Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Instructors:
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos, George J. Cokkinides, GIT, Hilton Mills, HP&D
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.1
NOTICE
This material may not be reproduced without the written consent of the developer.
The developer is neither responsible nor liable for any conclusions and results
obtained through the use of this material.
For further information, contact:
Dr. A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos,
Georgia Power Distinguished Professor
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0250,
Telephone: 404 894-2926
Email: sakis.m@gatech.edu or sakis@comcast.net
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.2
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Day 1
Grounding System Design Principles
Basic Concepts
Accidental Electrocution Circuit Parameters
Safety Criteria
IEEE Std 80 2000 Edition
IEC-479-1
Lightning and EMC
Integrated 3-D Design Procedures
Grounding System Performance
Ground Potential Rise
Fault Current Distribution
Transferred Voltages
Touch and Step Voltages
Influence on Comm/Control Circuits
Influence on Pipelines
Analysis Methods
IEEE Std 80 Design Procedures
Conductor and Joint Selection
Recommended Design Procedures
Special Points of Danger
Comparison of IEEE Std 80 and IEC-479-1
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.3
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Day 2
Soil Characterization
Soil Structures
Measurement Techniques
Soil Samples
Wenner Method
Three Pin Method
Measurement Interpretation
Theory and Limitations
SGM Method
Workshop
System Modeling for Grounding Design
General Principles
Modeling Requirements for GPR
Design Options for GPR Reduction
Modeling Requirements for Shielding Analysis
Workshop
Ground Mat Design for Safety
Touch/Mesh/Step Voltages
Metal to Metal Touch Voltages
Design Options for Touch Voltage Control
Safety Assessment
Workshop
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.4
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Day 3
Integrated Grounding System Design
Cost/Benefit Analysis
Integrated Design Evaluation
Transfer Voltages (Pipelines, Buildings, etc.)
Control Cable Shielding and Grounding
Electric Railroad Grounding Design
Wind Farm Grounding
Design Optimization
Workshop
Substation Lightning Shielding
Basic Principles
Shielding Angle
The Rolling Sphere Method
The EGM Method
Risk Assessment
Design Procedures
Workshop
Ground Design for Lightning
Ground Surge Impedance
Lightning Points of Entry
Lightning Overvoltage and Propagation
Transfer Voltages to Control Circuits
Wind Turbine Protection
Mitigation Methods
Integrated 3-D Substation Design
Assessment of Clearances
Bus Design Evaluation
EMF Computations
Ground Impedance Measurements
Fall of Potential method
Theory and Limitations
Factors Affecting Test Accuracy
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.5
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Day 4 - Morning
Grounding System Testing and Evaluation
Ground Impedance Measurements
Ground Mat Measurements
Soil Resistivity Measurements
Tower Ground Resistance Measurements
Point to Point Ground Impedance Measurement
Ground Integrity Tests
Touch and Step Voltage Measurements
Transfer Voltage Measurement
Probe Calibration
Measurement Confidence Level
Grounding Audit
Day 4 - Afternoon
Demonstration and Workshop
Grounding Audit
Demonstration of:
Ground Impedance,
Soil Resistivity, and
Tower Ground Measurements
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.6
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing
Grounding System Design Principles
Grounding System Performance
Ground Construction & Design Procedures
Soil Characterization
Soil Resistivity Measurements
System Modeling for Grounding Design
Ground Mat Design for Safety
Integrated Grounding System Design
Substation Lightning Shielding
Ground Design for Lightning
Integrated 3D Substation Design
Ground Impedance Measurements
Ground Impedance Measurements (SGM Method)
Grounding System Audit
Demonstration and Workshop
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.7
Purpose of Grounding
Lightning and Surge Protection
Stabilize Circuit Potential and Assist in Proper Operation of:
- Communications
- Relaying
- Computers & Sensitive Electronic Equipment
Low Fault Circuit Path Impedance (Protection)
Safety, Safety, Safety
