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 INTRODUCTION

Personality

Simply stated, personality refers to a person's style of interacting with the

environment, especially the social environment. Personality is often considered to be
relatively stable across time and from situation to situation.

“ Personality development”
Personality is defined as the enduring personal characteristics of individuals.

Although some psychologists frown on the premise, a commonly used explanation for
personality development is the psychodynamic approach. The term psychodynamic
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describes any theory that emphasizes the constant change and development of the
individual. Perhaps the best known of the psychodynamic theories is Freudian
psychoanalysis.

Freud's Psychoanalytic theory

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Psychoanalytic
theory. (Discuss)

Drives

Freud believed that two basic drives- sex and aggression- motivate all our thoughts and
behaviors. He referred to these as Eros (love) and Thanatos. Eros represents the life
instinct, sex being the major driving force. Thanatos represents the death instinct
(characterised by aggression), which, according to Freud, allowed the human race to
both procreate and eliminate its enemies.

THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Freud conceived the mind as only having a fixed amount of psychic energy (libido).
The outcome of the interaction between the id, ego and the superego (each contending
for as much libidinal energy as possible) determines our adult personality.

The tripartite personality

Freud believed that personality had three parts- the id, ego, and superego- referring to
this as the tripartite personality. The id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud
believed that the id is based on the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate
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satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. As a child interacts
more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego's job is to meet the needs of
the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that
being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id must be constrained. The
superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral constraints placed
on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves to inhibits
the biological instincts of the id (resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak
superego allows the id more expression (resulting in a low level of guilt).

Defense Mechanisms

The ego having a difficult time trying to satisfy both the needs of the id and the
superego, employs defense mechanisms. Repression is perhaps the most powerful of
these. Repression is the act by which unacceptable id impulses (most of which are
sexually related) are "pushed" out of awareness and into the unconscious mind.
Another example of a defense mechanism is projection. This is the mechanism that
Freud used to explain Little Hans' complex. Little Hans is said to have projected his
fear for his father onto horses, which is why he was afraid of horses.

Psychosexual Stages

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Psychosexual
development.

Freud believed that at particular points in the child's development, a single part of the
body is particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation. These eurogenous zones are the
mouth, anus and the genital region. At any given time, the child's libido is focused on
the primary eurogenous zone for that age. As a result, the child has certain needs and
demands that are related to the eurogenous zones for that stage. Frustration occurs if
these needs are not met, but , a child may also become overindulged, and so may be
reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence may lead
to fixation- some of the child's libido remains locked into that stage. If a child is
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fixated at a particular stage, the method of obtaining satisfaction that characterised that
stage will dominate their adult personality.

Stages
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Psychosexual
development.

Oral stage (0-18 months)

This stage begins at birth, when the mouth is the primary source of libidinal energy. A
child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality that is
characterised by pessimism, envy and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop
to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others.

Anal stage (18 months-3 yrs)

The child's focus on pleasure on this stage is on eliminating and retaining faeces. This
represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of
bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to control bodily
functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of
an anal expulsive character who is disorganised, reckless and defiant. Conversely, a
child may opt to retain faeces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop into an
anal retentive character who is neat, stingy and obstinate.

Phallic stage (3-6 yrs)

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During this stage, boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become
rivals with their father for her affection. This is reminiscent with Little Hans' case
study. So the boys develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings
(castration anxiety) so decide to identify with him rather than fight him. As a result,
the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feelings towards
his mother.

This is known as the Oedipus complex. During recent years, it is now believed that
girls go through a similar process. This is called the electra complex. Freud believed
that the resolution of this female conflict comes much later and is never truly
complete.

Latent (6 yrs-puberty)

The latency period is not a psychosexual development as such, but a stage when sexual
drives lie dormant. Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual
desires and eurogenous impulses.

Genital stage (puberty onwards)

This stage begins at puberty, when sexual urges are once again awakened. Interest now
turns to heterosexual relationships. The less fixation the child has in earlier stages, the
more chance they have of developing a "normal" personality, and thus develop healthy
meaningful relationships with those of the opposite sex.

Although many people view Freud's descriptions of personality development as pure

fantasy, his ideas have endured and have had far reaching influences both in and
outside psychology. Freud has changed the way we think about the importance of
childhood, and also made us aware of the unconscious elements of our psyche that are
essential for development.

Personality
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 Simply stated, personality refers to a person's style of interacting with the
environment, especially the social environment. Personality is often considered to be
relatively stable across time and from situation to situation.
Trait Theories
Unlike states (which are considered to be temporary, such as hunger or thirst), a
trait is a relatively stable tendency to behave in a certain way. Although the trait
may require some environmental trigger to release the behavior, the trait is considered
to be part of the person, not the environment. For example, a person who has the trait
of high aggressiveness probably behaves aggressively only in certain situations,
situations in which less aggressive persons do not show aggressive behavior.
Traits are generally considered to be continuously distributed, not all or nothing
characteristics. You and I may both be aggressive, but you more so than I.
The goal of trait theories to construct a relatively small number of personality
dimensions that is useful for summarizing the differences between individuals.
Gordon Allport, one of the major figures in the study of personality, found that
the English language contains at least 18,000 words that describe personality
characteristics. For example, consider these: Friendly, agreeable, amiable, cordial,
kind, sociable, warmhearted. Clearly we need to reduce the number of words in our
vocabulary of personality.
Surface Traits are those that are inferred from individual differences in
specific behaviors. To identify surface traits, personality researchers collect data on a
large number of behaviors from a large number of persons and use statistical
techniques to identify clusters of behaviors that correlate well with one another within
each cluster.
Central Traits are those which are inferred from surface traits. Statistical
techniques are employed to identify clusters of surface traits that correlate well with
one another but not with the surface traits in other clusters. 5
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The hierarchical nature of specific behaviors, surface traits, and central traits is
illustrated in Gray's

Can you describe specific behavior that might be included in the surface cluster
"pugnaciousness" (prone to physical fighting) or "competitiveness?"
Do note that the inclusion of "argumentativeness," "pugnaciousness," and
"competitiveness" under the central trait of "aggressiveness" is based on empirical
grounds -- if our research were to find that there is not a good correlation between
verbally sparring and physically sparring, then those two surface traits would not be
included in the same central trait.
Raymond Cattell developed a personality questionnaire called the 16 PF. Cattell
reduced the 18,000 personality adjectives in English to about 170 surface traits and
then clustered these into 16 Personality Factors (central traits). A person taking this
questionnaire responds "yes, occasionally, or no" to about 200 statements such as "I
like to go to parties." From these responses, a score is computed for each of the 16
central traits.
Hans Eysenck developed a model in which there are only three central traits:

1) Introversion - Extroversion: Introverts try to avoid (social) stimulation while

extroverts seek it.
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 2) Neuroticism - Stability: Neurotics get emotionally upset and thus are moody,
anxious, impatient, etc.
3) Psychoticism - Nonpsychotism: Psychotics are aggressive and lack concern
for others.
The Big Five Theory proposes the following five central traits:

1) Introversion - Extroversion: As above

2) Neuroticism - Stability: As above
3) Openness to Experience - Nonopenness: Open folks are imaginative,
independent, curious, interested in many things, etc.
4) Agreeableness - Antagonism: Being courteous, selfless, trusting, and
cooperative going along with agreeableness
5) Conscientiousness - Undirectedness: The conscientious are careful, reliable,
diligent, ambitious, etc.

Stability of Traits. The research here involves testing the personality of many
people at various times throughout their lives. These measurements may involve the
subjects taking personality tests and/or may involve having others rate the subjects'
personalities. The Big Five traits are remarkably stable across time, at least after the
age of about 30. Correlations between one administration and another run between .
50 and .70, even when there are many years (30 or more) between measurements, and
even when the persons rating the subjects differ between one time and the other.
Maturation. There are some common changes with increasing age. For
example, as we get older we tend to get less neurotic (thankfully!), less extroverted,
less open to experience, more conscientious, and more agreeable.

Predicting Behavior. There is considerable evidence that knowing an individual's

personality test scores helps us predict his or her behavior. For example, persons who
score high on Extroversion are, compared to introverts, less disturbed by intense
stimuli, more likely to choose to live and work with many people, more
adventuresome in their sexual behaviors, more likely to look a person in the eye when
speaking with em, and more likely to talk a lot at group meetings.
Sometimes we can even predict adult behavior from personality tests given
during childhood. For example, children who were at age 3 identified as having low
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self-control were, at age 21, more likely to have been fired from a job or convicted
of a crime.
We should keep in mind that individual differences in personality may often be
masked by social forces. In a familiar social situation, persons all acting in the same
social role may all act pretty much the same -- but observe them in a novel,
ambiguous, or stressful situation and individual differences related to personality are
likely to emerge.
Walter Mischel has argued that we could predict behavior much better if we
measured situation specific dispositions rather than global traits. Mischel et al.
observed, repeatedly, 19 different types of behavior which would reasonably be
considered to be related to the global characteristic of conscientiousness. They found
high consistency within each of these 19 different types of behavior but much lower
consistency across categories. For example, a student who was likely to prepare very
neat notes for one class was also likely to do the same for e's other classes, but that
student was not much more likely than average to keep e's bed nicely made every
day.

