STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE SCORE

Knowing the score is one of the most important aspects of the conductor’s role. It is
impossible to over stress this point. You will find that communication with your
musicians is through sight-so that if your head is in the score and not the score in your
head you will not have the confidence to look up and face your protagonists eye to eye.
Musicians are usually not stupid, and even a relatively inexperienced amateur can tell
when the conductor is bluffing. Therefore it is vital that the conductor has as much in
depth knowledge as possible of the document which offers the best insight into the
composer’s intention.

Erich Leinsdorf, in his excellent text The Composer’s Advocate, reminds us that the score
is not the music. The printed word and printed music are similar in that they are both
pictorial images of sounds, and in the same way that one learns to read a book a similar
mental process can be developed to read a score. The skill will eventually become as
natural as reading a novel, even though a score contains many more lines and absorbed
both vertically and horizontally. One might also think of the score in the same way as an
architect’s drawing – the building does not exist on paper, but it is the primary source
from which it will be created. Neither is it the only thing you will need to come up with
the end product. Therefore, it goes without saying that the conductor should begin the
process of studying the score in detail well before the first rehearsal. Your players will
not notice – let alone be impressed - if you are fully conversant with the score at the first
rehearsal, but they will certainly be critical if you are not.

When preparing scores try to read them from the bass upwards to avoid just learning the
tune. Look for obscure leads, long rests in certain sections, and use your common-sense
to tell you who needs bringing in or special help of any other kind.

Recordings – sense or sacrilege?

At this point it may be appropriate to address the role that recordings should or should not
play in score study.

The traditional view is that recordings should play no part in the process. Certainly, no
matter how impressive a recording played by a great orchestra under the direction of a
prominent conductor may be, listening to it can never be a substitute for serious score
study. It holds the risk of imprinting in one’s mind the interpretive ideas of another
musician, possibly even getting confused when consulting several different renditions. A
young conductor who wishes to become a master of the craft must learn to study a score

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without leaning on outside help. The conductor should learn the score by reading it, or
playing it on the piano, and reverting to other source material as appropriate. To listen to
recordings of the work is to take a short cut through that time-consuming process which
will leave the conductor with only a superficial knowledge of the work in question, and
very possibly result in a re-interpretation of someone else’s work. Or so the argument
goes.

However, I believe that most serious conducting students and the majority of professional
conductors do use recordings to a greater or lesser extent – even if they do not admit as
much in public.

Advantages

1. Recordings can provide an authoritative performance, possibly by the composer

himself.

2. Provide a useful means of acquaintance with new works. On hearing a work, study it
along the lines already referred to: the melodies can be recognized together with the
thematic and harmonic structure, the mood, and the emotional content. Tempi can be
evaluated and the dynamics and phrasing and balance studied. Note how different
approaches can dramatically alter the balance between different instruments.

3. On following a recording through it may be easier to recognize areas of difficulty

which could give problems in rehearsal.

4. By conducting to records, the student is freed from problems of rehearsal technique

and nervousness, and is able to concentrate on arm actions.

5. The conducting profession has changed dramatically in the relatively recent past, and
the days when a maestro could build a successful career on a small and focused repertoire
of maybe 20 or 30 major works are long gone. Conductors have to know a lot of
repertoire and must be able to learn new pieces quickly so the traditional view is
unrealistic in practice. With some modern scores it may even be necessary and invaluable
in sorting out any aural complexities.

6. An outstanding recording can be quite stimulating. It supplements the musical

imagination by giving a vivid picture of the orchestra’s sound.

Disadvantages

1. Basing all your knowledge of a work on a single recording will give a very one-sided
and unimaginative view of the music.

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2. The vital preparatory beat and changes of tempo, so critical to the success of a
performance, cannot be practiced on recorded material; relating these to a recording may,
in fact, give a false sense of security. There is also the danger that the conductor learns to
follow rather than lead. A grave danger of repeated listening without a score is that
syncopations or metrical complexities may be misinterpreted, the ear inadvertently
misplacing the correct emphasis because details of the score have not been appreciated.
Such habits and misconceptions can be very difficult to eradicate.
Using a recording for conducting exercises gives you only a passive experience. The best
method while practicing your conducting technique is to hum or sing the music.

3. Listening to a recording does not help a musician develop inner hearing ability. While
listening, the conductor does not read the music, he or she follows it. Following along in
the score and actually reading the music are two entirely different processes. The
distinction is very important. A recording gives the conductor too much too soon. The
danger is that the conductor may be tempted to imitate what is heard. The recorded
performance may also be misleading or inadequate. Imitation is not the goal of score
study – unique, personal interpretation is.