Improve Quality of Power Service
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.8
Terms and Definitions
Body Current
Duration of Electric Shock
Permissible Body Current
Ground Potential Rise
Touch Voltage
Mesh Voltage
Step Voltage
Permissible Touch or Step Voltage
Transfer Voltages
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.9
Body Current
Perception
About 1 mA
Muscular Contraction (Let Go)
About 10-20 mA
Unconsciousness
Ventricular Fibrillation
About 300 mA
for three seconds
Respiratory Nerve Blockage
Burning
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.10
Body Current
99.8
Perception Current
99
Let-Go Current
Predicted
Curve for
Women
Ventricular Fibrillation
Percentile Rank
80
Permissible Body Current
(Standards)
Men
40
0.2
0
Perception Currrent, mA (RMS)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.11
Body Current
Perception Current (mA rms)
Perception Current
Let-Go Current
100
Ventricular
Fibrillation
Percentile 99.5
10
Permissible Body
Current (Standards)
Percentile 50
Threshold of Perception
1
Percentile 0.5
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
Frequency (Hz)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.12
Body Current
Perception Current
Let-Go Current
Ventricular Fibrillation
Permissible Body Current (Standards)
40
99.5%
Dangerous Current
20
50%
0.5%
Let-Go Threshold
200
100
Minimum
Fibrillating
Current (0.5%)
Maximum
Non-Fibrillating
Current (0.5%)
Safe Current
0
pigs
300
Kiselev Dogs
Dogs
Ferris Dogs
60
sheep
80
Fibrillating Current (mA RMS)
Let-Go Current (Milliamperes) - RMS
calves
100
0
5
10
50
100
500
1000
5000
Frequency (Hz)
Effect of Frequency on Let-Go
Current for Men
20
40
60
80
Body Weight (kg)
100
Relationship of Fibrillating Current to
Body Weight for Various Animals
3 second electric shock
Iave = 3.68W + 28.5 (ma)
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1.13
Effects of Current on Heart Beat CEI 1984
Auricles
Ventricles
Speed of
Excitation
R
2
1
2
Recovery from
Excitation
5
4
Q
4
S
Vulnerable Period
of the Ventricles
Ventricular Fibrillation
ECG
120
Blood Pressure
80
400ms
40 mm Hg
0
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
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1.14
The Electrocution Parameters
rbody
A1
A2
A1
A2
Veq
req
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.15
50
(30)
Body Impedance
CEI 1984
Resistance to One Hand
(Resistance to Both Hands)
40
(20)
45
(23)
Resistance from one (or both)
hands to various points in percent
of total body impedance ZT
60
50
(25)
75
55
(30)
100
65
(30)
70
(45)
70
(50)
100
(75)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.16
Body Impedance Dependence on Voltage - CEI-1984
Total Body Impedance ZT
Values for the total body impedance (ZT)
that are not exceeded for a percentage
(percentile rank) of
Touch
Voltage
5% of the
population
50% of the
population
95% of the
population
25
50
75
100
125
220
700
1000
Asymptotic
Value
1750
1450
1250
1200
1125
1000
750
700
650
3250
2625
2200
1875
1625
1350
1100
1050
750
6100
4375
3500
3200
2875
2125
1550
1500
850
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.17
IEEE Std 80, 1986 Edition
200
100
pigs
sheep
300
Kiselev Dogs
Dogs
Ferris Dogs
Fibrillating Current (mA RMS)
calves
Value of Constant k for Effective
RMS Values of Ib:
k = I b ts
Minimum
Fibrillating
Current (0.5%)
k50 = 0.116 (Non-Fibrillating, 0.5%)
k50 = 0.185 (Fibrillating, 0.5%)
k70 = 0.157 (Non-Fibrillating, 0.5%)
Maximum
Non-Fibrillating
Current (0.5%)
k70 = 0.263 (Fibrillating, 0.5%)
0
0
20
40
60
80
Body Weight (kg)
100
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.18
IEC Publication 479-1 - Permissible Body Current
Zones
Physiological Effects
Zone 1
Usually no reaction effects.
Zone 2
Usually no harmful physiological effects.
Zone 3
Usually no organic damage to be expected. Likelihood of muscular contractions and difficulty in breathing,
reversible disturbances of formation and conduction of impulses in the heart, including atrial fibrillation and
transient cardiac arrest, without ventricular fibrillation, increasing with current magnitude and time.
Zone 4
In addition to the effects in zone 3, probability of ventricular fibrillation, increasing up to about 5% (curve c2),
up to about 50% (curve c3), and above 50% (beyond curve c3). Increasing with magnitude and time,
pathophysiological effects such as cardiac arrest and heavy burns may occur.
