DEFINITIONS AND DISCUSSIONS OF CURRICULUM

AND INSTRUCTIONS

TYPES OF CURRICULA
a.

Official curriculum - includes the sated

curriculum framework with philosophy and
mission, recognized lists of outcomes,
competencies, and objectives for the program
and individual courses, course outlines, and
syllabi
b. Operational curriculum - consists of what is
actually taught by the teacher and how its
importance is communicated to the students.
This curriculum includes knowledge, skills
and attitudes emphasized by faculty in the
classroom and clinical settings
c. Hidden curriculum - consists of values and
beliefs taught through verbal and nonverbal
communication by the faculty. Faculty may be
unaware of what is taught through their
expressions, priorities, and interpretations
with students, but students are very aware of
the hidden agendas that may have a more
lasting impact than the written curriculum.
d. Null curriculum - represents content and
behaviors that are not taught. Faculty need to
recognize what is not being taught and focus
on reasons for ignoring those content and
behavior areas.

Curriculum
-

It was first used in Scotland as early as 1820 and

became a part of the education vernacular in the
United States nearly a century later.
It was derived from the Latin word, currere, which
means to run over time has been translated to
mean course of study. (Wiles & Bondi, 1989)
Doll (1996) defined curriculum as formal and
informal content and process by which learners
gain knowledge and understanding develop skills,
and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values
under the auspices of that school.

Components in the Definition of Curriculum included the

following:
Preselected goals/outcomes to be achieved
Selected content with specific sequencing in a
program of study
Resources used
The extent of responsibility assumed by the
teacher and learner for learning
How and where learning takes place
Curriculum Development Involves Four Main Elements:
1.

2.
3.
4.

Identify what learning is needed and decide on the

type of training you need to provide to meet these
learning needs.
Plan the training carefully, so that learning is most
likely to take place.
Deliver the training so that learning does take
place.
Evaluate the training so that there is evidence that
learning has taken place.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN NURSING

Curriculum in nursing has also been viewed from

a number of perspectives:
Heidgerken, a respected nurse educator in the
1940s and 1950s , believed that curriculum
entailed all planed and day-to-day learning
experiences of the students and faculty, including
both organized instruction and clinical
experiences.

CURRICULUM COMPONENTS
1.
2.
3.

Foundations
Philosophy/mission
Educational philosophies
a. Perennialism - the curriculum is based on
knowledge and conservative, inflexible,
traditional content, including mathematics,
grammar, language, sciences and strong moral
and spiritual teachings.
b. Essentialism - is another conservative
philosophy grounded in idealism and realism
with traditional content and teachings.
c. Progressivism - rooted in pragmatism, views
problem-solving skills, scientific inquiry and
learning how to think critically as essential to
the curriculum.
Reconstructionism, also grounded in
pragmatism, focuses education on the
needs of society rather than the individual.
d. Existentialism - focuses on individualism and
self-fulfillment, teaching about choices one has

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

4.

to make, freedom of choice, the meaning of

choice, and responsibility one has for choice.
Organizing frameworks

BASIS FOR CURRICULUM PLANNING

technical skills and the ability to locate individual

design approaches within the appropriate
professional content.
3.

Two Categories
1.

2.

The institutional bases for curriculum planning

incl. planning domains, the context or
characteristics of the school situation, the impact of
current trends and issues and the use of strategic
planning.
The bases of curriculum planning that affect
people directly inc. student and teacher needs,
local curriculum problems to be addressed,
competencies of the planners, and pressures from
inside or outside the school.

BASES FOR NURSING CURRICULUM

(Four Strands)
1.

2.

3.

4.

Biological strand includes structure, function

and chemistry processses, disorder of function at
cellular, organ and body levels and restoration of
health
Clinical strand focuses on professional ethics,
communication skills, history, taking and general
physical examination and clinical problem
solving skills
Behavioral strand includes making student
aware of his/her personality, interpersonal
communication and of group dynamics and
psychosocial correlates of disease.
Population strand social, cultural and
community issues, heath promotion and disease
prevention, research design and statistics relevant
to health care services.

4.

5.

OBJECTIVE
-

1.

2.

Each program within the curriculum must provide

the opportunity to identify, plan and achieve
learning goals through an understanding of
cultural, social and technological developments in
the context of Historical, contemporary and
individual concerns.
There should be ample opportunity to develop
innovative and exploratory thinking, necessary

An intended behavioral change that a learner is

expected to exhibit after undergoing a learning
experience.
An instructional objective is a statement that will
describe what the learner will be able to do after
completing the course.