The Physiology of Personality. Individual differences in central traits can be

related to individual differences in physiology. For example, Eysenck suggested that
the brains of introverts are more easily aroused than those of extroverts. He also
suggested that all persons try to achieve an optimal level of arousal. Accordingly, to
achieve such an optimal level of arousal introverts would be expected to avoid highly
stimulating environments while extroverts would be expected to seek great
stimulation.
Evidence supporting Eysenck's suggestions include the following:

o Introverts outperform extroverts on tasks that require focused concentration in

situations where there is little stimulation.
o Extroverts do better in tasks that require attending to many stimuli in an
arousing environment.
o Introverts show a greater physiological response to a sudden noise
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 o Introverts' performance on a learning task is more affected by a distracting
noise than is extroverts' performance.
o Introverts are less tolerant of painful electric shock than are extroverts.
o In a quiet situation, PET scans show that the frontal lobes of introverts are more
active than are those of extroverts.
o A stimulant drug (caffeine) worsened performance on a learning task for
introverts, but facilitated performance for extroverts.
o And introverts even salivate more when lemon juice is squired in their mouths
than do extroverts.
The Genetics of Personality. There is considerable evidence of heritability of
personality traits. For example, identical twins (even when reared apart) are much
more similar in personality than are fraternal twins. For most traits that have been
evaluated, including all of the Big Five, heritability estimates range from about .40 to
about .50.

Heritability has even been found to be high in traits that one would think are greatly
influenced by environmental factors. Consider Traditionalism (conservative values
and respect for discipline and authority), for example -- heritability for this
characteristic has been estimated to be about .60. As another example, the heritability
of one's attitude about the death penalty has been estimated to be about .50.
I expect that most genetic effects on personality are polygenic rather than resulting
from the action of a single gene. There is, however, some evidence of single gene
effects. For example, there is a significant relationship between neuroticism and the
presence of a singe allele that increases the action of serotonin. Likewise, there is a
significant relationship between the trait of novelty seeking (impulsiveness,
excitability, and extravagance) and another single allele, one that decreases the action
of dopamine.

Ultimate Explanations of Individual Differences in Personality

1. Why are there individual differences in personality?
2. Why hasn’t natural selection simply given us all the one best set of personality
traits?
3. Even in many nonhuman animals, there is considerable diversity in behavioral
styles. What is the adaptive value of such diversity?
Diversified Investment. One answer to these questions has to do with a
parental strategy that is similar to diversification in one’s investment portfolio. As
you are no doubt aware, at any given time some investments will do very well, some
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 investment so-so, and others will do very poorly. At other times the investments that
did poorly at an earlier date might do marvelously, and those that did well earlier
might do poorly later. If you put all of your assets into one type of investment, you
risk loosing it all during a time when that type of investment crashes and burns. On
the other hand, if you diversify your investments, then you greatly reduce your risk
of loosing it all.
From the genetic perspective, producing offspring is an investment in the future. If
those offspring prosper and multiply, our genes live on. If those offspring crash and
burn, our genes disappear. If our environment were unchanging, it might be possible
to construct the perfect personality for that environment. In that case, the best strategy
would be to produce only offspring with that perfect personality. But our
environment is not constant. When our environment is constantly changing, the
perfect personality is a moving target. If we were to give all our children the wrong
personality for the environment in which they will reach reproductive age, then we
might loose all. A safer strategy might be to diversify our investment by producing
children with a variety of personalities. In that way, it is more likely that at least some
of them will survive and thrive, those who happen to have the personalities best to take
advantage of the environment as it is when they mature.
Filling Different Niches. A niche is a role that an organism can adopt in a
dynamic biological system. In a typical biological system there is a variety of
different niches. Each niche has a limited capacity -- that is, it can support only so
many individuals living in that niche. Genetic diversity among organisms may allow
them better to exploit all the possible niches in an environment. This may be true
even within a single species. Gray uses the example of pumpkinseed sunfish. One
niche available to them is to stick close to the shore, hiding among the vegetation
there, and not moving about much. A quite different niche also exploited by these
fish is that in the open water, where the fish who does not move about quickly will
be eaten by predators. Pumpkinseeds that occupy these different niches tend to differ
on both physical and behavioral characteristics. Diversity in the species allows it to
be more successful in exploiting the environment, with some individuals specialized
for the one niche, while other individuals are specialized for the other niche.

The environments of humans (including their social environments) provide them

with a multitude of niches to be filled. It is almost certain that the best personality to
fill one niche is different from the best personality to fill a different niche.
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 Accordingly, producing humans with diversity of personalities may enable our
species to more successfully exploit its environment.
Intra-familiar Diversity. If we compare the personalities of individuals who
live in the same family, we find that they are not much more similar than are equally
related individuals who live in different families. For example, the correlation
between the personalities of brothers that live in the same family is about the same as
that of brothers who have been reared apart. Some have interpreted this to mean that
the family has little effect on personality development, other than by the sharing of
genes.
Others have pointed out that siblings raised in the same family do not really share
identical environments. Family environments change with time. For example,
consider my family. I was born in to a family that was, in many ways, a typical
working class family, lower middle class. My father who worked in a glass factory,
received a lot of promotions during his lifetime, which caused a considerable change
in the family environment across the years. By the time my younger brother was born
ten years later, our family was solidly middle executive class. After I left home to
make my own life, my younger siblings moved with my parents to Paris, where my
father headed the European division of Corning Glass Works. This was an
environment totally foreign to me. In many ways they were raised in a family quite
different from that in which I was raised.
Sibling Diversity. Within a single family with two or more children, there may
be additional factors that promote diversity in personality. Consciously or
unconsciously, both children and parents may act in ways that increase diversity in
personality among the children within a family. If all the children try to fill the same
niche, then sibling rivalry may become dangerously high. If each child can find a
niche that is his or hers alone to exploit, then there is likely to be less competition
among siblings and each child can the best within e’s own niche.

Birth Order. Clearly the family environment for first born children would be
expected to be different from that of later born children. There have been many
studies of the effect of birth order on personality and other characteristics. In my
opinion, the demonstrated effects of birth order have been neither clear nor large.
Gray discusses Frank Sulloway’s research on effects of birth order. He argues that
first-borns are, for a while, the only child in the family, and this leads them to identify
with the parents, to fill the niche that the parents most support.
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 As a result, first-borns tends to be more conscientious, achievement oriented,
conservative, traditional, and respectful of authority than are later-borns. Later born
children cannot compete effectively within the niche that the first born has exploited,
so they must carve out their own niches, adopting alternative roles in which they can
excel. This causes later-borns to be more open to new experiences and more friendly
than first-borns.

Gender Differences. Women score, on average, about one standard deviation higher
than men on measures of friendliness. This is considered to be a very large
difference, equivalent in magnitude to a 200 point difference in total SAT score. This
gender difference is found across cultures. Women also tend to score higher on
measures of anxiety and conscientiousness, but the magnitude of these differences is
considerably smaller. Men score higher on measures of sensation seeking, although
the difference between men and women tends to decline with age.
Gender, Personality, and Life Satisfaction. Persons whose personality is atypical
for members of their gender are likely to be less satisfied with life than are those who
fit the stereotype. For example, young men who are shy tend to be emotionally
distressed and unhappy, but there is no such association between shyness and
unhappiness in young women. Likewise, women who have competitive personalities
tend to have low self-esteem, but in men competitiveness is associated with high self-
esteem.
Natural Selection and Gender Differences. One can argue that men and
women have faced different reproductive challenges over many generations, and
that natural selection has accordingly equipped men and women with different
personalities, each best suited to the type of challenges typically encountered by
gender-mates.
For example, women are specially equipped (with breasts) to take care of infants,
and accordingly they are also equipped with traits of nurturance, cooperation, and
caution. Men, on the other hand, have had to compete with one another for access to
women and other reproductive resources, and accordingly they have been equipped
with traits of competitiveness, aggressiveness, and risk-taking. There even appears to
be a hormonal basis for sex differences in personality, with oxytocin causing greater
friendliness in women and testosterone causing greater aggressiveness in men.
Culture and Gender Differences. An opposing viewpoint is that culture has been a
greater force than natural selection in the shaping of gender differences in personality.
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According to this theory, biological differences between the sexes may have shaped
different cultural expectations for men and women very early in our species’ history,
with these cultural expectations then causing even greater differences between men
and women. Across the generations these gender differences caused by cultural
expectations may have become greater and greater, by a sort of positive feedback
loop -- when men and women differ in personality, that reinforces the cultural
expectation of gender differences, which may create even greater gender differences,
and so on.
Gender versus Sex. These days it can be confusing to know when to use the term
“gender” and when to use “sex.” In general, it is appropriate to use the term “sex”
when referring to characteristics that are more influenced by biology and “gender”
when referring to characteristics that are more influenced by culture. It is not,
however, always very clear to me whether a particular characteristic really is more
influenced by culture than by biology or vice versa. See my document
Sex/Gender/Whatever for more on this.

