Checkshot / VSP Models

Interval Velocity (ft/sec)
Checkshot / VSP Models
1800
1600
Velocity functions
from checkshot /
VSP data.
1400
1200
1000
0
2000
1000
3000
Depth to Mid Point of Interval (ft)

In this section we will consider the use of checkshot / VSP data
to derive velocity models.
In what ways might we use the data?
When we use a mathematical expression to relate V, t and z

what types of function might we use?
4.1
Quality Control
Before we actually start defining the functions we need to Quality

Control our data. We can do this graphically using the same crossplots that we will use when deciding what functions might be
suitable to model our data.
Cross-plot: For a single well, e.g. checkshot or VSP values
Time Depth
Average Velocity Depth
Interval Velocity Depth
For multiple wells
Isochron Isopach
Interval Velocity Mid point time (or depth)
Interval Velocity Isochron
Average Velocity Depth (or time)
Quality Control
Having identified anomalous points or values we need

to revisit the source data and check for mistakes,
accuracy etc.
Anomalous data points that are left uncorrected may
not change the well / seismic correlation, nor the
function we use to model the data, but they will affect
the uncertainty in the velocity model and resulting
structural volume.
4.2
To depth convert seismic reflection time:

average velocity from datum to reflector
depth in terms of travel time.
Volume models (analytic functions):

mathematical equation
usually a function relating some V to t and z

To decide whether a single layer or multi-layer model is
appropriate consider: The shape of the average velocity curve, can it be adequately
represented by a single function?
The average velocity curves from the wells in the project, do
they overlie one another?
The time-depth plot to the target horizon, do the data points lie
on a well defined trend, or are they scattered?
4.3
Average Velocity
Average velocity as a function

Interval velocity as a function
Instantaneous velocity as a function
Average Velocity
Constant
The simplest velocity model of all. The whole section or
volume of the model is represented by one velocity.
VA = V0
A degenerative form of function with all other constants
zero. A straight line through the origin on a time-depth
plot.
Useful to know, starting point for fitting functions, quick
depth conversions and iterative model building.
4.4
Exercise 4.1
Checkshot / VSP
The table below gives a set of average velocity observations to a geological boundary
from a number of wells. For those not comfortable with spreadsheets you are asked to
find the representative constant average velocity using a calculator.
The supplied CD contains the data set as time depth pairs in the file Ex 4.1.xls where
you have to calculate the Average Velocity, find the numerical average velocity and
graphically find the best average velocity.
TVDSS ft
VA ft/s
1378
9274
1441
9370
2378
9786
2430
9798
4118
9932
5036
10470
4796
9881
3548
9983
3644
9993
4796
10076
5473
10268
6100
10535
5710
10233
5117
10102
5170
10117
5904
10340
6835
10772
2705
9908
2730
9927
5684
10370
4.5
Average Velocity
As a function
For depth conversion we need to be able to express depth
as a function of reflection time.
z = fn(t)
Average velocity functions are suited to this, particularly
average velocity expressed as a function of time:
VA = z/t = fn(t)
z = t x fn(t)
e.g.
VA = V0 + a.t
z = V0.t + a.t2
Average Velocity
A function of time
Time-Depth
The time - depth curve for a single

well fit by a quadratic equation is
a linear increase in average
velocity with time.
0.2
Tim e in secs
0.4
0.6
0.8
1000
2000
If we have more than one well in

the project area we simply plot all
the data values and fit our
function to the combined dataset.
Depth in feet
3000
z = V0.t + a.t2
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
4.6
z = 6839.2t2 + 3782.5t
Average Velocity
A function of time
One well
Several wells
Average Velocity Function
Average Velocity Function
One Way Time (s)
One Way Tim e (s)