KINDS OF OBJECTIVES
a.

Learning Objective - establishes what the

students are going learn by the end of the
lesson. It is all based on cognitive and
developmental ability.
b. Behavioral (doing) Objectives - will determine
what skills and abilities the teacher wants the
students to develop, or master, by the end of
the lesson.
c. Affective/Schematic Objectives - will list the
essential questions and main lessons that the
teacher would want the students to think
about and relate to themselves as individuals.

OBJECTIVES OF A CURRICULUM
OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM PLANNING

A flexible framework for student-centered learning

to harness the potential each student has in terms
of creative expression and multidimensional
learning.
Develop critical, analytical, speculative and
reflective problem solving skills in integrated
manner.
Provide interdisciplinary and progressive
knowledge of the field but with a focused
understanding of an area of specialization suiting
to the professional design practice.

MAIN PURPOSES OF OBJECTIVES

1.
2.
3.
4.

to describe the purpose of an activity (or

intervention)
to establish the desired result
to identify the methodology to be used to get there
to determine how success will be measured

COMPONENTS OF OBJECTIVES
a.

Description - able to do or know ("by the end of

this course, you will be able to....")

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

b. Conditions - under which the desired behavior

will be performed ("dress wound")
c. Criteria - evaluating performance ("dress wound
using the aseptic technique")
TYPES OF OBJECTIVES
1.

2.

General Objectives - broad aims of education that

transmits or provide for the fullest development of
the individual and an orientation to the main
emphasis in education programs.
Specific Objectives - describe behaviors to be
attained

IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVES

Define the direction of educational development

Determine the number of levels for the program
Inform the students of the standards and
expectations of the course
Help select content and desirable learning
experiences
Form one of the major bases for evaluation and
provide the framework for clinical evaluation tool
Serve as an implicit contract between instructor
and students, setting up a basis for accountability
Drive the curriculum planning
Objectives must demonstrate progression

RULES OF OBJECTIVES

S pecific
M easurable
A ttainable
R eliable
T ime bound

2. MASLOWS NEED/MOTIVATION THEORY:

- Facilitate the faculty/teacher to accept and adapt to new
environment as a basic need / security /self-actualization.
Further the revenue, working/learning environment,
promotion, reward and punishment methods acts as a glue
to work together for the common purpose. Example:
passing the course with second class to distinction with
university rank.
3. JOHNSONS BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEM:
- Facilitate the faculty / student to orient to the importance
of being a member of the institution, their role is
restoration of system as a whole, to work together. Failed
in which discrepancy, incompatibility, insufficiency and
dominance will arise between systems. Example: balanced
and responsible individual in the class, college,hostel,
hospital, family and society.
4. ROCHNSTOCKS HEALTH BELIEF MODEL:
- In nursing education for the topics requiring behavioural
changes or life style modification, HBM can be used. It is
applicable from the beginning to the end of curriculum, in
teaching learning activities and staff management.
Example:
THREAT - fear of failing in the examination
VARIABLES - related to
student/teaching/institution etc
CUE TO ACTION - individual guidance to student
- repeated teaching/ test
- peer advice

III. 4. Concepts from Learning Theories Used in

Curriculum Planning
CURRICULUM PLANNING USING THE TEACHINGLEARNING THEORIES:
1. OREMS SELF CARE THEORY:
- Facilitate the new faculty/student to develop confident
and independence from fully dependence. The head of the
institution /HOD plays vital role in it. This requires ongoing periodical assessment of the independent ability and
appropriate guidance whenever necessary. Example: notes
making/assignment writing

BARRIERS - related to student/

teaching/institution etc
DESIARABLE ACTION - learn with standard and
pass the examination
5. ROBERT R. CARKHUFFS HELPING AND HUMAN
RELATIONSHIP MODEL:
- Facilitate therapeutic human relationships through
communicative interaction. The teacher/student using
information, influence, comforting, relational and identity
the therapeutic communication developed, maintained and

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

terminated. Example: Non attending Attending

Responding Personalizing Initiating
6. IMOGENE KINGS CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMAND
THEORY OF GOAL ATTAINMENT:
- Facilitate mutual involvement of the teacher and learner,
to help learner to decide what he/she want to achieve, so
that self-sufficient even for the life time. Example: The
Ohio state university college of nursing used this model as
a guide for baccalaureate curriculum since 1970.
7. MARTHA ELIZABETH ROGERS UNITARYHUMAN
BEING:
- Facilitate the art of imaginative and creative use of
knowledge to human service/teaching and learning.
Emphasizes on meaningful life and meaningful transition
to death. Example: What is impossible/ wrong today will
be possible /correct in future.