Psychodynamic Theories
These theories emphasize the role of mental forces in determining personality. The
founding father of these theories was Sigmund Freud. Freud was not a psychologist.
He was a medical doctor practicing in Vienna, Austria in the late 1800’s. Freud came
to believe that many of the problems which his patients presented were not caused by
diseases of the body but rather by mental conflicts.
Freud theorized that the most basic instincts or drives of humans are related to
sex (eros) and death or aggression (thanatos). These drives live in the unconscious
id. Is his native German, the word Freud used was "es," which means "it" -- that
animal thing down there that drives me towards eros and thanatos. When translated
to English, somebody decided to use the term "id" instead. I guess the third person
generic pronoun was just not mysterious enough for the translator. The id's eros and
thanatos motivate us to think about and even act out behaviors that are socially
unacceptable.
If these bad thoughts from the id break through to consciousness, they make us
anxious. Accordingly, he conscious part of our mind needs somehow to manage to
keep id-motivated thoughts from breaking through to consciousness. We employ a
variety of ego defense mechanisms for that purpose. The ego ("ich" in the original
German, which means "I"). While the id operates on the "pleasure principle" (do
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 what feels good and do it now regardless of any consequences, the ego operates on
the "reality principle" (try to satisfy the id in ways that not destructive to the self and
society). A third part of the mind, not mentioned by Gray, is the superego ("uber ich"
in the original German), which operates according to the morality principle -- it
makes us feel bad when we behave contrary to accepted norms.
According to Freud,” individual differences in personality are caused by
differences in our unconscious motives, how they are manifested, and how we defend
against them”.

Repression is the most basic of the ego defense mechanisms. It operates by putting
up mental barriers to prevent socially undesirable thoughts from entering
consciousness. This is done without our awareness of the construction of barriers.
But these barriers are not perfect. Bad thoughts may slip through. When they do, we
employ other ego defense mechanisms to distort those bad thoughts in ways that
make them seem not so bad. I shall discuss only a few of the more common ego
defense mechanisms here.

Suppression involves the conscious avoidance of thinking about unpleasant things.

This differs from repression in that we are aware that we are erecting barrier to the
unpleasant thoughts.

Projection involves our attributing the undesirable motives or characteristics to

others rather than to ourselves. As an example of projection, consider research done
by Robert Sears. He asked fraternity members to rate themselves and their
fraternity brothers on various characteristics, such as stinginess. He found that men
who were rated as high in such a characteristic but who denied having it themselves
tended to rate their brothers as high in that characteristic -- projecting their own
characteristics onto others.
Reaction Formation is when we turn a bad thought or motive into its good opposite
thought or motive. As an example, consider homophobia, the irrational fear and
hatred of homosexuals. It has been argued that homophobia results from a reaction
formation -- that is, persons who have unconscious desires to engage in homosexual
activity become very anxious about that when these desires start leaking into
consciousness, so they think very contrary thoughts.
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 One research study testing this hypothesis measured male subjects’ homophobia (by
a questionnaire) and then directly measured engorgement of their penises while they
were watching videos of men engaging in homosexual activities. Despite admitting
to feeling any arousal while watching such videos, homophobic men’s penises
became significantly more aroused than then those of non-homophobic men.

Displacement occurs when the energy from a bad desire is redirected to an acceptable
behavior. For example, the boy whose id wants to kill his father (to remove the
primary rival for his mother’s love) may displace the energy from that bad motive into
boxing, football, or rugby. Interestingly, the basic idea of displacement is also found
in some theories of nonhuman animal behavior -- for example, an animal who really
wants to bite his rival may funnel that energy into less dangerous behaviors, such as
grooming itself or pawing the earth repeatedly.
Sublimation is just a special case of displacement in which the substitute activity is
not only acceptable but also highly meritorious. For example, a man with the id of
Jack the Ripper might become a first-rate surgeon.
Rationalization is my favorite sort of defense mechanism. Here we come up with
socially acceptable reasons for our behavior or our thoughts, but they are not the real
reasons. For example, I convince myself that my great interest in the study of sexual
behaviors is because I am a scientist interested in the effects of natural selection on
behavior, and reproductive behaviors are those which are most likely to be greatly
affected by natural selection. Yeah, sure -- that is what I say, even what I think
myself, but the truth is to be found in my horny id! I should note that there are other
psychodynamic theories that do not hypothesize that sex and aggression are the
most basic human drives. Karen Horney emphasized the drive for security,
stemming from the child’s dependence on its parents for survival. Alfred Adler
stressed the drive to achieve. Object Relations Theorists stress the conflicting
drives of attachment versus autonomy.
I should also note that all of these psychodynamic theories suppose that the first few
years in life are the most critical years for the formation of one’s
personality.Social/Cognitive Theories
These theories suppose that it is learned beliefs and habits that shape one’s
personality. Here to there may be unconscious elements, but here they are not from
repressed bad motives but rather from habits that have been practiced so much that
they become automatic, executing without consciousness.
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 Some psychologists even argue that the majority of human behavior is controlled
by such unconscious learned habits. For example, when I drive to work, I don’t think
about what I am doing -- I am on auto pilot, I think about other things, but my
unconscious does the driving. Likewise, when you interact socially with others, you
don’t have time to stop and think about every thing to say -- you are on automatic
pilot there too. Sometimes you may later ask yourself “What was I thinking when I
said ‘so and so.’” The truth is, you weren’t thinking at all, you were on auto-pilot!

Julian Rotter was a pioneer in the development of social/cognitive theories of

personality. He is best known for his work on Locus of Control. The basic idea here
is that individuals have different beliefs with respect to the extent to which they are in
control of the rewards that they get or don’t get in life. The person with an external
locus of control believes that it is mostly luck and the influence of powerful others
that control whether you get rewards or not. Persons with an internal locus of control
believes that they themselves control whether they get rewards or not, through their
ability and their effort.
There is considerable evidence that persons with an internal locus of control are more
likely to take charge of their lives and be less anxious and more content with life than
are those with an external locus of control, but the effects of locus of control are often
not very impressive in magnitude. Rosina Chia and two of her colleagues in our
department have conducted numerous research projects involving locus of control,
both in this country and several other countries.
My first exposure to Rotter’s locus of control instrument was as a freshman at
Corning (NY) Community College. I had just gotten out of the military and was
going through all these moronic activities for freshman orientation. One of the
things they did was to sit us down and make us fill out some questionnaires. One of
them was Rotter’s scale. I hated it, because of its forced-choice format (see Table
15.3 on page 600 of our text for some example items). On nearly every item I
thought “how can I choose one of these two extreme alternatives, the truth is
somewhere in between.” Well, a couple of weeks later I was asked to see one of the
school psychologists. He explained that they had reason to believe that I was doomed
to failure at school unless I got some counseling.
He did not tell me how he knew my fate, but I later learned it was because I scored
extremely external on Rotter’s scale -- duh, I just got out of the military, where it
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 seemed like some Arschloch (that is German for “powerful other”) was telling me
what to do every minute.
Well, external that I was, I consented to the counseling when asked to do it by a
powerful other. Near the end of the semester the psychologist asked me to fill out a
questionnaire. It was Rotter’s scale, again. I asked if this was the same questionnaire
that I had filled out during freshman orientation. He said “yes.” I said that I had the
feeling that he wanted me to answer these questions quite differently than I had during
freshman orientation and I asked him if that were true. Without saying “yes,” he
indicated that I was correct. Again, being the true external that I was, I consented to
his request and scored highly internal. He was happy, especially since I had very high
grades that semester. I gave him data that suggested that his program of counseling
was effective in modifying the locus of control of external students who would
otherwise have failed in school.
Philosophically I am still very much external in locus of control. I am a strict
determinist, one who thinks that nothing happens without a cause -- and ultimately
the causes of every action one takes, every thought one has, and every decision one
makes can be traced to events that have taken place outside of one self. I have argued
earlier that I think that “free will” is a delusion, but a useful one, one that makes it
more likely that the individual will try to take charge of his or her life and make
something out of it.
Albert Bandura stressed individuals’ self-efficacy, their beliefs about their ability
(or lack of ability) to accomplish specific tasks. This sounds a lot like Rotter’s locus
of control, but it differs in you can think that you are quite able to accomplish some
specific task but not think that doing so will necessarily bring you rewards. For
example, you might have very high self-efficacy with respect to doing college work
but an external locus of control with respect to being able to get a good, satisfying
job after graduation -- after all, who know what the economy will be like then, how
lucky you will be in your job search, what powerful others may help or hinder you,
and so on.