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-1000
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
1000
1000
2000
2000
3000
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
3000
4000
5000
4000
5000
6000
6000
7000
7000
8000
8000
9000
9000
z = 2061.4t3 - 824.53t2 + 7149.7t 156.21
Average Velocity
A function of time
Average Velocity a Function of Time
8500
Average Velocity (ft/s)
Given several
wells in the
project how do
we deal with
this typical
problem?
8000
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
One Way Tim e (s)
4.7
1.2
Exercise 4.2
Checkshot / VSP
The CD contains a digital version of the exercise as Ex 4.2.xls. For the digital exercise
you should fit a straight trendline that gives the best fit to the data and display the
function and R2 value on the chart. Next try and find a function that gives a better fit.
The R2 value is the correlation coefficient, a measure of the goodness of fit varying from
1 (a perfect line of negative slope), to 0, no correlation, to +1 (a perfect line of positive
slope).
To do the exercise manually use a straight edge to fit a straight line trend to the data set
and estimate the intercept and slope values in the expression VA = V0 + k.z
Exercise 4.2
Average Velocity (ft/s)
11000
10500
10000
9500
9000
8500
8000
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
Time (sec)
4.8
0.50
0.60
0.70
Average Velocity
A function of depth
We may not have data from the length of the well bore or we
cannot find a good function, in which case we can cross plot
average velocity to the horizon, or level of interest, from a
number of wells and find a suitable function.
VA = A.zB
z/t = A.zB
z/zB = A.t
z(1-B) = A.t
(1-B)ln(z) = ln(A.t)
ln(z) = ln(A.t)/(1-B)
Ave ra ge V e locity (ft/se c)
U pper Trias
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
y = 4533.9x 0.0953
7000
6000
0
2000
4000
6000
Z = exp{[ln(A.t)] / (1-B)}
8000
TV DS S (ft)
Average Velocity
A function of depth.
The equation:
6675
VA = z/t = V0 + az
6670
z(1/t - a) = V0
z = V0 x t/(1 - at)
It is not always this
simple to manipulate
the equation.
Velocity
z(1 - at)/t = V0
6665
6660
6655
6650
6645
6640
9400
9450
4.9
9500
9550
9600
9650
Depth
9700
9750
9800
9850
Average Velocity
A function of depth.
The scatter:
6670
6665
6660
6655
6650
U pper Trias
6645
6640
9400
9450
9500
9550
Ave ra ge V e locity (ft/se c)
Velocity
The function will do a

poor job of depth
conversion when the
data point falls a long
way of the trend line,
i.e. there will be a large
mistie.
We need to find
functions where the
velocity data shows
little scatter.
12000
9600
9650
Depth
9700
9750
9800
9850
11000
10000
9000
8000
y = 4533.9x 0.0953
7000
6000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
TV DS S (ft)
Average Velocity
Average Velocity Functions

What are the advantages of average velocity functions?
What are the disadvantages?
How might we improve upon this type of model?
4.10
Interval Velocity

Interval Velocity
Constant
The simplest multi-layer velocity model. Each layer of the
model is represented by one velocity.
VIj = V0j
A degenerative form of function with all other constants
zero. The subscript m denotes the layer.
This model is particularly useful in small project areas
where the bed thicknesses change dramatically.
4.11
Interval Velocity
Constant
1900 m/sec
2500 m/sec
2300 m/sec
2600 m/sec
4600 m/sec
4000 m/sec
How do we determine the velocities of the layers?

Data courtesy of Amoco
Interval Velocity
Constant
To determine the velocities of
the layers use checkshot data at
the formation boundaries.
Or, interpolate checkshot data to
formation boundaries.
Interval Velocity
4000
10000
12000
4850
z = 400
1000
7133
2000
Depth feet
z = 2736
4000
8323
5000
6000
7000
z = 6573
12378
8000
4.12
Velocity ft/sec
8000
3000
The constant interval velocity

may be found by taking the
average of the interval velocities
from a number of wells, or from
a cross plot of isopach against
isochron.
6000
14000
Exercise 4.3
Checkshot / VSP
The exercise is found in Ex 4.3.xls on the CD where the interval velocities, isopach and
isochron values are to be found.
Interval
Velocity ft/s
9815
10703
10200
10755
10811
9599
10583
11507
11293
10000
11749
Given the set of interval velocity measurements, as shown

in the table, calculate the average interval velocity.
The chart below is for the same data set. Find the average
interval velocity from the slope of the trendline that passes
through the origin.
Can you explain you results?
4.13
Interval Velocity
Constant
How do we determine the
velocities of the layers when
we do not have any
checkshots or sonic logs?
?
What if we only have