Learning requirement in Part II

Step-1: Present papers on theory
Step-2: Adopt a theory, discuss its utility in
education and practice the theory.
Part II:
a.

Mastery of the application of micro skills learned

in Part I is achieved through practicing assessment,
goal setting and interventions using the selected
theoretical models.
b. The course focuses on empirically-based
approaches to direct services intervention,
emphasizing various theoretical approaches to
practice.
c. The class also addresses monitoring the impact of
interventions; and appropriate evaluation
strategies.
STUDENT LEARNING GOALS:

Part 2
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION ON HOW TO
TEACH/LEARN THEORY:

1.

Learning requirement in Part-I

Step-1: Orientation to concepts, interrelationships.
Step-2: How to learn theory?

2.

Part I:
a.

Foundation knowledge and skills for direct

practice with individuals, families, and groups.
b. Covers assessment, development of treatment
plans based on theory and assessment information,
goal-setting skills, and selection of appropriate
interventions.
c. The course focuses on students developing
working knowledge of broad perspectives
(ecological, strengths-based, empowerment) and
specific empirically-based theoretical models of
practice.
d. Students begin developing expertise in
intervention selection, planning, and evaluation of
micro systems(e.g. individuals, couples, families
and small groups) with primary focus on
individuals and families.

3.

General method of instruction - The instructor

will use a variety of instructional methods
including short lectures, large and small group
exercises, discussions, individual activities. Four
groups of students, each assigned to a particular
theory category, will present to the class and lead
scenario practice and discussion.
Recommended preparation - This class is
condensed into many sessions. Therefore, students
are encouraged to read text Chapters before the
first class. Success in this course relies heavily
upon students understanding of the concept and
micro skills taught. Students are encouraged to
refer back to that textbook and the accompanying
reference CD. Students who have had prior classes
in theory will benefit from re-acquainting
themselves with those texts.
Class assignments and grading - Students will
work with their assigned group to develop a
presentation and scenario that demonstrates a
category of theory. Class participation will be very
important because students will be expected to
apply learning from assigned readings and from
the demonstration to practice application of micro
skills typical of each theory group. The final exam
will be in-class application of theory to practice

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

PURPOSES OF ORGANIZING FRAMEWORKS FOR

CURRICULUM
CONCEPTUAL MODELS OR ORGANIZING
FRAMEWORKS:

2.

Model made of the composition of concepts, which are

used to help people know, understand, or simulate a
subject the model represents. Some models are physical
objects; for example, a toy model which may be assembled,
and may be made to work like the object it represents.

3.

CURRICULUM

4.

All the learning which is planned and guided by

the school, whether it is carried out in groups or
individually, inside or outside the school
curere means to run, course of action, study
Total effort of the school to bring about desired
outcomes in school and out school situations
A sequence of potential experiences set up in
school for the purpose of disciplining children and
youth in group ways of thinking and acting
Scope and sequence or a series of intended
learning outcomes, with the role of guiding both
the instructional and evaluation decisions
Syllabus, or plan for the entire course, with
elements of both the ends and the means of the
course
Course of the study or the concept of a journey
through the educational program

TYPES OF CURRICULUM
a.

Explicit curriculum: what is consciously and

intentionally presented. It is the official
curriculum which gives the basic lesson plan
to be followed including objectives, sequence,
and materials, what is taught by the teacher,
methods used and learning outcomes for the
students.
b. Implicit curriculum: includes the norms and
values of surrounding society
c. Null curriculum: consist of what is not taught.
d. Extracurricular curriculum: experience outside
of the immediate educational sessions
PURPOSES:
1.

Systematically design a mental picture that is

meaningful to the faculty and the students when
determining what knowledge is important to

nursing and how that knowledge should be

defined, categorized and linked with other
knowledge.
Provide a blueprint for determining the scope of
knowledge.
Facilitate the sequencing and prioritizing of
knowledge in a way that is logical and internally
consistent with theoretical explanations about the
concepts included in the curriculum and help
explain how these ideas or concepts apply to
nursing practice.
Act as a guide for faculty and students alike in
considering the research and practice questions
appropriate to ask as they strive to better
understand the discipline of nursing and share this
understanding with colleagues.

