Air-entraining admixtures cause small stable bubbles of air to form uniformly through a concrete

mix. The bubbles are mostly below 1 mm diameter with a high proportion below 0.3 mm. The
benefits of entraining air in the concrete include increased resistance to freeze-thaw degradation,
increased cohesion (resulting in less bleed and segregation) and improved compaction in lowworkability mixes.
The volume of air entrained depends on the application and the mix design. After mixing, air can
be lost during transport and pumping. Allowance should be made for this so that the correct level
of air is obtained in the hardened concrete. This may mean testing at the point of discharge rathr
than at the batching plant. Air entrainment reduces the density of the mix and increases yield.
This needs to be taken into account when batching and mixing.
For every 1% of additional air entrained, concrete strength will fall by around 5%. At normal air
entrainment levels, most other properties of the concrete including drying shrinkage and creep
are not significantly affected.

The main reason for using entrained air is to improve freeze-thaw and scaling resistance and so
prolong service life. The improved cohesion and compaction can also enhance quality and
durability.
Though hardened concrete appears solid, it is actually highly porous, having small capillaries
resulting from the evaporation of water beyond that required for the hydration reaction. A
water:cement ratio (w/c) of approximately 0.25 (this means 25 parts water for every 100 parts
cement) is required for all the cement particles to hydrate. Water beyond that is surplus and is
used to make the plastic concrete more workable or easily flowing or less viscous . Most
concrete has a w/c of 0.45 to 0.60, which means there is substantial excess water that will not
react with cement. Eventually the excess water evaporates, leaving little pores in its place.
Environmental water can later fill these voids. During freeze-thaw cycles, the water occupying
those pores expands and creates stresses which lead to tiny cracks. These cracks allow more
water into the concrete and the cracks enlarge. Eventually the concrete spalls - chunks break off.
The failure of reinforced concrete is most often due to this cycle, which is accelerated by
moisture reaching the reinforcing steel. Steel expands when it rusts, and these forces create even
more cracks, letting in more water.
The air bubbles are typically 10 to 500 micrometres in diameter (0.0004 to 0.02 in) and are
closely spaced. The air bubble can be compressed a little, and so the bubbles act to reduce or
absorb stresses from freezing. Air entraining was introduced in the 1930s and most modern
concrete, especially if subjected to freezing temperatures, is air-entrained. The bubbles contribute

to workability by acting as a sort of lubricant for all the aggregates and large particles in a
concrete mix.
In addition to entrained air, hardened concrete also contains entrapped air. These are larger
bubbles, and are typically less evenly distributed than entrained air. Entrapped air is considered
to not make a positive contribution to durability and is undesirable though not entirely avoidable.