Time Current Zones of Effects of AC Currents (15 Hz to 100 Hz) on Persons
10000
Duration of Current Flow t (ms)
5000
c1
c2 c3
2000
1000
500
200
100
50
20
10
0.1 0.2
0.1
10 20
50 100 200
500 1k
2k
5k
10k
Body Current Is (ma)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.19
IEC Publication 479-1 - Permissible Body Current
Time Current Zones of Effects of AC Currents (15 Hz to 100 Hz) on Persons
10000
Duration of Current Flow t (ms)
5000
c1
c 2 c3
2000
1000
500
200
100
50
20
10
0.1 0.2
0.1
10 20
50 100 200
500 1k
2k
5k
10k
Body Current Is (ma)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.20
IEC - Publication 479-1
Effects of Current Passing Through the Human Body
Threshold of Perception: 0.5 mA
Threshold of Let-Go Currents: 10 mA
Threshold of Ventricular Fibrillation:
500 mA @ 0.1 seconds
40 mA @ 3 seconds
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.21
Comparison of Standards
Non-Fibrillating Body Current as a Function of Shock Duration
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.22
Comparison of Standards
Non-Fibrillating Body Current as a Function of Shock Duration
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.23
Foot to Soil Resistance
IEEE Std80 Approximate Equations
Human foot is modeled as a plate in contact with the earth surface
The resistance of a circular plate to remote earth is:
R=
4b
Where b is the disk radius. For arbitrary shaped objects, b is
approximated as:
b=
b 0.08 meters
where A is the area of the foot in contact with the
earth. For adults with large feet:
Thus, the resistance of each foot in
contact with the earth is:
Two feet in parallel (touch voltage case):
Two feet in series (step voltage case):
In Case of Resistive Top Material:
R=
(4) (0.08)
req =
= 3 Ohms
(3 ) (3 )
= 1.5
3 + 3
Req = 3 + 3 = 6
req = 1.5 cs s
req = 6.0 cs s
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
for touch voltage
for step voltage
1.24
Reduction Factor
Comparison of IEEE Std 80 and Computer Model
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.25
Human Body Resistance as a Function of Voltage
IEC Total Body Impedance
Values for the total body impedance (ZT)
that are not exceeded for a percentage
(percentile rank) of
Touch
Voltage
5% of the
population
50% of the
population
95% of the
population
25
50
75
100
125
220
700
1000
Asymptotic
Value
1750
1450
1250
1200
1125
1000
750
700
650
3250
2625
2200
1875
1625
1350
1100
1050
750
6100
4375
3500
3200
2875
2125
1550
1500
850
IEEE Std 80
ZT = 1000 ohms
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
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Safety Assessment - IEEE Std 80
Basic Idea: Compare Actual Maximum Body Current to Permissible
Conversion of Permissible Body Current to Permissible Touch Voltage
ibody < i perm
veq < V perm = (rbody + req )i perm
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
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Permissible Touch and Step Voltages
IEEE Std 80 - 2000 Edition
a
Vtouch
= I a reqT
a
Vtouch
a
touch
0.116
(1000 + 1.5 )
0.116
=
(1000 + 1.5cs s )
t
a
Vstep
= I a reqS
a
Vstep
=
a
step
0.116
(1000 + 6 )
t
0.116
(1000 + 6cs s )
=
t
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.28
Permissible Touch and Step Voltages
IEC, Publication 479-1
a
step
= ib,c 2 (t )( R (ib,c 2 (t )) + req ,S )
a
touch
= ib,c 2 (t )( R (ib,c 2 (t )) + req ,T )
S
b
T
b
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.29
The History of IEEE Std 80
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.30
The History of IEEE Std 80
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.31
Comparison of IEEE & IEC Standards
IEEE Std 80, IEC 479-1
Each Standard Defines Permissible Body Current. The Permissible Body Current Can Be
Converted to Permissible Voltage (Touch or Step)
Safety Assessment
The Objective of the Design Process is to Guarantee that the Body Current in a Person in
the Vicinity of the System, Touching Any Grounded Structure will not Exceed the
Permissible Value (Safety Assessment)
Differences Between IEEE std 80 and IEC 479-1
IEEE Std 80
Body
Resistance
1000 ohms
Thevenin Equivalent
Resistance
1.5css for touch voltage
6.0css for step voltage
Thevenin Equivalent
Source
Simplified Equations
(Km, Ki, L, Ie for Touch Voltage)
(Ks, Ki, L, Ie for Step Voltage)
or use of computer models
0.116A / t for 50 kg person
0.157 A / t for 70 kg person
Permissible
Body Current
IEC 479-1
Voltage Dependent and
Path Dependent
(Figures 4 & 5)
no guidance
no guidance
S-curves (Figure 6)
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.32
Ground Potential Rise Earth Current
Definition: The potential of grounded structures with respect to remote earth
during fault conditions.