checkshot data to the bottom
horizon?
?
?
?
Provided we have good

reflections we can find the
interval velocities of the layers
so that we minimise the depth
prediction error.
Interval Velocity
Constant
Provided that we have more observations (well location travel
times) than unknowns (interval velocities).
VA = VI.t / t
Zcalc = VA x t
Zerror = (Zobs - Zcalc)2
Change the values of VI to minimise Zerror, the RMS error term.
Excel contains a macro function that will perform this
minimisation task.
4.14
Exercise 4.4
Checkshot / VSP
This exercise is found on the CD as file Ex 4.4.xls and has no manual equivalent.
The exercise uses equations just discussed and the Solver tool to calculate a set optimum
interval velocities. Solver appears in the Tools Add-Ins menu.
Data and formulae are already entered into the table to perform the calculation
The Solver tool is found under the Tools menu and if not present should be available under
the Add-Ins. The screen picture shows the situation prior to running Solver. The water
velocity of the first layer is left unchanged.
4.15
Interval Velocity
Constant
What are the advantages of a constant interval velocity
model?
How might we improve upon this model?
Interval Velocity
It is fairly common practice to cross plot isochron, t, against isopach, z, and

than fit a straight line. The function is of the form
z = A + B.t
This is equivalent to
VI= A/t + B
If the line goes through the origin B is the constant interval velocity. Try plotting
VI against 1/t as a QC of your function.
Kimmeridge Shale
K immeridge S hale
12000
Interval Velocity ft/s
0.16
Isochron (se c)
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
4000
1/ t /s
Isopa ch (ft)
4.16
6000
8000
Interval Velocity
Interval velocity generally increased with increasing bed thickness

and with increasing depth of burial.
However, rather than use functions of the type: VI= A + B.z + C.ztop
it is more usual to use functions that relate the interval velocity to
the depth or time to the midpoint of the layer.
z
Two simple scenarios in which velocity gradients due to compaction within a
layer will contribute to an increase in the interval velocity. Both are modelled by
the expression above or by a mid-point expression.

Interval velocity generally increases with increasing bed thickness
and with increasing depth of burial.
Well A
Well B
Laye
r
Velocity
Layer 1 Vi log
1
Layer 1 VI trend
Vi log in well A
Layer 2
La
ye
r
Layer 2 VI trend
4.17
Vi log in well B
Layer 2
Even when the Vi trend is linear

The VI trend is non-linear
Interval Velocity
A function of depth of burial

This is one of the most
commonly used methods with
checkshot data.
Interval Velocity (ft/sec)

12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
2000
Depth to mid-point (ft)
VI = V0 + kzmid
VI = (z2-z1) / t = V0 + kzmid
z / t = V0 + k(ztop + z/2)
z (1- t.k/2) = t(V0 + kztop )
where t is one way isochron
z = t(V0 + k.ztop ) /(1 - t.k/2)
3000
4000
5000
If ztop is erroneous from overburden depth conversion then the

predicted isopach will be in error. It is better to use mid-point
time.
Interval Velocity
A function of time.
VI = z / t = V0 + k(ttop + t/2)
z = t.V0 + t.k(ttop + t/2)
2000
Visible trend
1900
1800
1700
Least Squares fit
1600
0
100
200
300
400
500
One Way Time (msec)
How might we deal with

them?
4.18
This example illustrates a

common problem.
Anomalous data points
seriously affect the slope
and intercept values.
Interval Velocity (m/sec)
VI = V0 + k.tmid
Interval Velocity
VI = V0 + k.tmid
VI = z / t = V0 + k(ttop + t/2)
z = tV0 + t.k(ttop + t/2)
2000
Robust fit used
Slope (K) = 0.73
1900
1800
1700
Least Squares fit

Slope (K) = 0.20
1600
0
100
200
300
400
500
Notice how the use of

robust fitting ignores the
anomaly so that it does not
influence the trend line.
Interval Velocity (m/sec)
A function of time.
One Way Time (msec)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of replacing

constant interval velocities by this type of function?
4.19
Exercise 4.5
Checkshot / VSP
A digital version appears on the CD in the file Ex 4.5.xls. Where you not only have to fir a
trend lines and find both slop and intercept values but also have to calculate the standard
/deviation or the errors (misties).
Or, use a straight edge to fit a linear trend to the interval velocity values in the chart
below. Estimate the intercept and slope values for the equations VI = V0 + k.tmid
Where do the two interval velocity values found in Exercise 4.3 plot onto this chart?
Which value appears to be most representative of the data?
Why?
Will this function give the most accurate depth conversion?
4.20
Interval Velocity
Interval Velocity Functions