Research on the topic of self-efficacy indicates that thinking that you can accomplish
some task may actually help you accomplish the task. After all, if you are not capable
of doing it, why waste your time trying? Both parents and teachers might be more
successful at their jobs if they were to spend a little time convincing their children and
their students that they are capable persons.
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 Optimism vs Pessimism. I have often said that pessimism is the better strategy
because the pessimist is either going have the satisfaction of seeing that he is right or
will be pleasantly surprised that he was wrong. I, however, am the sort of pessimist
who expects things to go bad, but who works very hard to try to prevent that
from happening. There is no doubt that I have paid for that by suffering more from
anxiety than I would if I were an optimist, but my pessimism has not prevented me
from leading a very productive life. Pessimism can be counterproductive, however,
in those who decide that there is no sense in even trying if everything is bound to go
wrong. Optimism may motivate one to take charge and work hard, but in some it can
be counterproductive -- the person who thinks that nothing bad can come to him
(Alfred E. Newman’s “What, me worry?”) is likely to act in ways that increase the
chances that bad things will come to him.
Humanistic Theories
These theories stress the uniquely human (or so we think) ability to perceive
ourselves as apart from the rest of the world. I happen to think that we share this
ability with some other animals, but this is not the time for that discussion.
Humanists speak of one’s “phenomenological reality.” This phrase refers to an
individual’s conception of self and world. Similar to Kantian transcendentalism,
the notion of a phenomenological reality may include a recognition that we cannot be
directly aware of any concrete reality, that “reality” in human experience is a mental
event and a very personal thing, something that we each construct from our sensory
and social experiences. Our personalities differ because we have constructed
different phenomenological realities. Kant might add that they don’t differ all that
much, because we all have common intuitions (Anschauungen).
Carl Rogers stressed the role of self-concept. His patients seemed to obsessed with
“finding their true selves” and “becoming their true selves.” Whether this is
something common to humans or just common to the sort of clients who sought
treatment to Rogers can be disputed. In any case, Rogers argued that when people
find their true selves (or are deluded into thinking they have), they are happier and
more productive, felling like they are in charge of their lives rather than being told
what to do by others. Hmmm, sounds a bit like locus of control and the delusion of
free will, doesn’t it?
Abraham Maslow stressed the importance of “self-actualization” as the highest level
need in a hierarchy of human needs, from the very basic (like having enough to eat
and drink, shelter from the elements and predators), to the nice (being loved and
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feeling good about oneself), to the ultimate achievement of self-actualization in which
one has become all he can and is at one with the world. Maslow argued that the needs
lower in the hierarchy must be satisfied before one is motivated to achieve the higher
level needs. This always makes me think of the starving artist or musician who
sacrifices his or her basic needs in exchange for opportunities to excel artistically.

Cultural Relativity of Personality Theories

All of the theories we have discussed were created by, and validated with, Western
European or North American people. Do they do an adequate job of describing and
explaining individual differences in personality in persons from other cultures? There
is some evidence that they do not. Those interested in this question are encouraged to
check out the literature in cross-cultural psychology.

PERSONALITY AND PATHS TO SUCCESSFUL

DEVELOPMENT
Research traditions in developmental psychology vary with respect to how much
emphasis they give to successful development. Historically,most studies of personality
development have been biased by the goal of seeking to understand maladjustment and
behavioral problems, such asa nxiety or aggression, and have tended to overlook the
study of pathways to successful utcomes. Whereas t he study of problem behavior is
clearly oriented toward predicting, xplaining, and preventing social and clinical
problems, the study of successful development is made more difficult because the end
point (success) is more elusive and thus more difficult to operationalize and to
promote.To study successful personality development one must first have a way of
thinking about the course of lives and a way of assessing how adaptational processes
are atterned over time. We can identify three general approaches to this conceptual
problem: growth models, life-span models, and life-course models. Each of these
social-developmental approaches provides a framework for understanding
adaptational processes and the coherence of personality development by focusing on
the distinctive ways individuals organize their behavior to meet new environmental
demands and developmental challenges.rowth and stage models Growth models of
personality development are not homogeneous in their orientation, but are based on
different traditions and conceptual backgrounds.
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For example, humanistic theories of personality development are best known for
emphasizing the potential for positive development.People can take charge of their
lives and direct them toward creativity and self-actualization which involves self-
fulfillment and the realization of one’s potential l (Maslow, 1954). In contrast,
psychoanalytically oriented models tend to emphasize the growth of ego through age
stages.Integrity is the goal of successful development in Erikson’s (1950) theory,as
well as in Loevinger’s (1997) model of ego development and in the model of
Labouvie-Vief (e.g., Labouvie-Vief, Hakim-Larson, DeVoe, and Schoeberlein, 1989)
which integrates Piaget’s theory of cognitive development with emotions and social
relations. Erikson’s theory covers eight stages across the life-span. Each stage involves
a crisis or an age-specific challenge that should be satisfactorily resolved for optimal
development.The theory states that a successful resolution of each crisis results in the
refinement of a predominantly positive quality, such as trust in infancy.
The psychosocial crises to be solved in adulthood concern intimacy versus isolation,
generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair.
Common virtues or ego skills such as hope, will, purpose, and skill in childhood,
fidelity in adolescence, and love, care, and wisdom in adulthood emerge as successful
outcomes of the crises. Development is based on successful resolution of
psychological crises leading finally to integrity in old age.The passage from one
developmental stage to another is also central
to Levinson’s work (1978, 1986), who has studied what he calls “life structures”:
things that a person finds important in work and love, as well as the values and
emotions that make these important. Life structures are subjected to change during
transitional periods when people reappraiseand restructure important things in their
lives.
According to Levinson,
people spend about half their adult lives in transitional periods.Sanford (1962), another
psychodynamically influenced theorist, described a fully developed person as one
characterized by high degrees of both differentiation and integration. Specifically, the
fully developed
person has a rich and varied impulse life, a broad and refined conscience,a strong
sense of individuality, and a balance of control and expression of needs. As for when
people reach this stage, Sanford placed the development of impulse control in
adolescence and the development of ego, or the controlling function of personality
(e.g., maturity), in adulthood. In both cases, Sanford did not presuppose that
personality ever stopped changing: “The highly developed person is always open to
new experience, and capable of further learning.”

Life-span models
Research on life-span personality development is concerned with three major influence
systems (Baltes, Lindenberger, and Staudinger, 1998):
(1) age-graded influences (e.g., education) which shape individual development
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in relatively normative ways;
(2) history-graded influences (e.g.wars) which make development different across
historical periods; and
(3) non-normative influences (e.g., accidents) which may have powerful effects on an
individual’s development. Life-span development theories hold that psychological
functioning is not fixed at a certain age. Rather,
“during development, and at all stages of the life span, both continuous (cumulative)
and discontinuous (innovative) processes are at work” (Baltes, 1987, p. 613).
Development is defined as “selective age-related change in adaptive capacity” (Baltes,
Staudinger, and Lindenberger, 1999, p. 479) and special attention is given to the
developing person’s contribution to the creation of his or her own development
(Brandtst¨adter, 1998). Individuals steer their physical, cognitive, social, and
personality development by constructing strategies for coping with various
developmental challenges, by setting goals, and by making choices.

According to Brandtst¨adter (this volume), such intentional self development over

the life span is geared to the realization and maintenance of normative representations
that individuals construct of themselves and their future. The function and significance
of goals and choices in successful development is especially apparent beyond
childhood, and several chapters in this volume are explicitly concerned with these
topics in their efforts to study successful development. Pulkkinen, Nurmi, and Kokko
(this volume) discuss how individuals steer their development by setting goals and
making choices as responses to developmental challenges. On the one hand, personal
goals reflect major age-graded transitions and normative demands.
On the other hand, individual differences in personal goals reflect motivational
orientations, such as security seeking or aiming at personal growth, which result in
intraindividual coherence in goal patterns. With data from the Jyv¨askyl¨a
Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development, Pulkkinen and her
colleagues show that some personal goals are so pervasive that they operate as
unifying life themes that defie long-term successful and unsuccessful development. An
agentic conception of human nature is also central in Heckhausen’s work on control.
Heckhausen (this volume) proposes that humans strive to maximize primary control
of their environment throughout life. However,control capacities undergo radical
changes and losses and individuals have to disengage from unattainable goals and
manage their own emotional responses to such loss experiences. This type of control
that is directed at the internal world of the individual is referred to as secondary
control. Heckhausen shows how the age-normative structure of life-course transitions
allows individuals to anticipate decremental changes in the opportunities to attain
developmental goals.
For example,
an individual can increase primary control striving when approaching “developmental
deadlines” (e.g., union formation, health-maintenance in old age) and use secondary
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control to compensate for potential negative affect and self-evaluation associated with
failure to meet or resolve developmental dear

Brandtst¨adter’s work (this volume) on intentional self-development is also striking in

its appreciation of the tension between gains and losses in life-span development. His
chapter documents that successful development hinges on the interplay between, on
the one hand, activities through which individuals assimilate the actual course of
personality development to their goals and, on the other hand, processes through which
goals are accommodated to the feasible range.
Although life-span models do not articulate what is success, some commentators
have noted that developmental models that emphasize freedom of individual decision
and action are plagued by a Western bias associated with an individualistic cultural
base (Kagitcibasi, 1988). There isa clear need for cultural psychologists to engage life-
span researchers in testing the limits of the developmental models that have been
advanced.Still, the models that have been put forth are exciting because they
articulater part in these events.