One must therefore take a pragmatic approach and judiciously use recordings as an aid to
the process provided that the dangers can be borne in mind. The benefit from listening to
a recorded performance ad infinitum is rather misguided as only a little stimulation of the
inner imagination can occur. Reading, marking and inwardly digesting develops a deeper
subconscious experience, promoting in turn a unique musical personality, while learning
by rote as it were, by imitating another conductor (or three or even more), rather negates
that likelihood. That is not to deny the value of listening to a recording later in one’s
career for it can be most refreshing to compare one’s own performance with another
conductor’s without sacrificing any personal identity or integrity.

If you do listen to recordings, the following should be noted:

1. It is essential that you do not get into the habit of playing other people’s
recordings to learn a work. Your reactions to the notes in front of you are what matter,
not somebody else’s at second hand.
1. If at all possible listen to more than one recording. This will avoid one
conductor’s extreme tempo, or some unusual interpretative decisions, or even decided he
knows better than the composer and indulged in a little bit of re-composition.

3. Listen to the recordings early on in the score study process and, if possible, stop
doing so before the rehearsals start. This will allow your own interpretation to develop.

4. Have the courage of your convictions and, if you take a different view of
something than what you hear on recordings – no matter how exalted the conductor and
orchestra – go for it. Your interpretation will usually be better than your regurgitation of
someone else’s interpretation.

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1. Don’t practice conducting the piece with the recording playing – it’s not like that
in real life. As stated above, it is essential that the conductor develops the physical
gestures to realise your inner impulse of the music

2. Don’t necessarily stick to the big names – they (orchestras and conductors) may
be better able to pull off an idiosyncratic performance than you.

In addition to audio recordings, there are now a large number of video sources available.
These include DVDs of performances and video clips on Youtube.

STUDY METHODS

So, how to actually start studying the score? The study of unfamiliar scores proceeds in
steps, although the order of steps may vary. Agreement exists regarding the first step:
perusing the score on a getting-acquainted basis. Many conductors then undertake a form
analysis in terms of phrase groups and larger segments. This may go hand in hand with,
or be followed by, an investigation of the harmonic and contrapuntal structure. In the
case of serial compositions, the note row, or smaller units, must be determined and
pursued throughout all permutations. When studying the orchestration, the conductor
must make it a habit to clarify what each player is doing at any given moment, not merely
which notes are being played but, equally important, how they are to be performed in
regard to rhythm, dynamics and other markings. Painstaking attention to these elements
during score study will bear fruit when rehearsals begin, and the conductor, thanks to
solid preparation, is able to communicate with the players.

Seven Trips

The concept of Seven Trips through the Score is taught in various forms in several
European conservatories. It advocates a methodology based on going through the score,
start to finish, seven times, focusing each time on a different aspect and increasing
knowledge incrementally. They are:

1. Instrumentation and transpositions Is the score transposed or in concert

pitch? Are the transpositions standard or unusual? Can we cover the instrumentation or
do we need to prepare cues?
2. Form analysis
3. Harmonic structure
4. Melodic line and its instrumentation Which is the leading line, the
secondary part /counter melody or accompaniment?
5. Phrasal analysis
6. Dynamics – decide on a structure of dynamic levels; some conductors change
dynamics to achieve better balance
7. Special effects in the score and manner of execution on the instruments

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While this approach may appear a little rigid and inflexible and one could query the
absence of matters such as tempo and articulation, it seems to be a good place from
which to start evolving one’s own method.

In the field of wind band conducting there exists only one intensive study into the method
of score study. This is by the Americans Frank Battisti and Robert Garofalo. This has
much to commend it and is summarised below.

Method
Battisti/Garofalo

Step 1 – Score Orientation

Objective: To acquire an overview of the entire work
Method (3 phases);

A. Read information printed on the cover and on the introductory pages to the score.

B. Examine the first full page of music. Answer the following questions:
1. Is this a transposed score or is it a score in C?
2. Is there anything unusual about the instrumentation or the score layout?

C. Leaf through the score:

1. Observe all tempos, metres, and key signatures.
2. Identify and clarify unfamiliar notation (signs and symbols) and unknown terms.
3. Determine appropriate slow reading tempos to be used with step two of the
process.

Step 2 – Score Reading

Objectives: To achieve an overall sound image of the music in the mind and to develop
an intuitive musical feeling for the expressive potential of the music.
Method:

A. Use a comfortable slow reading pulse.

B. Don’t stop.
C. Use your musical imagination, feelings and intuition. Let your subjective, non-
analytical feelings about the music surface naturally.
D. Do not analyze details or attempt to memorize the music.
E. Do not use the piano or listen to the recordings.
F. Reread the score several times every day until you have achieved the objectives of
step 2 in a natural way.

Step 3 – Score Analysis

Objective: To acquire detaioled knowledge of all components of the composition.

