367
Journal of Hydrodynamics
Ser.B, 2006,18(3): 367-371
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF
STEPPED CHANNEL*
DONG Zhi-yong
School of Civil and Architecture Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China,
E-mail:dongzy@zjut.edu.cn
LEE Joseph Hun-wei
Department of Civil Engineering，The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
(Received Aug. 15, 2005)
ABSTRACT: Numerical simulation of stepped channel flow
was conducted using turbulence models based on the VOF
technique. Stepped channel flow is a complicated air-water
two-phase flow with free surface, which can be divided into
three flow regimes: skimming flow, nappe flow and transition
flow. The characteristics of skimming flow over mild stepped
channel was investigated, including friction factors, air
concentration profiles velocity field, clear-water and bulked
depths, static pressure, etc. Smooth channel flow was also
simulated to compare the hydraulic characteristics of the
stepped channel flow with the smooth one. Comparisons
between the computed and the measured were made.
Furthermore, comparison of the computed air concentration
with Straub and Anderson’s data was also performed. The
Fluent 6.1 software was employed to conduct this numerical
simulation work.
KEYWORDS: numerical simulation, skimming flow, stepped
channel, Volume Of Fluid (VOF) technique
1. INTRODUCTION
The stepped channel/spillway finds its extensive
applications in hydraulic and environmental
engineering, which is used to dissipate the energy of
released flood and also to be a landscape structure.
Flow over the stepped channel/spillway is an
important and complicated hydraulic phenomenon.
Many researchers[1-9] have concentrated on
experimental research of hydraulic characteristics of
the flow over stepped channel/spillway. The earlier
experiments were conducted by Essery and Horner[1],
who suggested flow over stepped spillway could be
divided into three regimes, that is, the nappe flow,
Biography: DONG Zhi-yong (1962-), Male, Ph.D., Professor
sdlj.chinajournal.net.cn
SKIMMING FLOW OVER MILD
skimming flow and transition flow. Sorensen’s
experimental observation[2] further confirmed the flow
regimes over stepped spillway. Rajaratnam[3] analyzed
the shear stress and energy loss of skimming flow. In
the last 10 years, studies of stepped spillway/channel
flow have been increasingly active. Lee[4] constructed
a physical model and a mathematical model of
stepped side channel. Au and Lee[5] experimentally
investigated friction factors and specific energy at
mild slope θ =10o, 15.7o and 20o. for the skimming
flow, nappe flow and transition flow. Liao, Ru and
Wu[6] performed experimental study of hydraulic
characteristics over stepped spillways, including
stepped geometries and energy dissipation.
Recently, a few researchers have conducted
numerical simulations of stepped flow. The earliest
numerical work available using turbulence models
were Chen, Dai et al.[10-12], who employed
the k − ε turbulence models to simulate the
complicated turbulent overflow. Benmamar, Kettab
and Thirriot[13] developed a numerical model for
two-dimensional flow boundary layer in stepped
channel with steep slope, which was based on the
implicit finite difference scheme. Cheng, Luo and
Zhao[14] simulated void fraction of air-water
two-phase flow over stepped spillway using
k − ε models. The authors [15] conducted numerical
simulation of hydraulic characteristics of skimming
flow, nappe flow and transition flow over mild
stepped channel.
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2. TURBULENCE MODELS 3. NUMERICAL METHODS