Life-course models
Especially beyond childhood the study of successful adaptation becomes more
complicated, and it may be that a purely psychological approach is insufficient for the
study of personality development as the individual increasingly negotiates social roles
defined by the culture. Whereas lifespan theories specify the temporal order of life
stages, such as childhood,adolescence, and adulthood, life-course researchers tend to
emphasize social-role demands at different ages. Social trajectories are influenced by
four factors (Elder, 1998). First, they are influenced by human agency, the choices that
persons make about their own lives. Second, they are influenced by the timing of life-
course events in relation to other events in an individual’s life. Third, they are
influenced by linked lives, because
social changes are expressed in an individual’s life through the experiences of related
others. Finally,
They are influenced by historical changes.Life-span and life-course models are
complementary. Biological changesacross the life span and social demands across the
life course define typical life events and social roles in people’s lives. Indeed,
some psychological researchers have found it useful to adopt a sociocultural
perspective and to conceive of the life course as a sequence of culturally-defined,
agegraded roles that the individual enacts over time (Caspi, 1987; Helson,
Mitchell, and Moane, 1984).Helson introduced the concept of a “social clock project”
as a framework for studying life-span development. The concept of a social clock
focuses attention on the age-related life schedules of individuals in particular cultures
and cohorts, and organizes the study of lives in terms of patterned movements into,
along, and out of multiple role-paths such as education, work, marriage, and
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parenthood. In this fashion, the life course can be charted as a sequence of social roles
that are enacted over time, and adaptational processes can be explored by investigating
the ways different persons select and perform different social-cultural roles. In her
30-year longitudinal study of female college seniors, who were first studied in 1958-
60, Helson examined the personality antecedents and consequences of adherence to a
Feminine Social Clock (FSC) and a Masculine Occupational Clock (MOC).

For example,
women who adhered to the FSC were earlier in life characterized by a desire to do
well and by a need for structure; women in this birth cohort who adhered to a MOC
were earlier in life more rebellious and less sensitive to social norms. Helson et al.
(1984, p. 1079) were thus able to identify “culturally salient need-press configurations
through time” and to show predictable and meaningful relations between personality
and behavior in different social settings at different ages. Several chapters in this book
either explicitly or implicitly adopt a sociocultural approach in their efforts to study
successful evelopment. The chapters by Laursen and Williams and by Silbereisen,
Reitzle, and Juang tackle the adolescent age period and examine how youth create
sense out of their place in the larger world. Laursen and Williams (this volume)
explore the role of ethnic identity, a personally and politically-charged topic that is
also a profound source of strength. The authors conceive of ethnic identity as a
personality variable that shapes the nature and course of successful adolescent
adjustment, and describe how ethnic identity offersan important mechanism through
which minority adolescents cope with the tension between the inner self and the
psychological environment of the majority culture. Silbereisen and his colleagues
have capitalized on a “natural experiment” – the unification of Germany during the
1990s – to examine how historical changes shape the nature of adolescent
transitions.The chapters by Elder and Crosnoe and by Ryff, Singer, and Seltzer tackle
a different point in the life course (midlife and old age) in order to examine the
pathways to and the mechanisms in successful adjustment.
Elder and Crosnoe draw on data from the Terman Study, begun in 1922, to explore
how young-adult personality profiles shape the subsequent life course of men, in terms
of their family life, civic involvement, career,and health trajectories. What is most
remarkable is the emergence of such wide variations in life-outcomes, and in the
successful negotiation of adult roles, despite the advantages enjoyed by all study
participants by virtue of their intellectual prowess. Ryff and her colleagues provide an
overview of their exciting research program where they track how different life
challenges,both normative and non-normative, influence psychological well being.
Included here are experiences of mid-life parenting, caregiving,and community
relocation in old age. The authors conclude with a summary of their recent studies that
link cumulative profiles of adversity and advantage to cumulative stress physiology.
This work successfully links qualitative and quantitative methods as well as research
on the mind and body. One criticism of research on successful development, as
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studied by life-course researchers, is that it may be too value-laden and too
culturebound. What,

For example:-
is the difference between conforming to social expectations vs. successfully
performing socially-valued roles? There is also a serious epistemological issue with
which life-course researchers must deal: how is it possible to move from historically
specific findings to a more general understanding of life-course processes? At least
one historian (Zuckerman, 1993) has argued that the coupling of developmental
psychology and history represents a “dangerous liaison” because it is unclear whether
psychologists are willing to abandon their quest for lawlike predictions.Bouchard
(1995) correctly argued that a purely sociocultural perspective on the life course
“ignores the fact that life-histories themselves are complex evolved adaptations,” and
suggests that an evolutionary perspective may complement the sociocultural
perspective by exploring how personality variation is related to those adaptively-
important problems with which human beings have had to repeatedly contend.
Evolutionary psychology thus focuses attention on the coherence of behavioral
strategies that people use in,

for example,
mate selection, mate retention, reproduction,parental care, kin investment, status
attainment, and coalition building (Buss, 1999). It focuses research on the genetically-
influenced strategies and tactics that individuals use for survival and reproduction. An
evolutionary perspective on successful life-course development could thus offer a
fusion of concerns in evolutionary theory, behavior genetics,and demography (Stearns,
1992).
For example,
using the evolutionary perspective, Draper and Belsky (1990) and Gangestad and
Simpson (1990) have offered intriguing hypotheses about personality characteristics
and reproductive strategies that facilitate adaptations in different environments at
different ages. Although these and other specific models have not yet been tested in the
context of longitudinal studies of personality development – and are not represented in
this volume – they show the promise of evolutionary psychology for organizing
longitudinaldevelopmental data on patterns of successful development. Ormel (this
volume) tackles this problem from a somewhat different perspective and introduces
social production function (SPF) theory as a heuristic for studying successful
development. The theory attempts to integrate the various strengths of psychological
theories and economic consumer/household production theories. It identifies two
ultimate goals that all humans seek to optimize (physical well-being and social
wellbeing)and five instrumental goals by which they are achieved (stimulation,
comfort, status, behavioral confirmation, affection). The core notion of SPF theory is
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that people choose and ubstitute instrumental goals so to optimize the production of
their well-being, subject to constraints in available means of production.

How do personality differences shape successful

development?

Whether one adopts a life-span or a life-course perspective, the question remains: what
role do individual differences in personality play in mastering different social-
developmental tasks across the course of life? The starting point for such work should
be a system for describing individual differences in personality dispositions and
temperamental traits. This is not to suggest that these psychological constructs are the
only way to study the contribution of personality differences to successful
development. Indeed, motivational concepts in personality are better represented in
much of the research on adult development.We do think, however, that an exciting
bridge to understanding the making of success will derive from advances in the
measurement of temperament and personality traits and types.Over the past 15 years,
the intensity and productivity of psychological research on the dimensiona lity of adult
personality has been phenomenal (Lubinski, 2000), and has influenced research in
diverse fields such as organizational behavior, psychiatry, and genetics. An emerging
consensus points to the existence of five important factors: Extraversion (active,
assertive, enthusiastic, outgoing), Agreeableness (generous, kind, sympathetic,
trusting), Conscientiousness (organized, planful, reliable, responsible), Neuroticism
(anxious, self-pitying, tense, worrying), and Openness to Experience (artistic, curious,
imaginative, having wide interests). Each superfactor covers a broad domain of
individual differences and includes a number of more specific personality dimensions
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or facets ( John and Srivstava, 1999). Some developmental researchers have noted that
this Five-Factor Model of personality does not provide a theory of personality (Block,
1995), which is correct to the extent that most personality taxonomies are focused on
describing rather than examining dynamic and developmental processes. Other critics
have noted that researchers interested in the Five-Factor Model have not paid attention
to issues of personality development (Pervin, 1994).Indeed, whereas the study of
personality structure in adulthood has influencedresearch on adult development and
aging, the study of personality structure in childhood has been all but neglected
(McCrae and Costa,1990). But these are criticisms of what has been done, not of what
can be accomplished.An especially important area of integration involves efforts to
connect existing models of infant and child temperament with studies of adult
personality structure (Clark and Watson, 1999). What are normally understood as
personality traits may be aspects of temperament differentiated in the course of life
experience.
But, surprisingly, there has been virtually no contact between child psychologists who
study temperament and personality psychologists who are concerned with personality
differences (Diener, 2000; Shiner, 1998). Halverson and colleagues (1994) have made
a strong case that research on life-span personality development will remain
unintegrated unless child psychologists begin to study the structure of personality.
Research linking temperament to the development of personality will be facilitated by
two parallel achievements: the development of a consensual system for describing
the structure of personality differences in adulthood, as noted earlier, and the
development of such a system for temperamental traits.
In the domain of temperament, conceptual reviews and factor-analytic studies have
identified several “consensus” dimensions of infant and childhood temperament that
might show influences on later developmental outcomes (Martin, Wisenbaker, and
Huttunen, 1994; Rothbart and Bates, 1998).
In the present volume, and in relation to the study of successful development, the
chapters by Rothbart and Putnam and by Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, and Reiser help to
clarify several key definitional issues.