Method:

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A. Analyze each component of the music:

1. Melody
2. Harmony
3. Form
4. Rhythm (tempo, metre & rhythm)
5. Orchestration and texture
6. Dynamics - horizontal (dynamic curve) and vertical (balance)
7. Stylistic considerations (articulations expressive terms and performance practices)

B. Complete a synthetic analysis of the composition.

Step 4 - Score Interpretation

Objective: To achieve a personal interpretive image of the music in your mind

Method:
A. Apply all score knowledge and insight acquired through score study in arriving at
your interpretation of the music.
B. Resolve questions bearing on the interpretation of non-objective elements of the
music.
1. Tempi
2. Phrasing (melodic, harmonic, rhythmic)
3. Dynamics (vertical, horizontal)
4. Timbres and textures
5. Stylistic matters

C. Refine your interpretive sound image of the music as you play it back in your
mind

Concurrently with score study, investigate background information about the composer,
the composition and the style period.

Some aspects to be considered

Some conductors are happier analysing the overall formal structure first, getting a grasp
of form and phrase structure before moving on to matters of instrumentation, architecture
of dynamics, length of pauses etc. Some advocate a part by part approach, playing or
singing each by turn on the premise that the conductor must know every part and how the
lines interrelate with each other. Others insist that the only way to really learn a score is
to harmonically analyse each chord, using that as the basis on which decisions as to
tempi, phrasing and dynamics are taken.

In both score study and rehearsal it is worth bearing mind the concepts of micro and
macro. Study of the overall form (macro) is essential for an art form that takes place in
time. It is also necessary to prepare and rehearse small details of articulation etc (micro)

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but it must be emphasised that the overarching shape must always be kept in mind if the
music is not to become bogged down in the details. This point will be reiterated when we
discuss rehearsal technique where the importance of complete run–throughs will be
stressed – both at the beginning of the ensemble’s learning stage and at various times
thereafter.

Tempo In your study of the score you must decide on tempi. The composer generally
gives some indication, often but not always accompanied by a metronome mark. In this
case a metronome should be used to check on the given tempi. It may be considered
necessary to adjust for the needs of the ensemble and the hall. To say that Allegro
suggests that a movement goes quickly is not the whole story. How quickly depends on
the sound; and the ‘sound’ of that sound is determined by technical factors and
requirements and is further qualified by the technical skill of your performers. It is
essential to remember that music is not what it looks but how it sounds; what is most
important in music is not the notes. Metronome marks are really signposts- the final
arbiter is the sound of the music and the unwritten intentions of the composer. Always
remember this otherwise your music making will be at best merely accurate and probably
pedestrian

Dynamics Having then decided on the tempo you must look at the dynamic patterns –
the comparative degrees of loudness and softness, and the rise and fall of the tensions
implied by the variations in volume. You can also evaluate by eye and the mind’s ear the
various subtleties of balance and nuance. The general mark forte will produce a different
degree of loudness according to the instrument employed – and of course the player’s
idea of how loud the forte should be. Some adjustments of the forte values may well be
called for-the keen ear will hear the problem and the good eye will anticipate the solution.

Phrase analysis One of the major functions of conducting is to direct the phrasing and
internal dynamics. Phrase analysis makes the work smaller and more manageable and
gives a clearer idea of where the piece is going. The players have the dynamic bare
bones, but do not know where the music is going to or coming from, and they may not
understand their particular role at a given time; playing the main melody, the counter-
melody, harmonic backing, a rhythmic accompaniment or harmonic twist. In score study
it is essential to decide where phrases are going, so that this can be reflected in your
conducting.

It is also good practice to anticipate problems of ensemble, intonation and balance and try
to thinks of ways to avoid them.

Ultimately the correct method is the one which works best for you, and it goes without
saying that as you gain experience your approach will change.

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Marking the score
Huge differences of opinion exist. For some conductors, any marking of the score is
nothing short of sacrilege. Others cover the pages with such a mass of text,
hieroglyphics, chord symbols and numbers that the notes seem to have become almost
incidental. Neither approach is right or wrong, of course, as the printed page should only
be an aid to the memory providing that ‘the score is in the head and not the head in the
score’, which Mahler is said to have remarked. The primary function of score marking is
to enter all the information that the conductor wishes to be added to the printed orchestra
parts for the sake of clarification and of reducing the need for verbal comments in
rehearsal.

