, and Culture, Prentice Hall. Inc.
Englewood Cliffs , N.J.
Rapoport, A. (1977) Human Aspect of Urban Form, toward a Man
Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design.
Pergamon Press.
Rapoport, A. (1982) The Meaning of The Built Environment, A
Non Verbal Communication Approach. Sage Publications.
482

Ronald, A. (1993) Transformasi Nilai-nilai Mistis dan Simbolis

dalam Ekspresi Arsitektur Rumah Tradisional Jawa.
Makalah Seminar Lembaga Javanologi. Yayasan Ilmu
Pengetahuan Panunggalan.
Zeisel, J., (1981) Inquiry By Design : Tools For Environment
Behaviour Research. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
483

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PROCEEDINGS

The Knowledge City:

Proceeding International Seminar The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and

Dicetak di Medan, Indonesia

Azizah Hanim Nasution

Dedes Nur Gandarum

Dwira Nirfalini Aulia

Galih Widjil Pangarsa

Dr., Huzili Hussin

Dr. Izaidin Abd. Majid

Prof. Dr. Mohd. Taib Hj. Dora

Departement of Architecture, Faculty of

Ir. Mindo Siagian, MSc.

Ngakan Ketut Acwin

Suparti Amir Salim

Teguh Utomo Atmoko

Triatno Yudo Harjoko

Yohanes Basuki Dwisusanto

Department of Architecture, Faculty of

DAY 2 : Wednesday, 14th November 2007

Civic Buildings and Public

An Organism Named Solo

The Influence of Cultural

The Jambinese Melayu

City as An Urban Social

The Knowledge City:

Part One: THE KNOWLEDGE CITY: SPIRIT, CHARACTER,

The Cosmopolitan Spirit and its Manifestation in Southeast

Part Two: CITY AS A COSMIC SYMBOLISM

Topological Comparison of Palace City of Mataram and Aceh in

Part Three: CITY AS A SPIRITUAL MANISFESTATION

Part Four: CITY AS A HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ECOSYSTEM

25. Bandung Colonial City Revisited

Part Five: CITY AS AN URBAN SOCIAL DIVERSITY

41. Slum Area on Deli River Bank

THE KNOWLEDGE CITY:

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

THE COSMOPOLITAN SPIRIT AND ITS

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

rest of the world. All of those influences were peacefully and

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

between), located at the centre of international maritime,

Figure 1. Mediterranean of Asia (image source: Google Earth)

In Southeast Asia cultural and geographical boundary is

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

B. Fragmentation of Contemporary Southeast Asian Cities

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

when the European population increased, and they had enough

Figure 2. Sociologic model of Melaka (Malaysia)

In the colonial cities of the later period, segregation policy

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

segregated: European, Chinese and other foreigners, and native

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

Figure 3. Morphologic model of Semarang (Indonesia)

Harbors were enlarged or upgraded, some industrial

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

New political movements for independence and urban riots

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

C. Restoring and Reinventing the Cosmopolitan Spirit of

International Seminar: The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character,

the healing process of social divisions which lingered for more

Figure 4. Virtuous Bridge, Medan, Indonesia

The city is a sum of the memory of the people, the