For example,
some researchers cling to the notion that temperament can only be assessed in the
young infant and that temperament cannot be shaped by experience. However, as the
two chapters in this book make clear, the key definitional component of temperament
is not that it is immune from experience nor that it can be measured only in the first
few months of life; rather, the key is that behaviors observed and measured should
reliably index individual differences in children’s characteristic style of approach and
response to the environment.
Rothbart and Putnam (this volume) define temperament as “constitutionally based
individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, influenced over time by
heredity and experience.” Reactivity refers to the excitability, responsivity, or
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arousability of the behavioral and physiological systems of the individual, and self-
regulation refers to the behavioral processes that modulate this reactivity. Importantly,
Rothbart and Putnam note that such temperament differences develop and they are not
immune to experience. Recent research shows that infants’ temperament is shaped by
experience even before birth (e.g., fetal nutrition, fetal substance exposure, daylight
during pregnancy).
Moreover, behavioral genetic studies have established that individual differences in
temperament,measured even during the first year of life, are only partially heritable
and are influenced significantly by unique environmental events (Plomin and Caspi,
1999), suggesting that younger age of measurement does not guarantee that
temperament is purely “constitutional.” The chapter by Rothbart and Putnam, along
with related important research (e.g., Kochanska, 1997; Bates, Pettit, Dodge, and
Ridge, 1998), points to the important ways in which socialization experiences – with
parents and with peers – can shape emergent social competencies and
psychologicaladjustment.
Eisenberg an her colleagues (this volume) provide an overview of their ongoing efforts
to differentiate theoretically and empirically among the various aspects of both
emotionality and emotional regulation, which are core concepts in practically every
model of temperament and personality.The authors propose that individual differences
in children’s emotionality and regulation predict children’s emerging social skills and
the quality of their peer relationships. Specifically, they show that children high in
emotional intensity and low in attentional and behavioral regulation experience
numerous problems in their interactions with peers and in peer relationships, whereas
children high in regulation typically function extremely well in their social worlds. It is
possible that a purely dimensional approach may yield confusing evelopmental
portrits because orthogonal dimensions of temperament and personality conceal
distinct types of children and adults who are characterized by unique configurations.
Person-centered research may offer a promising approach for the study of paths to
successful development, as demonstrated by Block (1971) and Pulkkinen (1996). The
person-centered approach identifies types of individuals based on their particular
configuration of attributes, and thus provides a bridge between purely nomothetic
research (which emphasizes the attributes on which all individuals differ) and
idiographic research (which emphasizes the unique patterning of attributes within an
individual). It aims at a more holistic view of personality which “emphasizes the close
dependency of ndividual functioning and individual development on the social,
cultural, and physical characteristics of the environment” (Magnusson and Stattin,
1998, p. 686).
In this volume, the person-centered approach is utilized in the research conducted by
Elder and Crosnoe, by Pulkkinen, Nurmi, and Kokko, and by Ryff, Singer, and Seltzer,
but it is Van Aken and his colleagues who take on most directly the challenge of
providing a person-centered structural model that could act as a complement to the
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variable-centered models of temperament and personality that currently dominate
research on personality development across the life-span.
Van Aken and his colleagues report findings from several of their own studies that
point to the existence of a replicable typology of personality types in childhood and
adolescence. The three types that are repeatedly identified are labelled Resilient,
Overcontrolled, and Undercontrolled. At various ages in childhood and adolescence,
the types differ in the quality of their psychological functioning and social
relationships. Van Aken and his colleagues point to various ways in which transactions
between personality characteristics and social relationships lead to different
developmental outcomes. Overall, Resilients have the most favourable relationships,
both in terms of perceived support and i n terms of peer acceptance. Overcontrolled
and Undercontrolled report similarly low social support, and are less accepted and
more often rejected by their peers.
They differ, however, in their psychological functioning, with Overcontrollers tending
toward internalizing problems and Undercontrollers toward externalizing problems. As
the authors note, in addition to their own work, over the past decade other independent
investigators have identified similar ersonality types in different parts of the Western
world using different data sources and different statistical procedures. The
convergence across studies is not perfect, and more typological research needs to be
done before anything close to a comprehensive, generalizable personality typology can
be said to exist. Nevertheless, at this point, these three types are good candidates to
become an integral part of any generalizable personality typology and they can be used
effectively to guide future developmental studies of personality development
(Mervielde and Asendorpf, in press). But this is just a starting point, and the chapter by
Bergman offers a sober appraisal of the methodological challenges that lie ahead, on
the road to research about paths to successful evelopment. It should be emphasized
that any personality taxonomy, whether of traits or types, is an evolving classification
system whose purpose is to integrate and guide research. Rather than oreclose or
forestall new approaches to the study of personality structure and development, any
such system must remain flexible and be willing to accommodate new empirical
information. Most important, it should be noted that our concern is less about the
number of factors or types, but with hether the nomological net surrounding
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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ACTION FILES

A CTION F ILE 1(T RUST VS . M ISTRUST)

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 The following situations could cause harm to the infants involved. In small groups,
discuss & record how to teach a baby to avoid danger without developing Mistrust.

a) Abby continues to climb up a steep set of stairs

b) Brigid tries to reach the frying pan on the stove
c) Andrew follows after the neighbourhood dogs & cats
d) Hailey tries to insert toys into electrical outlets
e) Arlie-Rose ‘eats’ sand & pebbles in the park

ACTION FILE 2 (INDEPENDENCE VS. DOUBT)

Spencer’s parents have a problem. At age two & a half, Spencer has a mind of his
own, & will not walk purposefully along the sidewalk with them. Instead, he
investigates alleys, tries store doors, sits down in puddles, & heads for the streets (and
into traffic). Trying to get things done, or even going for a pleasant walk with
Spencer, is difficult & often dangerous. How would you solve the problem? Begin by
stating the problem in your own words. Examine the following possible solutions (add
2 of your own solutions to the list). Once you’ve made the list, evaluate which ones
encourage independence? doubt? Use a chart to organize your ideas.

Action File 3 (Industry vs. Inferiority)

Go back a little in your history & describe your first school dance or party. Jot
down the answers to the following questions: Where was the dance/party held?
Did you go there with someone? What kind of music was played? How would
you describe the attitude of most people there?

Action File 4 (Identity vs. Role Confusion)

List the ‘roles’ you have played so far in your life. Create a timeline of your
roles starting at Son/Daughter/family member to your present roles today.
Once done, look back at them & think of which one has had the strongest
influence on your identity? Which people helped to mould you into these
roles?

Action File 5 (Generativity vs. Stagnation)

There are many people, organizations, and interests groups interested in
investing into the community and its future. Work with a partner & list some of
those in your community that have shown an interest in generativity; that is,
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making life better for future generations. They might include service clubs,
hospital volunteers, & historical/geographical societies. Briefly describe what
each group does ( if there is time – search the internet to see if you can find
their mission statement)

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9 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT TIPS
Before moving deep into Personality development, let me first give a brief definition of
personality development and what do we get on knowing about it.

“Personality Development is a tool through which you bring out your capabilities and
your strengths making yourself aware of your inner self and become more confident to
face the outside world”.

Personality development will enable people to improve their financial needs, their health,
their career prospectus, their relationship, their beauty and so many to go on. As we have
many things in our queue to choose, we should try to know what we actually need.

What is the first thing in your life that you want to improve? As this is a basic question, you
can make up your own questions to find the actual thing you want to improve in your daily
system. Once you have got the answer for this, now get ready to follow the below tips to
improve that “the thing” in your life.

HOW TO ENHANCE PERSONALITY?

1. Spend time on your daily routine for yourself. Many of us give our time and efforts to
other people need or to one’s job. Therefore just try to spend some minutes of yours to focus
on you which will bring a great change to yourself in long run.

2. Think about and find if you are really doing what you want. Most of us due to
circumstance are not able to do what we want, but let us put of these kinds of excuses and
start doing what we want. This will create a new energy level in you when you are doing
something which you really wanted to do.

3. The most important reason which stops us from doing something on our own is our
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mentality towards mistakes. Never get scared of mistakes, don’t ever let failures stop you
from what you really want to do. Every one of us has learnt in our earlier stages that “Failures
are the stepping stones of success” but no one follows it.

4. You should also be flexible to change the way you go when things are not working in the
way you want. When you set up your mind towards something, things may not run smoothly
the way you want, in such cases you must get ready to approach it in a different way.

5. Finally, in your daily routine find some time in your daily life to read/listen through some
personality development articles which gives you some inspirational lessons which will
provide you some positive energy for improvement.

6. Our brains mostly respond to pictures more than words. So have some pictures of your
goals and visualize them on a daily basis. You can follow this by sticking a picture in the wall
front of your bed and this will help you in knowing your goal as soon as you wake up.

7. Keep your body and mind fit to fight over your negative thoughts. Yoga will surely help
you in doing this. Wake up early in the morning, do some breathing exercise which will
refresh your mind and will give you a bright day ahead.

8. Take a diary and note all your positive and negatives things you face on your daily life.
Looking back at those jotted points in the diary will help you measure your progress and it
will even help you learn lessons from your own life.

9. Whenever you achieve something do not just keep it to yourself, share it with your near
and dear ones and celebrate it. This will motivate you to achieve more achievements in your
life.

Hope the above tips will help you in improving certain things in your life.

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EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
The Self
 Initiative Versus Guilt
• Initiative versus guilt is the conflict in early childhood for Erikson’s
psychosocial theory.
• Conscience develops during this stage and children are capable of hearing
the inner voice of self-observation, self-guidance, and self-punishment.
• Resolution of this conflict depends on how children’s self-initiated
activities are handled.
• Freedom and opportunity support initiative, whereas guilt develops
if children’s enthusiasm for exploration and curiosity is squelched.
 Self-Understanding
• Self-understanding is the child’s cognitive representation of self, the
substance and content of the child’s self-conceptions.
• Self-understanding begins with self-recognition around 18 months.
• Active dimension usually focuses on physical characteristics, physical
actions, or material possessions.
 Emotional Development
Young Children’s Emotion Language and Understanding
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 • There is an increase in emotion language and the understanding of
emotion.
• Preschoolers are beginning to understand the causes and
consequences of feelings.
• By 4 to 5 years, children can reflect on emotions. They understand
that the same event may elicit different emotions in different people.
• There is also an increase in emotion management to meet social
standards.