DEVELOPING AN ORGANIZING FRAMEWORK FOR

CURRICULUM
1.
2.

Selecting a single, specific nursing theory or model

on which to build the framework.
Choose a more electric approach, selecting
concepts from multiple theories or models.

DESIGNING A GRAPHIC OF THE FRAMEWORK

-

A Graphic can provide clarification, especially

when the framework is complex or abstract.
less is better
Should be roads to a specified destination

Three major points:

1.
2.
3.

learning is planned and guided by the school

learning may be carried out in groups or
individuals.
learning may be carried out inside and outside the
school.

Infante (1985)
-

Model that relies heavily on keeping nursing

students in a skills laboratory until they are
proficient with skills.
They are sent to clinical area and are not
assigned to total patient care until late in the
curriculum.
Infantes model was tested in one nursing
program with positive outcomes

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

Packer (1994)
-

Classroom before clinical teaching

Case studies will be a big help for
undergraduate nursing students.

THE MAJOR TASKS IN CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT
SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES

A learning experience is something in which the

student actively participate and which results in a
change of behavior.

GUIDELINES

CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES

a.

Direct Learning Experiences - These are first

hand experiences with various objects or
symbols.
b. Indirect Learning Experiences - Those
experiences which are not the first hand
information

EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT ORGANIZATION OF

LEARNING AND EXPERIENCES

The learning in one area of instruction is related to

and interdependent on the areas of learning that
the student is now engaged in.

CRITERIA FOR ORGANIZING LEARNING EXPERIENCE

a.

Continuity
It refers to the relationship existing between
different levels of the same subjects or skills. It
is the recurring emphasis on the learners
experience on the particular elements.
b. Sequence
It is also related to continuity but going
beyond its relationships. In sequence each
successive experience goes more deeply and
broadly into the subjects.
c. Integration
It refers to the relationship among learning
experiences which bring about a unified view
and behavior is a horizontal relationship
which cuts across several subjects and the
areas of students life.

A learning experience is defined as an interaction

between the student and conditions in the
environment to which he/she can react.
The faculty should develop a systematic approach
to the selection of learning experiences through
which students are provided with opportunity to
meet the objective.
Learning experience should allow the students to
practice the kind of behavior called for by the
objective.
A learning experience should provide activities
which allow the student to practice the behavior
implied in the objective and to drive satisfaction
from so doing.
A learning experience should be as the students
level of accomplishment.
A learning experience should be in accord with the
schools philosophy and with the statement on the
psychology of learning accepted by the faculty.
Effective learning depends upon planned
organization of the experiences included in the
curriculum.
The teaching method used should depend upon
the purpose to be served the learner, teacher and
the available resources
The selection, organization and guidance of
students learning experiences should be
submitted to the continuous appraisal by the
faculty.

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN THE PLANNING AND

ADMINISTRATION OF CLINICAL AND OTHER
FIELD EXPERIENCES
By Dr. Cecille Martinez
TEACHING IN MAJOR HOSPITAL DEPARTMENT
SETTINGS
OBJECTIVES OF CLINICAL PRACTICE
Clinical teaching is a form of interpersonal communication
between two people - a teacher and a learner.
"The teaching-learning process is a human transaction
involving the teacher, learner and learning group in a set
of dynamic interrelationships.
Teaching is a human relational problem"
As a "relational problem," successful teaching and learning
requires that the teacher understand and make
constructive use of four factors:
1.

2.

3.
4.

The role of the teacher and the knowledge,

attitudes and skills that the teacher brings to the
relationship,
The role of the learners and the experiences and
knowledge that the learners bring to the
relationship,
The conditions or external influences which
enhance the teaching-learning process, and,
The types of interactions which occur between
teacher and learner.

PREPARATION OF STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT

To ensure a positive learning experience for learners,
educators must do a lot of planning before clinical
instructions begin.
Clinical agency sites must be chosen. Clinical units within
the agency must also be identified.
Selection of clinical sites must be done methodically. The
learning experiences that are available there must be
considered.

Will it be possible to obtain clinical experiences

that correlate with theoretical content?
Will learners have a variety of experiences?
Is there enough room around the nurses station or
office for learners to use patients charts?