What are the advantages of interval velocity functions?
Well ties
Velocity as a Function
Major disadvantages of the models so far have been:
i) velocities are rarely constant
ii) actual data are scattered about the trend line so that
most of the wells will be mistied by the model.
How can we achieve a model, described by these analytic
functions which better represents the data?
4.21
Instantaneous Velocity

What are some common instantaneous velocity functions?
4.22
We saw earlier that

instantaneous velocity
is the slope of the time
depth curve i.e.
Vi = dz/dt
Since the data points
are not in a straight line
we require a function
z = f(t)
where the f(t) is nonlinear.
One Way Time (msec)
1000
750
500
250
0
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

DEPTH (ft)
Given that Vi = dz/dt and we ultimately require a function z = f(t)

there are four classes of instantaneous velocity model: Vi = fn(t)
Vi = fn(z)
1/Vi = fn(t)
1/Vi = fn(z)
The latter two are sometimes referred to a slowness functions.
The first, Vi = fn(t), are directly related to the average velocity
functions that we saw earlier. If we have: VA = A + B.t + C.t2 from which
z = A.t + B.t2 + C.t3 then differentiating with respect to time
Vi = A + 2B.t + 3C.t2.
We can extend this concept to all of the functions VA = fn(t).
4.23
There are three well known formulae from the literature:
Vi = V0 + Kz
Slotnicks function, the popular V0, k method.
Vi = V0 (1 + Kz)n
known as Evjens function (Shell early 1930s) or as a
modified Faust function.
Vi = Kz1/n
Fausts formula.
Vi = V0 + Kz. Slotnicks function

Vi = dz/dt is the slope of the time-depth curve, which after
substitution into Vi = V0 + Kz , rearrangement and integration
gives
z = V0(eKt - 1)/K
for the first layer (where t is the one way time) and
zj = V0(eK t - 1)/K + zj-1 eK t

for succeeding layers (t = tj - tj-1 the one way time in the layer j,).
We can also use the equation
z = Vtop(eKt - 1)/K
For succeeding layers and this reduces the uncertainty in Vtop by
referencing the velocity to the top of the layer rather than the
surface or datum.
4.24
Vi = V0 (1 + Kz)n, (Evjens Function)

As before Vi = dz/dt and so after substitution,
rearrangement and integration we get
z = {[1 + V0K(1-n)t]1 / (1-n) - 1} / K

for the first layer and an even more complex formula
zj = {[(1 + Kzj-1)1-n + V0K(1-n)(tj-tj-1)]1 / (1-n) - 1} / K

for subsequent layers.
Also
z = {[1 + VtopK(1-n) t]1 / (1-n) - 1} / K
Evjens Function
Evjens function
Vi = V0 (1 + Kz)n
This is also known as a modified Faust function. It was

described by Banta, Geophysics 1941.
Care must be exercised over the V0 - is it inside or
outside the brackets? - and n - is it n or 1/n? Either of
these variations will result in different formulae for
depth conversion.
4.25
Vi = K0z1/n (Fausts second function)

As before Vi = dz/dt and so after substitution, rearrangement
and integration we get for the first layer
z = [(n-1)K0t / n]n / (n-1)

and for subsequent layers
zj= [zj-1(n-1) / n + K0(n-1)(tj-tj-1)/n ]n/n-1.

Also z = [(n-1)Ktopt / n]n / (n-1)
Undesirable aspects of this function are that the velocity goes
to zero at the reference depth and should not be used for
thicknesses less than 500 ft. The results are unstable for n<1.
This formula is used in a form of static corrections known as
Blondeau weathering.
Note the use of V0, k and n as

generic
constants.
Whenever
anyone tells you the values of Vo, k
and n be sure to understand which
formula is intended. Use in the
wrong formula will result in an
incorrect depth conversion.
4.26
It is not unknown for confusion to arise between
VI = V0 + Kz (interval velocity)
and
Vi = V0 + Kz (instantaneous velocity).
The source of the confusion is twofold:
Terminology. Instantaneous velocity is sometimes called
instantaneous interval velocity and it then becomes
confused with interval velocity.
The use of V0 and K as generic constants
The Error
Whenever there is a velocity
gradient, e.g. Vi = VO + kz then
the interval velocity is not equal
to the instantaneous velocity at
the mid point depth of the bed.
1000
VI
4.27
Depth
2000
For thin beds the instantaneous

velocity and interval velocity
assume the same values. So if
we have a detailed checkshot or
VSP survey the computed
interval velocities over the thin
intervals will show the same
trend as the velocity log.
0.5
Tim e
1
3000
4000
5000
6000
Vi
1.5