Motion equation of incompressible viscous fluid 3.1 VOF Method
(N-S equation) can be written as Several methods have been used to approximate
free-surface flows. A simple, but powerful method is
∂ui ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ 2ui the VOF method[16]. This method is shown to be more
+ u j i = fi − +ν (1) flexible and efficient than other methods for treating
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂ xi ∂ x j ∂x j complicated free-surface flows. It was designed for
two or more immiscible fluids where the position of
Substituting u i = u i + u i′ , p = p + p ′ into Eq. (1), the interface between the fluids is of interest. In each
cell of a mesh it is customary to use only one value for
and taking time-averaging, we can obtain the each dependent variable defining the fluid state. The
Reynolds equation as follows use of several points in a cell to define the region
occupied by a certain fluid, therefore, seems
∂ui ∂u 1 ∂p 1 ∂ unnecessarily excessive. Suppose, however, that we
+ u j i = fi − + i
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂ xi ρ ∂ x j define a function F whose value is unity at any point
occupied by a certain fluid and zero otherwise. The
average value of F in a cell would then represent the
⎛ ∂ui ⎞ fractional volume of the cell occupied by a certain
⎜⎜ μ − ρ ui′u′j ⎟ (2) fluid. In particular, a unit value of F would correspond
⎟
⎝ ∂xj ⎠ to a cell full of a certain fluid, while a zero value
would indicate that the cell does not contain this fluid.
Cells with F values between zero and one must then
where − ρ u i′u ′j is the Reynolds stress. Standard contain a free surface. For air-water flow field, a
k − ε models are employed as follows: single set of momentum equation is shared by air and
water, and the volume fraction of each of the fluids in
each computational cell is tracked throughout the
∂k ∂k ∂ ⎛ ν t ∂k ⎞ domain. In each cell, the sum of the volume fractions
+ ui = ⎜ν + ⎟ +ν i
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi ⎝ σ k ∂ xi ⎠ t of air and water is unity. So an additional variable, the
volume fraction of air or water is introduced. If
Fw denotes the volume fraction of water, then the
⎛ ∂ui ∂u j ⎞ ∂ui volume fraction of air Fa can be expressed as
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ −ε (3)
⎝ j ∂ xi
∂ x ∂
⎠ j x
Fa = 1 − Fw (6)

∂ε ∂ε ∂ ⎡⎛ ν t ⎞ ∂ε ⎤
+ ul = ⎢⎜ν + ⎟ ⎥−
As long as the volume fraction of air and water is
∂t ∂ xl ∂ xl ⎣⎝ σ ε ⎠ ∂ xl ⎦ known at each location, the fields for all variables and
properties are shared by air and water and represent
volume-averaged values. Thus, the variables and
ε ⎛ ∂ui ∂ul ⎞ ∂ui ε2 properties in any given cell are either purely
Cε 1 ν t ⎜ + ⎟ − Cε 2 (4) representative of water or air, or representative of a
k ⎝ ∂ xl ∂ xi ⎠ ∂ xl k mixture of them, depending upon the volume fraction
values. The tracking of the interface between air and
k2 water is accomplished by the solution of the
ν t = Cμ (5) continuity equation with the form
ε
∂ Fa ∂ Fa
The empirical constants of standard + ui =0 (7)
k − ε models are listed in Table 1. ∂t ∂ xi

Table 1 Empirical Constants The value of Fa in a cell represents the fractional

Cμ Cε 1 Cε 2 σk σε volume of the cell occupied by air. In particular,
Fa = 1 will correspond to a cell full of air, while
0.09 1.44 1.92 1.0 1.3
Fa = 0 will indicate that the cell is full of water.
 369

Therefore, the interface information can be known

according to the value of Fa . In summary, the VOF
technique can locate free surface as well as a
distribution of air concentration because it follows
regions rather than surfaces.
3.2 Boundary and initial conditions
The stepped channel in this paper consisted of 40 Fig. 2 Velocity vectors of skimming flow at Q=5.296L/s,
steps with an identical aspect ratio of step height to θ =10o. (Partly enlarged flow field with 10 steps)
step length (see Ref.[5] for details). The stepped and
smooth channels at θ =10o and 20o were numerically 4.2 Clearwater and bulked depths
simulated, respectively. Unstructured mesh was Comparisons of computed depths with measured
employed to simulate skimming flow as shown in ones over stepped channel are shown in Fig.3. It
Fig.1. A 2D calculation domain was divided into follows from Fig.3 that the computed depths agree
discrete control volumes by the unstructured mesh that with the measured ones.
has a high adaptability like the finite elements to the
complex boundaries. The finite volume method was
used to convert the governing equations to algebraic
equations that can be solved numerically. The inflow
was set according to the experimental conditions. The
outflow was defined as a pressure boundary so that the
water can flow out freely. All air boundaries were
defined as pressure boundaries with zero pressure.
The wall was set as the stationary with no-slip
assumption. The viscous sub-layer close to the wall
was treated by a wall function. The initial flow field
over the stepped channel was full of air. Through the
time-dependent simulation, the water will flow over Fig.3 Comparisons between computed and measured depths in
the stepped channel and form free surface. skimming flow over a stepped channel ( θ =10o and
Q=11.69L/s)

4.3 Friction factors

According to the equilibrium condition of forces
for uniform flow, we have

τ 0 = γ RJ = γ Rθ = γ R sin θ (8)