 Self-Conscious Emotions
• Require that children be able to refer to themselves and be aware of
themselves as distinct from others.
• Self awareness must first be in place before self-conscious emotions can
develop.
Moral Development

• Moral development involves the development of thoughts, feelings,

and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do
in their interactions with other people.

PIAGET’S VIEW OF MORAL REASONING

• Piaget observed and interviewed children from 4 to 12 years of age and

concluded that children think in two distinctly different ways about morality
depending on their developmental maturity.

• Heteronomous morality is the first stage of moral development in

Piaget’s theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age.
• Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the
world, removed from the control of people.
• Children in this stage judge the rightness and goodness of behavior
by considering the consequences of the behavior, not the intentions of
the actor.
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 • Another characteristic of heteronomous morality is imminent
justice which is the belief that, if a rule is broken, punishment will be
meted out immediately.
• Autonomous morality is the second stage of moral development in
Piaget’s theory, displayed by older children (about 10 years of age and
older).
• The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people
and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions
as well as the consequences.
• Children in this stage accept change and recognize that rules are
merely convenient, socially agreed upon conventions, subject to
change by consensus.
• They also recognize that punishments are socially mediated and
occur only if a relevant person witnesses the wrongdoing (even then
punishment is not inevitable).

• Piaget thought the mutual give-and-take of peer relations facilitates

moral development.
Moral Behavior

• Moral behavior is emphasized by behavioral and social cognitive

theorists.
• The processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation are used
to explain moral development.
• They believe there is considerable situational variability in moral
behavior.
• Self-control is an important aspect of understanding children’s
moral behavior.

 MORAL FEELINGS
• In psychoanalytic theory, children conform to societal standards to avoid
guilt.
• Positive feelings such as empathy contribute to moral development.
• Empathy involves reacting to another’s feelings with an emotional
response that is similar to other’s feelings.
• Cognition is required for empathy, such that one has the ability to
discern another’s inner psychological states (perspective taking).

GENDER
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 WHAT IS GENDER?
• Gender refers to the social and psychological dimensions of being male
or female.
• Gender identity is the sense of being male or female, which most
children acquire by the time they are 3 years old.
• Gender role is a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males
should think, act, and feel.

 BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
• The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines our sex (XX for females, and
XY for males).
• The two main classes of sex hormones are estrogens and androgens:
• Estrogens (estradiol) influence the development of female physical
sex characteristics.
• Androgens (testosterone) promote the development of male
physical sex characteristics.
• For the first few weeks of gestation, male and female embryos look alike.
Then the XY chromosomes in the male embryo trigger the secretion of
androgen, which causes the male sex organs to form.
 Social Influences

• Males and females are treated differently shortly after birth. Parents are an
important influence on gender development.

PSYCHOANALYTIC AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

• The psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Freud’s view
that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex
parent. At 5 or 6 years of age, the child renounces this attraction because
of anxious feelings. Subsequently, the child identifies with the same-sex
parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s characteristics.
• Most experts do not think that gender development proceeds in the
manner proposed by Freud.
• The social cognitive theory of gender emphasizes that
children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation
of gender behavior, and through the rewards and punishments children
experience for gender-appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
• Critics of this view argue that gender development is not as
passively acquired as it indicates.
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  PARENTAL INFLUENCES
• Mothers and fathers are psychologically important for children’s
gender development.
• Fathers are more involved in the socializing of their sons than their
daughters.
• Fathers are also more likely to treat their sons and daughters
differently.
• Many parents encourage differential play in their sons (aggressive)
and daughters (dolls).
 Peer Influences
• Children who play in sex-appropriate activities are more likely to
be rewarded by peers and children who play in cross-sex activities are
more likely to be criticized.
• There is greater pressure for boys to conform to traditional male
roles than for girls to conform to traditional female roles.

Cognitive Influences
• In the cognitive developmental theory of gender, gender
typing occurs after they have developed a concept of gender. Once they
consistently conceive of themselves as male or female, children often
organize their world on the basis of gender.
• Children use physical and behavioral cues to differentiate gender
roles and to gender-type themselves early in development.

• Gender schema theory states that an individual’s attention and

behavior are guided by an internal motivation to conform to gender based
on sociocultural standards and stereotypes.
• A schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that
organizes and guides an individual’s perceptions.
• A gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male.

• Gender typing occurs when individuals are ready to encode and

organize information along the lines of what is considered appropriate
for males and females in their society.
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 • Gender constancy refers to the understanding that sex remains
the same even though activities, clothing, and hairstyle might change,
and may be necessary for gender typing.

FAMILIES PARENTING
PARENTING STYLES
• Baumrind proposed four parenting styles that are associated with
different aspects of children’s socioemotional development:
• Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punitive style in which
parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and
effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child
and allows little verbal exchange.
• Authoritarian parenting is associated with children’s social
incompetence.
• Children of authoritarian parents are often unhappy, fearful,
anxious about themselves with others, fail to initiate activity, and have
weak communication skills.
• Authoritative parenting encourages children to be independent
but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-
and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturing toward the child.
• Authoritative parenting is associated with children’s social
competence.
• Children of authoritative parents are often cheerful, self-controlled
and self-reliant, achievement-oriented, maintain friendly relations with
peers, cooperate with adults, and cope well with stress.
• Neglectful parenting is a style in which the parent is very
uninvolved in the child’s life.
• It is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a
lack of self-control.
• These children are often immature, have low self-esteem, and may
be alienated from the family.
• Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting in which parents are
highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on
them.
• Indulgent parenting is associated with children’s social
incompetence.
• Children of indulgent parents may be domineering, egocentric,
noncompliant, and have difficulties in peers relations.
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  PUNISHMENT
• Despite the widespread use of corporal punishment, there have been very
few research studies on physical punishment.
• One study, spanking by parents was linked with children’s antisocial
behavior including cheating, telling lies, being mean to others, bullying,
getting into fights, and being disobedient.
• Here are some reasons why forms of intense punishment should be
avoided.
• It is presenting the child with an out-of-control model for handling
stressful situations.
• Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance in children.
• Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do.
• Punishment can be abusive even if the parents intend not to be.

 CHILD ABUSE
• As many as 500,000 children are physically abused each year in the U.S.
• Experts on child abuse think that child abuse is a complex phenomenon
that involves the social context, the parent’s coping skills, and the personality
characteristics of the parents.
 The Multifaceted Nature of Abuse
• Child maltreatment is the term used to refer to both child abuse and
neglect.
• Physical and sexual abuse, fostering of delinquency, lack of
supervision, medical, education, and nutritional neglect, and drug and
alcohol abuse are included.

 The Cultural Context of Abuse

• The extensive violence that takes place in American culture is
reflected in the occurrence of violence in the family.
• The amount of support services available to families is correlated to
the amount of child abuse.
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 • Family resources (relatives and friends) and formal community
support systems (crisis centers) are associated with a reduction in child
abuse.
 Family Influences
• The interactions of all family members need to be considered in
order to understand child abuse.
• Parents that abuse their child view physical punishment as a
legitimate way to control a behavior.
• About one-third of parents who were abused themselves as children
abuse their own children.
• The majority of individuals who were abused as children are not
locked into an intergenerational transition of abuse.
 Developmental Consequences of Abuse
• Some of the consequences of abuse include poor emotion
regulation, attachment problems (disorganized pattern), peer relations
problems (aggression or avoidance), difficulty adapting to school, and
other psychological problems (anxiety, personality problems,
delinquency).

 Co-parenting
• The organizing theme is that poor coordination, active undermining, and
disparagement of the other parent, lack of cooperation and warmth, and
disconnection by one parenting partner (either alone or in combination with
overinvolvement by the other) are conditions that place children at
developmental risk.
Good Parenting Takes Time and Effort

• Good parenting takes a lot of time and effort.

 Sibling Relationships and Birth Order

Sibling Relationships
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 • More than 80 percent of American children have one or more siblings.
• Given the many combinations of relationships it is hard to generalize
about sibling influences.

 Birth Order
• Parents typically have high expectations for firstborn children and they
put more pressure on them for achievement and responsibility.
• Firstborn children are more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming,
anxious, and self-controlled than their siblings are.
• Only children are often achievement-oriented and have desirable
personalities.
• Birth order by itself is not a good predictor of behavior as age spacing,
sex of siblings, heredity, temperament, parenting styles, peer influences,
school influences, sociocultural factors, etc. also influence development and
behavior.

The Changing Family in a Changing Society

• Variety characterizes family structures currently in the U.S.
Working Parents

• It is not certain that children of working parents receive less attention.