For a linear
instantaneous function
the interval velocity at
mid point depth is a nonlinear relationship as
verified by modelling.
Even if the intercept
velocities are similar the
slopes of the trends are
different.
DEPTH (ft)
The Error
plot,
i.e. Vi = V0 + Kz obtained
by optimizing V0 and K in
z = V0(eKt - 1)/K.
6000
4000
K = 0.703
V0 = 5397
2000
0
0
250
500
750
One Way Time (msec)

After Marsden et al, Analytic Velocity Functions,
Leading Edge 1995
4.28
Notice the scatter of the

data points in this
example.
The Error
0
DEPTH (ft)
This is the same dataset

used in the previous slide,
but Interval Velocity
plotted, i.e. VI = V0 + Kz.
Slope K and intercept V0
obtained by fitting a least
squares line. These
constants are for use in z =
V0t / (1 - Kt), not in z =
V0(eKt - 1)/K.
1000
2000
K = 0.318
V0 = 5427
3000
4000
5000
6000
Notice the scatter of the

data points in this example.
5000
6000
7000
8000
INTERVAL VELOCITY (ft/sec)
Leading Edge 1995
The Error
DEPTH (ft)
It is frequently believed
that the V0 and K from VI
= Vo + Kz (K = 0.318 V0
= 5427) can be used as
estimates for the V0 and
K in Vi = V0 + Kz, but as
we saw from the
equations this is not so.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000

Leading Edge 1995
4.29
5000
6000
7000
8000
INTERVAL VELOCITY (ft/sec)
DEPTH (ft)
The Error
curve i.e. z = V0(eKt 1)/K drawn with the
constants V0 and K
estimated from the
interval velocity plot,
that is, using K = 0.318
and V0 = 5427 as
estimates for
K = 0.703 and V0 =
5397.
6000
K = 0.703
V0 = 5397
4000
K = 0.318
V0 = 5427
2000
0
0
250
500
750
One Way Time (msec)

Leading Edge 1995
If we use the values of

V0 and K obtained from
interval velocity v. depth
and use them in the
correct depth conversion
formula then our depth
conversion will be OK,
but not exactly the same
as we would get with the
formula.
DEPTH (ft)
The Error
6000
4000
2000
0
0
250
500
750
One Way Time (msec)
4.30
For the three common formulae we have expressions
for z (depth) in terms of t (one way time).
Checkshot data can be represented by these formulae
if we use some form of non-linear regression, or
optimization.
Thus, the data at our disposal does not limit the type of
function we can use.
The checkshot data from one
or more wells can be fitted with
any of the instantaneous
velocity formulae: -
Linear Functions
0.00
0.20
Tim e
0.40
0.60
0.80
Vi = 4972 + 1.671 z
1,000
2,000
Vi = -1780 + 4.090 z
3,000
Depth
Vi = V0 + Kz
Vi = Kz1/n
Vi = V0(1+Kz)n
4,000
5,000
6,000
The parameters will vary with

formation.
7,000
Vi = 7464 + 0.8712 z
V i = -10,229 + 3.963 z
8,000
Vi = 74,173 - 7.495 z
9,000
4.31
1.00
Faust Functions
0.00
0.20
Evjen Functions
Tim e
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00
Vi = 2870 z
1/8.073
1.00
Vi = 1058(1 + 3149z)
V i = 0.0541 z
1/0.6504
2,000
3,000
4,000
4,000
Depth
Depth
0.80
0.1239
3,000
Vi =699.6 z
1/ 3.0078
6,000
8,000
0.60
1,000
2,000
7,000
Tim e
0.40
1,000
5,000
0.20
5,000
Vi = 0.04423(1 +
1.2007z)1.5279
Vi = 392.0(1 +
5.713z)0.3325
6,000
Vi = 0.01793 z
7,000
1/ 0.6419
V i = 0.000006797 z
V i = 0.0377(1 +
0.2971z)1.7058
8,000
1/ 0.4218
Vi = 0.0000298(1 + 0.001819z)7.1977
9,000
9,000
4.32
Exercise 4.6
Checkshot / VSP
The digital exercise is on the CD in Ex 4.6.xls where you have to recreate the plot, fit a
trendline and then predict the depth at TD from the travel time.
This plot shows instantaneous velocities estimated from a set of checkshot values (for
Well B), actually interval velocities over 100 ft intervals; the trend should be the same
as the trend on the velocity log. Use a straight edge to draw what you consider to be
the best linear function. It will have an equation Vi = V0 + Kz. Estimate V0 and K:
Using a travel time to TD of 0.9858 sec what is your estimate of the total depth using
your function? [z = V0 (eKt - 1)/K]
4.33
Hybrid Functions (1)