An often overlooked aspect of the learning experience is

the availability of role models for learners. Research has
demonstrated that clinical educators are role models for
learners, but so are the staffs in the agency.

Contracts must be drawn between the school and the

clinical agency. It is sometimes the educators role to gather
data that will lead to a written contract.
These data includes the following:

There are four fundamental objectives of any clinical

teaching interaction:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Base all teaching on data generated by or

about the patient;
Conduct bedside rounds with respect for the
patient's comfort and dignity;
Use bedside teaching particularly for teaching
psychomotor skills; and
Use every opportunity in bedside teaching to
provide feedback to learners.

What are the educational credentials and

experience levels of the staff who will serve as
these role models, and are they receptive to
having learners on their unit?

Availability of the clinical unit for certain days

and weeks
Availability of conference space and locker
space

The contract also includes the following:

Maximum student-faculty ratio
Evidence of completion of health records for
students and faculty
Evidence of malpractice and general liability
insurance for students and faculty
The educator should set up a meeting with the agency staff
that will be involved with the education process

That may include a staff development

educator, unit manager, or head nurse.

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

Expectations of both parties can be discussed

and actual implementation of the learning
experience can be worked out.
This is the appropriate time to share clinical
learning objectives with the manager or head
nurse.
If the staffs are familiar with the learning
objectives, they can assist learners in meeting
them.

The educator can proceed with the final preparation for

clinical instruction. The last step involves making specific
assignments for learners on a weekly or daily basis.

Staff input can be invaluable in planning

assignments. Staff members usually know the
patients and families better than the educator
does. If the staffs are aware of the learning
objectives, they can direct the instructor to
suitable assignments.
Educators and learners together may choose
assignments. In some cases, especially with
students who are nearing completion of their
educational program, students may choose
their own assignments, in consultation with
the staff.

Even if learners are not involved in choosing their

assignments, they may be held responsible for clinical
preparation.

A visit to the clinical agency may be required

so that the learner can research the assigned
patients chart and perhaps meet the patient
and/or family.
Programs that do not require the learner to go
to the agency prior to the clinical laboratory
experience may still expect preclinical
planning. The arrangements in this case often
involve the instructor gathering data from the
chart and passing it on to the students.

The learner is usually expected to research the medical and

nursing diagnoses, lab tests, and medications and to
develop preliminary plan of care
According to Golden berg and Iwasiws investigation
(1988), the three most important criteria used by educators
in selecting students clinical assignments were students
individual learning needs, patients nursing care needs,

and matching of patients needs with students learning

needs.
In some cases, students learning needs may be met just as
well if they are double-assigned to the same patient. In
these cases, each student may take a different role; if there
is a great deal of care for a complex case, they may share
equally in the workload.
Clinical supervision in the newer approach is usually
confined to a group of students assigned to a particular
clinical area; the clinical conferences consist of a group of
students representing a variety of clinical areas and serve
to coordinate the concepts in their application to the
problems of patients representing a wide range of health
and disease states.
The use of these patterns of variations often calls for a team
teaching approach, which can be accomplished in a
number of different ways:
All clinical teachers can work together as a team in
supervising the students.
Certain portions of the program can be taught by a master
clinical teacher, with other clinical teachers supervising
groups of students.
Specialists in other fields such as mental health
consultants, nutritionists, social service workers, chaplains
and public health workers can contribute to the total
clinical teaching team in variety of ways.
The impact on nursing exerted by various social legislation
programs has prompted many schools to plan clinical
experiences on a broader base in order to accomplish the
goals of the clinical teaching program.

APPROACHES USED FOR THE SELECTION OF

ASSIGNMENTS FOR STUDENTS

Clinical teachers should evaluate the degree of care

needed by patients in terms of ensuring patient safety
and then to determine the amount of knowledge and
degree of skill needed by the student in order to
overcome the fear of failure in safely meeting the
patients needs.

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

Emphasize the importance of student-patient

relationships. Having had only limited experience in
the practice of nurse-patient relationships, the student
concentrates on the successful accomplishment of the
task and tends to disregard the patients behavioral
response.

him, is satisfying to self and is useful to

him in a constructive manner.
Creative teaching

The problem of length of time needed to master

designated skills in the clinical situation should be
given careful scrutiny.
Allow for flexibility in scheduling students from one
clinical unit to another as often as necessary during the
daily experiences in order to provide the student with
the most valuable and needed learning experiences.