• Maternal employment meets family needs and personal needs and may
better socialize children for adult roles, especially daughters.
• No detrimental effects of maternal employment on children’s
development have been found.
 Effects of Divorce on Children
• Considerable research has examined the effects of divorce on children.
Children’s Adjustment in Divorced Families

• Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their

counterparts from nondivorced families.
• Multiple divorces pose even greater risk.
• Children from divorced families are more likely to experience
academic problems, externalizing (delinquency) and internalizing
(anxiety and depression) problems, to be less socially responsible, to have
less competent intimate relationships, etc.
• Experts disagree as to the effect of divorce on children.
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 • The majority of children from divorce do not have these problems
as most cope competently with their parents’ divorce.

 Should Parents Stay Together for the Sake of Their

Children?
• If the stresses and disruptions in family relationships associated
with an unhappy, conflictual marriage are reduced by divorce, then
divorce may be advantageous.
• If inept parenting and conflict accompany the diminished resources
and increased risk associated with divorce, the best option is to retain the
unhappy marriage.
How Much Do Family Processes Matter in Divorced Families?

• If the divorced parents’ relationship is harmonious and they use

authoritative parenting, the adjustment of children improves.

What Factors Are Involved in the Child’s Individual

Risk and Vulnerability in a Divorced Family?
• Many factors influence child outcomes:
• Adjustment prior to divorce influences some problems that children
experience.
• Socially mature and temperamentally easy children show few
problems.
• Research regarding the effects of gender and the effects of joint
custody have been inconsistent.

 Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in

Families
Cross-Cultural Studies
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 • Despite wide cultural variation, the most common pattern is a warm
and controlling style.
 Ethnicity
• Minority families in the U.S. tend to have large and extended
families, which may function as a buffer against discrimination and stress.
• Single parenting is more common among African Americans and
Latinos.
Socioeconomic Status

• Higher SES families place more emphasis on education.

PEER RELATIONS, PLAY, AND TELEVISION

PEER RELATIONS
• Peers are children of about the same age or maturity level.
• Peer groups provide information and allow comparisons to be made.
• Good peer relations may be necessary for normal social development.
• Withdrawn children who are rejected by peers and/or victimized
and feeling lonely are at risk for depression.
• Children who are aggressive with their peers are at risk for
developing a number of problems (delinquency and dropping out of
school).

 PLAY
• Play is a pleasurable activity that is engaged in for its own sake.
Play’s Functions

• Play increases affiliation with peers, releases tension, advances

cognitive development, increases exploration, and provides a safe haven
to explore and learn.
• Play therapy allows the child to work off frustrations. Through play
therapy, the therapists can analyze the child’s conflicts and ways of
coping.
• Children may feel less threatened and be more likely to express
their true feelings in the context of play.
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  Parten’s Classic Study of Play
• Parten developed the following classification of play based on
observations of children in free play. It emphasizes the role of play in the
child’s social world.
• Unoccupied play occurs when the child is not engaging in play,
as it is commonly understood. The child may stand in one spot, look
around the room, or perform random movements that do not seem to have
a goal.
• Solitary play occurs when the child plays alone and
independently of others.
• Onlooker play occurs when the child watches other children
play.
• Parallel play occurs when the child plays separately from
others, but with toys like those the others are using or in a manner that
mimics their play.
• Associative play occurs when play involves social interaction
with little or no organization.
• Cooperative play involves social interaction in a group with a
sense of group identity and organized activity.

 TYPES OF PLAY
• Bergin’s view of play emphasizes both the cognitive and the social
aspects of play.
Sensorimotor and Practice Play
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 • Sensorimotor play is behavior engaged in by infants to derive
pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas.
• At 9 months, infants begin to select novel objects for exploration
and play.
• At 12 months, infants enjoy making things work and exploring
cause and effect.
• By 24 months, children understand the social meaning of objects.
• Practice play involves the repetition of behavior when new
skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and
coordination of skills are required for games or sports.
• Sensorimotor play, which often involves practice play, is primarily
confined to infancy, whereas practice play can be engaged in throughout
life.

PRETENSE/SYMBOLIC PLAY
• Pretense/symbolic play occurs when the child transforms the
physical environment into a symbol.
• Between 9 and 30 months, children increase their use of objects in
symbolic play.
• Make-believe play gradually declines after 5 years.
• Pretending may help children develop imagination.
Social Play

• Social play is play that involves social interaction with peers.

• Social play, including rough-and-tumble play with peers,
increases dramatically during the preschool years.

Constructive Play
• Constructive play combines sensorimotor play and practice of
repetitive activities with symbolic representation of ideas. Constructive
play occurs when children engage in self-regulated creation or
construction of a product or a problem solution.
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 • Constructive play is the most common type of play in the preschool
years.
• It can help foster academic skill learning, thinking skills, and
problem solving.
Games
• Games are activities engaged in for pleasure. They include rules
and often competition with one or more individuals.
• Preschoolers can play games that involve simple rules of
reciprocity and turn taking.
• The meaningfulness of challenge emerges in elementary school.
Television
• Television has had a tremendous influence on children as they spend
more time in front of the TV than they do with their parents.

 Television’s Many Roles

• TV can have both negative influences (turning children into passive
learners and presenting them with aggressive models) and positive influences
(presenting motivating educational programs and providing models of
prosocial behavior) on children’s development.

 Amount of Television Watched by Children

• Children are averaging 26 hours of TV per week, which is more than for
any other activity except sleep.
• Children in the U.S. watch considerable more TV than children in other
countries.
 Effects of Television on Children’s Aggression and
Prosocial Behavior
• The amount of TV viewed at age 8 was related to the seriousness of adult
criminal acts.
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 • Long-term exposure to TV violence was related to aggression in
adolescence.
• These findings are correlational.
• One experiment found that exposure to TV violence caused an increase in
aggression.
• TV violence is not the only cause of children’s aggression, but it
can induce aggression.
• Children need to be taught critical thinking skills to counter the
effects of TV violence.
• Prosocial behavior on TV is associated with increased positive behavior
in children.
 Television and Cognitive Development
• Children’s greater attention to TV and their less complete and more
distorted understanding of what they view suggest that they may miss some
of the positive aspects and be more vulnerable to its negative aspects.
TV viewing is negatively related to children’s creativity and verbal skills.

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CASE STUDY

we will study the life-span socialization processes that form the foundation for
personality development in humans. Students will study the original theorists of social
and personality development and examine the specific areas of social and personality
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development explored in recent research. Life-span and cross-cultural issues will be
emphasized.

Grades determined by:

Applied Classical Theory Paper 80

Oral presentation 40

Personal analysis of original theorists; 30

Special topic of Personality; 80

Oral Presentation 40

Quizzes on chpts 5-15 40

Class participation. 20

In order to receive an A a student must be within 92 % of the top 10% of the class;
within 80% for B; within 60% for C.

Text: Schaffer, D. , (2005). Social and Personality Development, 5th ed.

Wadsworrth.

Assignments:

1. Personal Analysis of Writings of Original Theorists.

To demonstrate to students that the textbook and my lectures are drastic over-
simplifications of the principles the original theorists presented in their writings, each
student is required to read some of the original works of the theorists presented in
class. Each student will find a book or series of articles written by one early theorist in
each of the 3 major socialization theories presented in Class-Psychoanalytic, Social-
Learning, and Cognitive-Developmental. For example, read works by theorists such
as Freud, Erikson, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, or Kohlberg. Each student will be
required to read at least 200 pages by each of the 3 authors chosen. If articles are read,
fewer pages will be required. You must receive instructor's approval before you read
your selections (not all books are of equal value to helping you understand the
theorists). After reading each selection, you will prepare a brief ( 1-2 type-written
page) personal summary of what you think of the theorist's presentation. Write what
book etc. you read, but do not review the theory. Tell how the writings affected you in
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terms of their persuasiveness, interest, and clarity. The assignment is not graded, but
satisfactory completion of the assignment is required for passing the course.

2. Applied Analysis of Classical Socialization and Personality Theories.

Each student will analyze the application of socialization theories to their own lives or
in society as a whole. A paper that is less than 7 type written pages and an oral
presentation will be completed. This assignment is designed to demonstrate the
practical veracity of each of the socialization theories we examine in the first segment
of the class. Specific methods for doing this may include an autobiographical account
of childhood upbringing, analysis of own parenting practices, historical overview of
childrearing, survey of public attitudes, or analysis of a childrearing advice book.

3. Special Topic Literature Review.

Students will write a literature review of books and journal articles on a limited
socialization topic of their own choosing. Example topics include: Child’s
development of humor; Divorce effect on different age or sexes; Effect of wealth on
personality; Sibling rivalry; Achievement in adolescents; Religious training and
morality; Attachment with fathers; Television effects; etc. A paper less than 10 pages
and an oral presentation on the topic will be made. Any topics may be used by the
students as long as topics are interesting to the students and deal with socialization and
personality areas and not purely clinical or educational issues. The format to follow
will be that used by our textbook when reviewing the various developmental topics.
You will follow the APA format for citations and references. Usually the students
have between 10 and 20 references for this paper. Try to find the most recent research
on your topic with primary use of scholarly journals (e.g. APA, Education, Sociology)
and books. Web sites and popular press articles are not acceptable.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
S.No. Books Name Author
1. “A Finer You Wg.Cdr(Retd) DP Sabharwal
Self Devolopment Jack handey

S.No. Search Engine

1. www.google.com
2. www.msn.com
3. www.ask.com
4. www.khoj.com

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