Hybrid functions are available to handle specific situations. For
example we sometimes find a thick low velocity layer at the
surface but cannot map the base of the unit, e.g. the average
velocity function of Exercise 4.2.
The Slotnick function may be modified. Vi = dz/dt = V1 + k.(z
z1) where z1 is the unknown depth to the base of the weathered
layer and V1 is the intercept for the section below the
weathering referred to the base of the weathering.

Which after some manipulation gives
z2 = z1 + V1/k.[exp(k(t2t1))-1]
However z1 is the depth at t1 but unknown, so, the variables are
changed to eliminate these parameters by putting V0 for V1.exp(kt1) and z0 for z1 + V1/k.(exp(kt1)-1), then
z2 = z0 + V0/k.[exp(kt2) -1]
which is the equation for a single layer with three unknowns, z0,
V0 and k which are determined by optimisation.
4.34

Well A
VI (0)
Well B
Velocity
Layer 1
Z2A
Vi observed in well A
Z2/3A
Z3A
La
ye
r
Z2B
Vi observed in well B
Z2/3B
Z3B
instantaneous
velocity trends
(lithology & bed thickness)
Z
Vi =
instantaneous velocities from velocity logs
Vmax = requires several wells

4.35
Vmax: burial trend

Another common problem is that in areas of tectonic uplift the
velocity more or less remains fixed at or near the maximum
velocity attained during burial. So the maximum instantaneous
velocity at the base of the layer obeys a linear law:
Vmax = V0 + k1.z2
And the instantaneous velocity decreases upwards in the layer
according to another linear function:
Vi = Vmax k2.z
Therefore Vi = V0 + k1.z2 k2.z.
z2 = [V0.(ek2t1) + k2.z1]/[k1.(1ek2t) + k2ek2t]
Where z2 is the depth to the base of the layer and z1 the depth
to the top of the layer.
An example of the instantaneous velocity decreasing upwards in a

layer.
4.36

Trend lines from a number of wells
and colour coded according to
sub-basin.
Each sub-basin has a different
tectonic history and each subbasin has its own value of K2.
We can see that Vmax V0 + K1.z2
for each set of wells
Instantaneous Velocity Functions

What are the advantages of instantaneous velocity
functions?
4.37
Instantaneous Slowness Functions

Examples of slowness functions may be found in the literature.
The advantage of slowness functions is that the velocity
becomes asymptotic at great depth in many of the functions,
which is geologically reasonable.
The disadvantage is that for the majority of the functions it is
impossible to obtain a depth conversion expression of the form
z = fn(t). Virtually all slowness functions give expressions t=fn(z)
and although they may be solved on the computer the
parameters have to be derived by minimising travel time error
rather than depth conversion error.
Summary

Tim e in secs
Time Depth Plot
We will use the checkshot

values from Well B, introduced
in the previous exercise, to
illustrate how such a dataset
may be used to produce
different functions all of which
can be used for depth
conversion.
0
0
1000
2000
Depth in feet
3000
4000
5000
The important point in depth

conversion is to accurately
predict the depth. This is not
the same as accurately
predicting the velocity.
6000
7000
8000
4.38
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Summary
Average Velocity
This is the plot of average velocity against depth. It is fairly
straight so we will fit a linear function of average velocity against
time.
Summary
Average Velocity
Average
velocity is a
function of time.
VA =
5450.3 + 2555.9t
where t is one
way time.
Perhaps a
polynomial
would fit better?
4.39
Summary