Even if learners are not involved in choosing their

assignments, they may be held responsible for clinical
preparation.

CREATIVE TEACHING IN CLINICAL NURSING

ASPECTS OF CREATIVE PROCESS

CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
Teaching

facilitating or arranging of experiences

within the learners world in a way that
helps him find meaning and purpose
act of communicating variety of ways with
the individual or group or both at the
actual point of the learners experiences so
that he can reach his unique potential
act of setting the stage and shifting the
scenery so that the learner makes
differentiation and organizes parts and
wholes into new and meaningful patterns
the greatest of all human task after
learning

Creativity

a quality inherent within every individual

exhibited by the individual in amount and
kind according to the principles of the
individuals differences
Deliberate act of an individual to relate
previously unrelated experiences in a
manner that produces something new to

approaching each teaching experience as a

new and unique assignment which
demands understanding and concern for
the individual students and the outmost
knowledge and skill in working with the
subject matter
recognizing failure in one course of action
as cause for immediacy in devising other
means of transmitting the knowledge,
skill, or attitude to be learned or
appreciated.
knowing when to use previously
established but effective routine
approaches to problems and when to reject
habitual responses as patterns of teaching
for more constructive approaches
fostering self respect and self discovery in
the learner
providing unlimited opportunities for
individuals and groups to assume
responsibility for furthering their own
learning experiences

THE FOUR MAJOR ASPECTS OF THE CREATIVE

PROCESS
1.

OPENNESS

Refers to the deliberate act of allowing

ones self to entertain new, unstructured
thoughts about a current issue or problem
Letting don of barriers of prejudice and
rigidity to allow freedom of thought
Engages in a process of continually
seeking information from all sources
The most crucial of all steps of creativity
wherein one must reduce the socially
supportive and protective defenses and
allow complete self to be open to
experience in a less structured way before
formulating any theories to interpret the
ideas.
There is a break in the stimulus-response
pattern which allows freedom for detailed

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

2.

FOCUS

3.

The process of making deliberate attempt

to refine the data into structural patterns
that will represent the individuals
interaction with the environment
Process of translating significant pieces of
data into meaningful patterns.
End product is the result of the
individuals interaction with the
environment
Dependent on past experiences, present
situation and perceived future potential
May be used alternately with openness
before reaching a new combination or idea
that can be shared or used

DISCIPLINE

4.

perception of the stimulus without rapid

response based on rigidity and
predetermined beliefs
One remains open to ambiguous ideas and
continues to collect and examine
diversified information without passing
judgment on it

The process of accomplishing ones

committed focus through self-disciplined
actions
Disciplined production starts, once
openness and focus is achieved
Having a set of focus as the standard of
identifying the means of reaching ultimate
goals
Principle that tells, creative individuals are
first answerable to themselves

CLOSURE

The point at which creative process is

terminated in accord with the criteria set
by the students
Final stage of creative process that brings
the project or idea to completion is
represented by that point at which the
creator has met hi s criteria for the project,
thus completing the task
Reveals the creators tremendous
achievement for self discovery; limitations
suggesting that either the project be

abandoned or the course of action be

directed towards a more fruitful and
satisfying adventure
Creative act is considered complete when
the creative person feels that his
product is finished, regardless of reason
Decision must be made by the creator or
else the product is not truly his creative
work

DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN CREATIVE TEACHING

A. Role-Playing
The group conference method lends itself for
modification in the use of role-playing.
Role playing involves the acting out of roles
related to problems involving human relations.
The total group is involved in the analysis of
behaviors portrayed in the role playing
situation for the purpose of increasing their
insights into similar problems and
understanding ways of dealing with them.
When group members are provided with the
opportunities to live through problem
situation, they gain increased understanding
of themselves and learn how to established
relationships.
Use of this tool in a group centered classroom
environment afford students opportunities to
try out new approaches to establishing
interpersonal relationships to make mistakes,
and to work with a particular problem until it
is satisfactorily resolved without the stress of
performing in a patient situation.
For best results in meeting the desired
objectives of a given role playing situation, it is
desirable to adapt a format using the following
steps in logical sequence:
1. Selection of a Problem. The problem
should arise in the group and should be
clear and specifically related to human
relation situation that serves a useful
purpose within the context of the material
being studied.
2. Construction of the role-playing
situation. The purpose of the role-playing
session serves as a guide for preparing the

