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Dimensional Analysis
Dimensionless parameters are obtained using a method called dimensional
analysis.
It is based on the idea of dimensional homogeneity: all terms in an equation must
have the same dimensions.
By simply using this idea, we can minimize the number of parameters needed in an
experimental or analytical analysis, as will be shown.
Any equation can be expressed in terms of dimensionless parameters simply by
dividing each term by one of the other terms.
For example, consider Bernoullis equation,
(1)
Now, divide both sides by gz2 . The equation can then be written as
(2)
To present the results of an experimental study, the drag force could be plotted
as a function of V for various values of the radius R holding all other variables
fixed.
Then a second plot could show the drag force for various values of L holding all
other variables fixed, and so forth.
The plots may resemble those of Fig. 2 above. To vary the viscosity holding the
density fixed and then the density holding the viscosity fixed, would require a
variety of fluids leading to a very complicated study, and perhaps an impossible
study.
Dimensional analysis
Nondimensionalization of an equation by inspectional analysis is useful only when
one knows the equation to begin with.
However, in many cases in real-life engineering, the equations are either not known or
too difficult to solve; often times experimentation is the only method of obtaining
reliable information.
In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.
In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results.
We introduce here a powerful technique called dimensional analysis. While
typically taught in fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is useful in all disciplines,
especially when it is necessary to design and conduct experiments.
You are encouraged to use this powerful tool on other subjects as well, not just in
fluid mechanics. The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments
(DoE) (physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from
model performance
To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
Problem
The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a speed of
50.0 mi/h at an air temperature of 25C. Automotive engineers build a one fifth
scale model of the car to test in a wind tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is
located in an unheated building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only
about 5C. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel in
order to achieve similarity between the model and the prototype.
Ans: 221 mi/h
where the brackets mean the dimensions of. Note that the product RT does
not introduce additional dimensions.
Buckingham theorem
The Buckingham theorem is used to create the dimensionless parameters, given
a functional relationship such as that of Eq. (3). Write the primary variable of
interest as a general function, such as
The term 1 is selected to contain the dependent variable [it would be FD of Eq. (3)]
and the remaining terms contain the independent variables.
It should be noted that a functional relationship cannot contain a particular
dimension in only one variable; for example, in the relationship v=f(d, t, ) the
density cannot occur since it is the only variable that contains the dimension M,
and M would not have the possibility of canceling out to form a dimensionless
term.
Buckingham theorem
Steps:
The steps that are followed when applying the Buckingham theorem are:
1. Write the dependent variable as a function of the (n1) independent
variables. This step requires knowledge of the phenomenon being studied. All
variables that influence the dependent variable must be included and all
variables that do not influence the dependent variable should not be
included. In most problems, this relationship will be given.
2. Identify the m repeating variables that are combined with the remaining
variables to form the terms. The m variables must include all the basic
dimensions present in the n variables of the functional relationship, but they
must not form a dimensionless term by themselves. Note that an angle is
dimensionless, so it is not a candidate to be a repeating variable.
3. Combine each of the (n m) variables with the repeating variables to form the
terms. Step 3 is carried out by either inspection or by an algebraic
procedure.
4. Write the term containing the dependent variable as a function of the
remaining terms.
Buckingham theorem
Example
The method of inspection will be used in an example. To demonstrate the algebraic
procedure, lets form a term of the variables V, R, , and . This is written as
Buckingham theorem
The solution is
Suppose that only one term results from an analysis. That term would then
be equal to a constant which could be determined by a single experiment.
Buckingham theorem
Finally, consider a very general functional relationship between a pressure change p,
a length l, a velocity V, gravity g, viscosity , a density , the speed of sound c, the
surface tension , and an angular velocity .
All of these variables may not influence a particular problem, but it is interesting to
observe the final relationship of dimensionless terms.
Dimensional analysis, using V, l, and as repeating variables provides the relationship
Buckingham theorem
The dimensionless term with its common name is listed as follows:
For the case of model testing of flows with free surfaces (boats and ships, floods, river
flows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam spillways, interaction of waves with piers, soil erosion,
etc.), complications arise that preclude complete similarity between model and prototype.
For example, if a model river is built to study flooding, the model is often several hundred times
smaller than the prototype due to limited lab space. If the vertical dimensions of the model were
scaled proportionately, the depth of the model river would be so small that surface tension
effects (and the Weber number) would become important, and would perhaps even
dominate the model flow, even though surface tension effects are negligible in the
prototype flow.
In addition, although the flow in the actual river may be turbulent, the flow in the model river
may be laminar, especially if the slope of the riverbed is geometrically similar to that of the
prototype. To avoid these problems, researchers often use a distorted model in which the
vertical scale of the model (e.g., river depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal
scale of the model (e.g., river width). In addition, the model river bed slope is often made
proportionally steeper than that of the prototype. These modifications result in incomplete
similarity due to lack of geometric similarity.
Model tests are still useful under these circumstances, but other tricks (like deliberately
roughening the model surfaces) and empirical corrections and correlations are required to
properly scale up the model data.
Problem
In the late 1990s the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers designed an experiment to
model the flow of the Tennessee River
downstream of the Kentucky Lock and
Dam (Fig. ). Because of laboratory
space restrictions, they built a scale
model with a length scale factor of
Lm/Lp = 1/100. Suggest a liquid that
would be appropriate for the experiment.
Ans: m = 1.00 x 10-9 m2/s
Buckingham theorem
Not all of the above numbers would be of interest in a particular flow; it is highly
unlikely that both compressibility effects and surface tension would influence the
same flow.
These are, however, the primary dimensionless parameters in our study of fluid
mechanics.
The Euler number is of interest in most flows used to characterize losses in the flow
(pressure drop by kinetic energy per unit volume) where a perfect frictionless flow
corresponds to an Euler number of 1; the Froude number in flows with free surfaces
in which gravity is significant (e.g., wave motion), it the the ratio of a characteristic
velocity to a gravitational wave velocity; the Reynolds number in flows in which
viscous effects are important, the Mach number in compressible flows, the Weber
number in flows affected by surface tension (e.g., sprays with droplets), it is a
measure of the relative importance of the fluid's inertia compared to its surface
tension; and the Strouhal number in flows in which rotation or a periodic motion
plays a role.
Each of these numbers, with the exception of the Weber number (surface tension
effects are of little engineering importance), will appear in flows studied in other
cases.
Note: The Froude number is often defined as V2/lg; this would not influence the
solution to problems.
Problem
The pressure drop p over a length L of pipe is assumed to depend on the average
velocity V, the pipes diameter D, the average height e of the roughness elements of
the pipe wall, the fluid density , and the fluid viscosity . Write a relationship
between the pressure drop and the other variables using Buckingham theorem.
Ans:
Problem
The speed V of a weight when it hits the floor is assumed to depend on gravity g, the
height h from which it was dropped, and the density of the weight. Use dimensional
analysis and write a relationship between the variables.
Ans:
End