Tim e in secs
Time Depth Plot
Average Velocity
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
From this plot we can see that

even though the linear
average velocity function was
not a particularly good
representation of the data it
still does quite a good job of
depth conversion.
Average velocity
function VA = V0 +Kz
with V0 = 5450.3 and
K = 2555.9
1000
2000
Depth in feet
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Summary

Tim e in secs
Time Depth Plot
Average Velocity
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
The average velocity function

derived by a non-linear least
squares fit to the time-depth
data points.
1000
2000
Average velocity
function VA = V0 +K
with V0 = 5572 and
K = 2385.8
Depth in feet
3000
This curve is better for depth

conversion because of the
way in which it was derived.
4000
5000
Towards the bottom we can

clearly see different trends in
the data, perhaps we need
more than on function.
6000
7000
8000
4.40
y = 2385.8x 2 + 5572x
Summary
Average Velocity
A much closer fit to the
data points.
Remember that a
polynomial of average
velocity in time is
equivalent to an
function in time.
We can see from this plot that there are probably four layers involved which
we could treat with individual functions. Rather than use a number of
different functions of average velocity we could use interval velocities.
Summary

Interval Velocity
Interval Velocity
4000
6000
Velocity ft/sec
8000
10000
12000
0
4850
z = 400
1000
The average interval velocities

of the major formations. This
model is suitable for use in
depth conversion but the large
velocity changes make it
unsuitable for some forms of
modeling.
7133
2000
Depth feet
3000
z = 2736
4000
8323
5000
6000
7000
z = 6573
12378
8000
4.41
14000
Summary

Tim e in secs
Time Depth Plot
Interval Velocity
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
t-d curve from

interval velocity
model
1000
2000
3000
Depth in feet
We can see how well the

interval velocity model
performs for depth conversion.
It is only at intermediate
depths within the layers that it
fails to do a very good job.
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Summary

Interval Velocity
Interval Velocity
4000
Coarse and fine interval

velocity models. The fine
interval velocity layers come
from checkshots but the
choice is guided by reference
to the velocity log.
6000
Velocity ft/sec
8000
10000
12000
0
4850
400
1000
7133
2000
2736
Depth feet
3000
This finely layered model is

not suitable for depth
conversion but is suitable for,
say, modelling. We can see
that the coarse model will not
represent the acoustic
impedance changes.
4000
8323
5000
6000
6573
7000
12378
8000
4.42
14000
Summary
The instantaneous
velocities estimated
from the checkshot
values are rather noisy.
This noise comes from
the small errors in the
depth and travel time
values.
We can still make use of
the data and fit a trend
for use in depth
conversion.
Summary
This linear function
appears to
represent the data
quite well. We can
see how well it will
perform in depth
conversion by
generating a time
depth curve to
compare with the
observed
checkshots.
4.43
Summary
This curve is not a particularly
good representation of the
data and will result in a poor
depth conversion.
We will get a better result if we
use the time-depth values
directly in a least squares
optimisation algorithm.
Summary
A much better result is
obtained when we fit the timedepth data rather than the
velocity data!
4.44
Summary
Comparison of the
two results of
finding a linear
function of Vi to
represent the data.
One function
represents the
time-depth data
best whilst the
second represents
the velocity curve
better.
Summary
Now do exercise 4.7

This is a digital exercise that recreates the
fitting of the instantaneous velocity
function to the time-depth data.
4.45
Exercise 4.7
Checkshot / VSP
For this exercise and some that follow you will require the Add-in to the Tools
menu called SOLVER.
In this exercise we are going to find the parameters for Slotnicks equation. We
will use the time-depth values that were used in Exercise 4.6 but the
method will work for any set of time-depth values, either from
VSP/checkshot data representing the velocity distribution throughout the
subsurface, or from time-depth values to a particular formation
boundary. Remember, the model is for a single layer where the
instantaneous velocity increases linearly with depth.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Return to the Ex 4.6.xls file and open the worksheet from exercise 4.6.
Copy the three columns of data to columns A, B and C of a new worksheet
leaving at least 3 blank rows at the top.
In cell C2 type Vo =, in cell C3 type k =and in cell E4 type RMS error =,
right justify the entries.
In cell D2 type a starting value for V0. You may use a guess, 5000 would be a
good number when working in feet, or 1500 when working in metres, or use the
value of the intercept from the trendline derived in exercise 4.6.
In cell D3 type a starting value for k. You may use a guess, a good number
would be about 1, or use the value of the slope from the trendline derived in
exercise 5.
Enter other text as shown in the figure
4.46
Exercise 4.7 continued
Checkshot / VSP
7.
8.
9.
In cell D8 enter the equation =$D$2+$D$3*A8.