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

design by providing enough content to

stimulate reality and afford players and
observers an orientation to the problem.
Casting the players. Players should
always be selected in terms of their
willingness to act in order to avoid
misinterpretation of the role and to
preserve the individuals self-esteem.
The most effective casting is
obtained by soliciting volunteers,
suggestions made from the group,
or selections made by the teacher
or planning committee.
Spontaneity is the key to success
in the use of this technique;
therefore, advance preparation of
role-players should be avoided.
Briefing. The teacher or group leader
should give a brief review of the selected
problem, the purposes to be studied, and
the general design of the plan for
presenting the role-playing.
To preserve spontaneity, a period
of 5 minutes is all that should be
allowed to help the players warm
up the action.
This can be done while the teacher
is briefing the audience.
Briefing the audience consists of
advising them regarding the kinds
of things to be observed to
evaluate the outcomes.
Role-playing actions. This scene is played
as simply and succinctly as possible. The
timing for most episodes is not more than
15 minutes, and is often less.
Discussion and analysis of action.
Regardless of who is engaged in the
discussion, care must be taken to prevent
it from centering on the acting abilities of
the players: rather discussion should be
focused on contributions made by the
players toward an understanding of the
problem they were attempting to solve
Evaluation. After the group discussion the
teacher should conduct an evaluative
summary of the group thinking regarding
conclusions or generalizations about the
behavior observed, leading to greater

understanding of human behavior as it

affects a given problem and applies to
other problem;
ways of improving total group
practices in the situation;
effectiveness of the role-playing
scene in meeting the purpose for
which it was intended:
and suggestions for changes
needed to improve the use of
technique.

USE OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES FOR TEACHING

CLINICAL NURSING
The audiotape recorder
-

Of the many technological developments in recent

years, the magnetic tape recorder is one of the most
versatile devices for teaching. It record sounds as
magnetic fields on monoaural or stereophonic
audiotapes coated with iron oxide; recordings are
made at various speeds, depending on the desired
sound.

The Tele-lecture
-

The technique referred to as the tele-lecture is designed

to communicate specialized kinds of desired
information by renowned or specifically qualified
persons to an audience by means of a two-way
telephone communication system.
The conference or classroom moderator introduces the
speaker, coordinates the discussion with appropriate
visual aids as directed by the speaker, and moderates a
question-and-answer session between the students and
the speaker.
If portable microphones are available, students direct
their questions to the speaker.

Educational Television
-

The science of electronics has produced one of the

most intricate, versatile, and universal modes of
communicating-television.
In nursing, as in other fields, educational television
usually flows from two main sources:

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

those programs deliberately planned by a

school to meet the necessary educational
objectives of a given course or total curriculum
and
those programs not planned as essential
components of the curriculum in terms of
meeting the desired educational objectives but
used as available to supplement or enrich a
particular learning experience.

Educational Television
-

Type of telecast include

a. live presentation including use of
communication satellites for international
programming,
b. videotape recordings,
c. motion pictures or film clips,
d. kinescope recordings, and
e. cassette television systems.

Programmed instruction is a method of organizing and

presenting individualized instructional material in a
systematic fashion to achieve specifically stated behaviors.
-

This systematic application of learning principles,

derived from the theory of learning formulated by
Skinner in 1954, incorporates a number of
characteristics that distinguish programmed
instruction from previously described educational
communication media:
Learning occurs more easily when there is logical,
sequential; presentation of subject matter designed to
meet specifically defined behaviors.
For learning to take place there must be action and
interaction between the learner and the material to be
learned.
Learning is more effective and efficient when the
learner receives reinforcement by immediate feedback
of results regarding responses.
The rate of learning varies among individuals and
from one subject to another, one situation to another,
one day to another.
Revisions in programming and teaching are based on
objective analysis of the student responses.