Fig.1 Calculation mesh of skimming flow over a stepped where τ 0 denotes wall shear stress, R hydraulic radius,
channel J energy gradient, and θ slope, i.e., θ = sin θ .
1
Assume τ 0 ρ V02 = C f , where C f denotes
4. NUMERICAL SIMULATION RESULTS 2
4.1 Skimming flow regime friction factor, and V0 velocity of uniform flow, then
In the skimming flow regime, the water flows
down the stepped face as a coherent stream, skims 1
over the steps and is cushioned by the recirculating τ 0 = C f ρV02 (9)
fluid trapped between them. The energy dissipation in 2
the flow appears to be enhanced by the momentum
transfer to the recirculating fluid. Figure 2 shows the Combining Eq.(8) and Eq.(9), we can obtain
velocity vectors of skimming flow. Skimming flow
pattern can be easily seen from the figure, which R sin θ
exhibits linear boundaries either in the upper or the
Cf = (10)
V02 2 g
lower parts. Skimming flow occurs when the
discharge is larger.
Now we define three friction factors: the
clearwater friction factor C f 1 , the bulked friction
 370
factor C f 2 , the friction factor C f m that corresponds
to the maximum of velocity profile. Three friction
factors C f 1 , C f 2 and C f m in skimming flow over
stepped channel at θ =20o. are shown in Fig.4.
Fig.4 Comparison of friction factors in skimming flow over
stepped channel ( θ =20o, Q=11.69L/s)
Figure 5 shows comparisons of friction factors
between the stepped and the smooth channel flows at
θ =20o. We can easily see from the figure that friction
factor of the stepped one is considerably greater than
that of the smooth one.
Fig.5 Comparison of friction factor C f 1 between the stepped
and the smooth channels ( θ =20o, Q =11.69L/s)
4.4 Comparison of velocity profiles
Velocity profile at step34 for θ =10o. with
Q=11.690L/s is shown in Fig.6. It follows from the
figure that there is a good agreement between the
computed and the measured results.
Fig.6 Velocity profile at step34 for θ o
=10 and Q=11.690L/s
4.5 Simularity of air concentration
We give the air concentration profiles at step=5,
10, 18, 26 and 34 shown in Fig.7, and find that the
profiles exhibit a good similarity.
Fig.7 Similarity of air concentration at θ =10o and
Q=11.690L/s in skimming flow over stepped channel
4.6 Simularity of aerated flow velocity profiles
Velocity profiles along flow direction in
skimming flow are plotted in Fig.8. It follows from
the figure that the velocity profiles exhibit a good
similarity.
Fig.8 Similarity of velocity profiles in skimming flow over
stepped channel at θ =10o and Q=11.690L/s
Fig.9 Contours of static pressure in skimming flow at θ o
=10
and Q=5.296L/s
4.7 Contours of static pressure
Typical contours of static pressure in skimming
flow at θ =10o and Q=5.296L/s are shown in
Fig.9, which exhibits contour structures of static
pressure on the steps along flow direction. The unit of
static pressure is expressed in Pascal. There is a
negative pressure region around both the corner and
the cavity of step, and a positive pressure region at
downstream of the cavity and on the crest of step.
4. 8 Comparison of computed air concentration with straub
and anderson’s data

Figure 10 shows comparison of the computed
values with Straub and Anderson’s data[17] for the
profiles of air concentration on the smooth spillway at
θ =7.5o. It follows from the figure that the computed
air concentration agrees reasonably with the measured
data.
Fig.10 Comparison of computed air concentration with Straub
and Anderson’s data ( θ =7.5o )
5. CONCLUSIONS
Through numerical study of stepped channel
flow, we can draw some conclusions as follows.
Based on the VOF technique, the standard
k − ε turbulence models with unstructured mesh can
simulate skimming flow, and the computed
clear-water and bulked depths agree well with the
measured data. The computed values of friction factor
also agree with the measured data, and the computed
velocity profiles well with the measured data in
clear-water region (lower region). The computed
results indicated that friction factor in stepped channel
flow is considerably greater than that in smooth
channel flow, and there are good similarities of air
concentration and velocity in skimming flow over
stepped channel. The computed static pressure shows
that negative pressure occurs around the cavity of step,
and positive pressure on the step crest, and the
computed air concentration profile agrees reasonably
with Straub and Anderson’s data.
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