In cell E8 enter the equation =$D$2*(exp(B8*$D$3)-1)/$D$3.
In cell F8 enter the equation =A8-E8.
10.
11.
Copy the formulae in cells D8, E8 and F8 to fill the columns.

In cell F4 enter the equation =SQRT(SUMSQ(F8:F81)/COUNT(F8:F81)).
4.47
Exercise 4.7 continued
Checkshot / VSP
12.
13.
14.
15.
With cell F4 selected pick SOLVER from the TOOLS menu.

Enter the cell reference $F$4 in SET TARGET CELL if necessary
Pick the MIN radio button
Enter the cell references $D$2:$D$3 in BY CHANGING CELLS
16.
Click the SOLVE button, The values of V0 and k should change and the value
in cell F4 should be a lot smaller. Keep the Solver result.
Chart your results.
17.
4.48

Using Optimisation.
The method used in the exercise can be applied to any time-depth
or isochron-isopach data set.
Note that the model obtained for isochron-isopach data does not
predict the velocity gradient nor intercept that will be observed on
the velocity logs. The model gives the best prediction of the
isopachs from the observed isochrons. It can be used to model the
variation in interval velocity for the formation.
Selecting the best Function

Lias
3500
3000
2500
Isopach (ft)
Given that we can fit a variety of

different functions to a data set
we choose the best function as
the one that gives the minimum
depth prediction error.
2000
1500
1000
500
Error =[ (zobs zpred)2 /n]

Where zobs is the observed depth
Zpred is the depth predicted by
the function and n is the number
of data points.
4.49
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Isochron (sec)
Data
Slotnick
Constant Velocity
Model
RMS error
Constant
93.47251
Mid point time 60.86991
Slotnick
36.44168
Faust
45.4499
Evjen
45.44857
Functions
Extrapolation
Keep the function as

simple as possible. In
the example shown
the third order
polynomial produces a
better fit to the data
but does not
extrapolate well.
Total Zechstein
14000
12000
Isopach (ft)
High order functions

fitted to checkshot
data may not
extrapolate very well.
y = 105568x 3 - 49084x 2 + 20218x
10000
8000
6000
4000
y = 14870x + 102.67
2000
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Isochron (sec)
Summary
Using check shot data does not limit the type of function we
can use.
Average velocity: constant, as a function or mapped
Interval velocity: constant, as a function or mapped.
Instantaneous velocity as a function.
Some ways of representing the data accentuate the scatter
but this does not result in an inferior depth conversion
provided the depth conversion formula is appropriate to the
cross plot used in deriving the model parameters.
Keep the function as simple as possible and consider how it
extrapolates beyond the limits of the data.
4.50
Summary
Constant Average Velocity

For:
Quick to build velocity model.
Do depth conversion in head, (just change value of
contours on depth conversion.)
Easy starting point for iterative model building.
Against:
No variation of velocity - horizontally or vertically.
No increase with depth - geologically unreasonable
in sedimentary basins.
No lateral variation - geologically unreasonable in the
presence of structures.
Summary
Average Velocity Functions

For:
Functions easy to manipulate.
Quick to build velocity model.
Misties often small in areas of dense well control.
Against:
May not adequately represent velocity variations.
Misties often large when applied to basin scale models.
4.51
Summary
Constant Interval Velocities

For:
Accounts for rapidly changing bed thicknesses of
contrasting velocities.
Builds a spatially variable average velocity model
Against:
Does not allow for vertical velocity variations within
layer.
Misties at well control still a problem.
(The acoustic impedance could be a problem in
some models limiting its future use.)
Summary
Interval Velocity as a Function.

For:
Allows for compaction so geologically reasonable.
Does not allow for dramatic velocity variation within the
layer.
Against:
Misties at wells still a problem.
4.52
Summary
Instantaneous Velocity as a Function.

For:
Allows for compaction so geologically reasonable.
Does not allow for dramatic velocity variation within the
layer.
Compensates much of the scatter seen in interval
velocity cross plots.
Against:
Misties at wells usually only a small problem.
4.53

Checkshot / VSP Models

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