Computation of GPR:
Rg
Iearth
D
a
GPR = Rg I earth D = Rg aI fault D
is the grounding system resistance
is the earth current, and
is the decrement factor
is the current division ratio
Current Division Ratio:
I earth
a=
I fault
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.33
Touch Voltage - Mesh Voltage - Step Voltage
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.34
Touch Voltage - Mesh Voltage - Step Voltage
1
10
Y
Grid Spacing: 1000.0 ft
Model A
C
1
GROUND_N
MAIN-GND
J
Scale (feet)
0'
15'
30'
Advanced Grounding Concepts / WinIGS
45'
10
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.35
Touch Voltage
2
9
Y
Grid Spacing: 100.0 ft
Model A
Equi-Touch Voltage Plot with respect to MAIN-GND (GROUND_N)
Vperm = 301.6 V, Vmax(+) = 408.8 V, Margin: -26.22%
91.12 V
122.9 V
154.7 V
186.4 V
218.2 V
250.0 V
281.7 V
313.5 V
345.3 V
377.0 V
GROUND_N
MAIN-GND
L
Scale (feet)
0'
20'
40'
Advanced Grounding Concepts / WinIGS
60'
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.36
Earth Voltage
1
9
Y
Grid Spacing: 100.0 ft
Model A
Equi-Earth Voltage Plot
Vperm = 300.0 V, Vmax(+) = 1.699 kV, Margin: -82.34%
1.328 kV
1.365 kV
1.402 kV
1.439 kV
1.477 kV
1.514 kV
1.551 kV
1.588 kV
1.625 kV
1.662 kV
F
GROUND_N
MAIN-GND
L
Scale (feet)
0'
20'
40'
Advanced Grounding Concepts / WinIGS
60'
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.37
Step Voltage
1
10
Y
Grid Spacing: 100.0 ft
Model A
Equi-Step Voltage Plot
Vperm = 510.4 V, Vmax(+) = 310.7 V, Margin: 64.29%
28.31 V
56.54 V
84.78 V
113.0 V
141.3 V
169.5 V
197.7 V
226.0 V
254.2 V
282.4 V
GROUND_N
MAIN-GND
L
Scale (feet)
0'
20'
40'
Advanced Grounding Concepts / WinIGS
60'
10
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.38
Transfer Voltages
Fault
Broken
Ground
GPR
Touch
Voltage
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.39
Transfer Voltages
Metallic Pipe near Power Line
Distribution Line
Metallic Pipe
Sacrificial Electrodes
Sacrificial
Electrodes
Pipe Grounding
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.40
Special Applications
Metal to Metal Touch Voltage
Electric Railways
Secondary Distribution Systems
Gas Insulated Substations
Power System Influence on Other Circuits
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.41
Metal to Metal Touch Voltages
Example: Isolated Fences
Touch V
200
ETOUCH 70
150
130V
100
ETOUCH 50
0.5
2
3 4 5
Time (s)
65V
10
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Copyright 1994-2014, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
1.42
Metal to Metal Touch Voltages
Example: GIS Substation
B
30'
Fault
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Possible Touch Voltages
near an Electric Train
1m
2.1m
175'
1m
k1
Trac
k2
Trac
Touch Voltage
to Train
(Person Standing
2.1 m away from rail
and touching train.)
Touch Voltage
to Bridge.
(Person Standing
1 m away from bridge
and touching bridge.)
Touch Voltage
to Catenary Pole
(Person Standing
1 m away from pole
and touching pole.)
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Electric Train Power System
about 2 miles
Counterpoise
Rail A
Rail A
Rail B
Rail B
Counterpoise
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Normal Operation Stray Voltages and Currents
~
I sky
Sky Wire
HA
LA
HB
LB
LC
HC
Neutral
~
I fault
Neutral
~
I neutral
Ground Rod
Counterpoise
~
I counterpoise
Ground Rod
Ground Rod
Ground Mat
~
I earth
Secondary
Distribution Systems
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Special Issues on Gas Insulated Substations
1. High Fault Currents in a Limited Space
2. Low Footprint High Ground Resistance B
3. Voltage Drop Along Tubes
30'
Fault
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1.47
Power System Influence on Communication Circuits
During a Fault the Induced Voltage on the Communication Line
will Approximately Be:
4,603 Volts per mile per 10 kAs of Fault Current
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Computer Programs
Substation Grounding Workstation
(SOMIP, SMECC, SGSYS, TGRND)
Distribution Grounding Analysis (DGAP)
Integrated Grounding System Design (WinIGS)
CYME
Safe Engineering
Many Others-Based on IEEE Std 80
Integrated Grounding System Design and Testing Grounding System Design Principles
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1.49