IN EMERGING PATTERNS OF TEACHING IN

CLINICAL NURSING
The need for creative teaching in the field of nursing
education aptly applies to the more specialized teaching
functions in the clinical nursing setting.
Perhaps of greatest importance is the consistency with
which clinical and other teachers utilize their creative
talents so that students, whether in a formal classroom
setting or in a clinical setting, know that their actions and
ways of thinking, methods used to solve problems, and
proposed hypotheses will be reviewed, corrected, and
expanded without being arbitrarily judged right or wrong
by the teacher.
The creative clinical teacher, who has shown consistency in
being receptive to the ideas of the students and has offered
ideas only as alternatives to be pursued along with many
others, has created an atmosphere of freedom nurturing
the professional and personal growth of students.
Within the clinical nursing situation, students who have
had the opportunity to learn in this kind of environment
interpret the meaning of freedom in terms of the following:
Meeting the patients interactive and support
needs more as a fellow human being than as an
automaton-students are comfortable, relaxed, and
interested in others within the situation; they enter
into an expressive relationship with the patient
rather than simply ministering to the patient in
order to get the job done.
Making a nursing assessment in terms of feeling
free to express their ideas or hunches regarding
the needs of patients, and free to modify existing
restrictions, policies, and rules (within the realm of
safety to the patients and others) to best meet the
patients needs.
Using imaginations in trying new approaches to
patient care.
Recognizing the need to change their course of
action and taking the necessary steps to make the
needed change.
It seems reasonable to assume that there are at least as
many patterns of clinical teaching programs as there are
schools of nursing. Each type of educational program
includes general kinds of learning experiences needed to
fulfill its purposes; the rights and responsibilities for
planning a complete curriculum of which the clinical

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos

teaching program is an integral part lie with the individual

school.

3.

FACULTY RESPONSIBILITIES IN CREATIVE TEACHING

Provide rationale for use of non-traditional
resources
Prepare study guides to clarify relevance
Develop appropriate evaluation methods (e.g.,
qualitative more so than objective)
Be prepared for dealing with strong emotional
responses
Allot sufficient time for discussion and debriefing
often as soon as possible after viewing
Promote different interpretations no single
right answer
Be open to new ideas and possibilities
Consider using art forms to evaluate learning (e.g,
write a poem)

4.

5.
6.

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEACHERS

IN THE CREATIVE TEACHING TECHNIQUE
1.

2.

In creative teaching, the teacher must ensure that

something new, different, or unique results.
The first criterion for creative teaching is
that the product or the process must be
new.
Learners consider art forms such as
writing a poem, creating stories, patterns
of poetry, word combinations.
In creative teaching, divergent thinking process is
stressed by the teacher.
Divergent thinking processes are not
concerned with an absolute or correct
answer.
In divergent thinking, knowledge, facts,
concepts, understandings, and skills
learned through convergent thinking
processes are put to new uses and new
answers result rather than one absolute or
correct answer.
Divergent thinking processes develop such
qualities as flexibility of thinking,
originality, fluency of ideas, spontaneity
and uniqueness are the basis of creative
thinking.

7.
8.

In creative teaching, the teacher uses motivational

tensions which are prerequisite to the creative
process.
The process serves as a tension-relieving
agent.
The teacher may use an opening statement
that will constantly challenge the students
to think which continually develop their
divergent operational processes.
However, periods of relaxation are also
important for creative production.
In creative teaching, the teacher must utilize openended situations.
Open-endedness in teaching means that
students are presented with situations
where they can put their knowledge,
understandings, facts, and skills to work.
In creative teaching, teachers encourage the
students to generate and develop their own ideas.
In creative teaching, the teachers must ensure that
certain conditions must be set to permit creativity
to appear.
Creativity cannot be taught.
We can only set conditions for it to
happen, and then by re-enforcing its
appearance through reward, encourage it
to appear often.
Among the conditions that must be
present are certain physical conditions.
The teacher can provide a comfortable
classroom, a comfortable and suitable
seating arrangement, and all the necessary
materials for her lesson.
Certain psychological conditions are also
necessary.
The teacher can provide this through
establishing good rapport with the
students and by developing an air of
expectancy for creativeness in her
classroom.
She can also develop a permissive
atmosphere and a feeling of acceptance.
The teacher must ensure that creative teaching is
success rather than failure oriented.
In creative teaching, teachers construct provisions
which are made to learn many knowledge and
skills and be able to apply these knowledge and
skills in new-problem-solving situations.

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9.

In creative teaching, the teacher must encourage

self-initiated learning.
The teacher can help students to draw on
their own experiences, to perceive in new
ways, to recognize new relationships and
to produce new ideas.
10. In creative teaching, the teacher develops skills of
constructive criticism and evaluation skills.
11. Creative teaching employs democratic processes.
The teacher must allow changing of roles between
students and teacher and the general tone of the
classroom.

Prepared by: Mary Grace B. Polancos