It is important that marking is not used as a short cut alternative to thorough learning.
Some conductors mark their scores to lead the eye to important events, but this must not
be allowed to become a substitute for a thorough knowledge of the workings of the score.
There is no taboo against an occasional mark to facilitate score reading, but a conductor
must not proceed indiscriminately and make marking a compulsive routine. People who
defend the messing up of scores should be very sure that they are not deficient in score
reading-not to mention the nuisance they cause others who have to use the same copy and
will suffer from the idiosyncrasies of colleagues. Unless the legibility of a score is poor,
it should not be necessary to pencil in signs for cuing. You should at least wait to enter
signs that duplicate printed notation until, in the course of rehearsals, you find that you
need warning signals to feel secure. Do not rely on signposts to warn you when you are
approaching a danger area. On the other hand, the very process of adding marks to a
score may serve to emphasize important facts, allowing quick recall during rehearsal or
performance when there is little time to read the score. Clearly written additions can
make useful reminders, particularly when the conductor knows the score well enough so
that he is conducting largely from memory. Excessive marking however will tend to
obscure and reduced the value of the most useful additions.

Here is one approach:

1. Analyse the phrase structure and mark phrase lengths at the top of pages (and
possibly halfway down if it is a very large score). Do this in red pencil. I do not
advocate drawing thick lines down the score at every new phrase as this can break up the
melodic line. Put a number in a circle to note the number of bars in the phrase. Mark
important lines (haupstimme), important subsidiary lines, and key leads
2. Mark important cues and dynamic levels in blue pencil. Try to keep this to a
minimum. Avoid highlighters.
3. Other markings will be in ordinary pencil. These could include:
a. Metronome marks – although by no means an inflexible rule, at every major
tempo change one will know the speed one plans to adopt.
b. Key changes.

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c. Marking phrase groups can be useful when the metrical structure of a composition
changes frequently. Being reminded of irregular bar grouping, a conductor concentrates
with greater ease on the many other details that require attention.
d. In passages with many asymmetric time patterns and changes Mark in the changes
at top, and halfway down the score. Divisions of 2s and 3s will be marked by symbols eg
vs and triangles.
e. At points of difficulty the well-known diagram of a pair of spectacles is useful.

f. Translations of unusual markings – of course one should be familiar with the

common terms in the major languages but often there will be unusual instructions or less
familiar languages.
g. Occasionally some harmonic analysis, but only when it s particularly important or
unusual.

Everything else can be done in separate notes. For example, sketch out the phrase
structure and use that as a learning tool particularly with larger pieces.

Whether you should or should not mark the individual parts is a whole topic all of its
own. However, if it is acceptable and appropriate in the circumstances, doing so can be a
very effective part of your score study. A similar approach, which is usefully adopted
with student and non-professional groups, is to do a separate set of rehearsal notes to give
to players prior to the rehearsals, particularly if time is short. The instrumentation of
many wind band pieces is larger than that of many non-staff bands and vital lines can be
missing if not cued (2nd flute/piccolo, 2nd oboe/cor anglais, Eb clarinet, bass clarinet,
baritone saxophone, 3rd and 4th horns, string bass, piano, harp, percussion). Ideally, cues
should be written out before the rehearsals so that valuable rehearsal time is not lost.

Other source material

Whilst the score is the primary source, there are many other places to look for
information. As a general rule, if you are preparing a transcription, do not trust the
arranger. Much of the early military band repertoire was transcribed from the orchestral
originals. Many of these old ‘yellow’ arrangements contain serious editorial errors.
Always track down the orchestral score so that you conduct with an idea of what the
composer actually meant before the arranger imposed his own ideas and mistakes.

A selection of other sources would include:

1. Books, journals, recording notes, articles and other published material about the
composer, the work in question, or the circumstances surrounding its creation. Of course,
this can range from a bewildering mass of material in the case of Beethoven or Mozart to
a few paragraphs on the internet or in a CD sleeve for a more recent composer whose is
work is not established.
2. Recordings of both the work in question, and other works by the composer –
particularly those composed around the same time.

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3. In the case of contemporary music: the composers themselves. Most will be delighted
to know you are performing their work and will be happy to share programme notes,
rehearsal suggestions and other background information.
4. Where relevant, the literature, art, theatre or other art form which inspired or
influenced the work in question.
5. Texts and other materials focusing on conducting. For example the series of books by
Norman del Mar: Conducting Beethoven etc. Whilst one may disagree with some of the
interpretive suggestions, the fact that these books are written from the point of view of
the conductor on the podium rather than the academic in the classroom makes them
extremely valuable.

And finally…

It is often said by extremely successful conductors that the more experienced they
become the more often they revisit a piece they have conducted before, the more time
they feel they need to devote to score study! A work will always reveal some new secret
to those who diligently search and keep an open mind; however well you know a work
you can always know it better.

When, and only when, you have completed the search for the truth that lies behind the
notes are you ready to work with your performers.

It is generally assumed that there are 3 stages for the realization of a given piece; score
study, rehearsal and performance. This assumes that the conductor has full control of a
complete range of physical gestures. For trainee conductors it is essential that, having
once obtained an inner vision of how they want the music to sound, they must practice
the physical manifestations necessary to realise this inner impulse.

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