+q

s!
!

F=

q1 q2

4 o

r2

r r
r
F1 = F12 + F14

Electric!
Current!

!"
!=
!"

r
E

!!
!

Definition of the electric field vector

Consider the positively charged rod shown in the figure

!! =

For every point P in the vicinity of the rod we define

r
the electric field vector E as follows:
1. We place a small positive test charge qo at point P.
r
2. We measure the electrostatic force F exerted on qo

!
!
!!

E=

4 o r 2

!!

by the charged rod.

r
3. We define the electric field vector E at point P as:
r
r F
E=
SI Units : N/C
qo
r
r
From the definition it follows that E is parallel to F
Note : We assume that the test charge qo is small enough
so that its presence at point P does not affect the charge
distribution on the rod and thus alters the electric
r
field vector E we are trying to determine.

! = !"!

r r
U = pE

U = pE cos

Potential!
energy!in!
dipole!ele.!field!

! = !! !! = !"#$%!! (!"!"#!! )!

!
!

!! = !!! + !!! + !!! !

!

r r 1
= p E
r

!! = !!! + !!! + !!! !

Torque!on!
dipole!electric!
field!

r
Fnet = 0

!" = !

n1

Ed =

!"
!"#
=
!
!!
!!
!!

S1

p
2 o z 3
!

!" = !"#!

S2 n2

r r
=
E
dA

n3

o = qenc

S3

F
E=

r r
o
E
dA = q enc

2 o r

E=

E=

2 o

qenc

r
The electrostatic electric field E inside a conductor is equal to zero
2
n

3
n

1
n

Electric Potential Energy!

Work done by an applied force!

! = !! !

! = !! !! = !!
Electric Potential!
!
!=

!
!
! !

! = !! !! =

!! !! !
!
=
= !
!
!
!
!

Potential from the Field!

!

r r
VP = E ds
P

!=

Wext = qV
Potential due to a point charge!
1 q
!! = !! !! !
VP =
4 o R

!!
!
!

Potential due to a group point charges!

The previous equation can be generalized for n charges as follows:
V=

When!particle!is!stationary!

! = !! !! = !!"# + !!

1 q1
1 q2
1 qn
1
+
+ ... +
=
4 o r1 4 o r2
4 o rn 4 o

qi

r
1

Potential due to a continuous charge distribution!

V=

1
4 o

Potential due to an electric dipole!

1 p cos
! = !"!
2
Calculating the field from the potential! V = 4
r
r
o

dq
r

The component of E in any direction is the negative of the rate

at which the electric potential changes with distance in this direction

C=

q
V

A
C= o
d

!
! = 2!!!
!
!
ln!( )
!

Electric field of a point charge inside

a dielectric!
1 !

!=

Electric field outside an isolated

conductor immersed in a dielectric!

4!"!! ! !

!
!=
!
!!!

Isolated!
Sphere!

! = 4!!! !!

Potential energy stored in a capacitor

The work W spent to charge a capacitor is stored in the form of
potential energy U = W that can be retrieved when is capacitor is
q 2 CV 2
=
2C
2

Energy density
We can ask the question: where is the potential energy of a charged
capacitor stored? The answer is counter intuitive. The energy is
stored in the space between the capacitor plates where a uniform

q 2 CV 2
U=
=
2C
2

u=

oE2
2

We define as energy density (symbol u ) the potential energy per unit volume. u =
The volume V between the plates is: V = Ad where A is the plate area

Drift Speed!

U
CV 2
V 2 A o o " V # o E 2
=
=
= $ % =
Ad 2 Ad 2 Ad d
2 &d'
2
This result, derived for the parallel plate capacitor holds in general

r
J = nvd e J = nevr
d

Current density
Current density is a vector that is defined as follows:
i
Its magnitude J =
Units: A/m 2
A
r
The direction of J is the same as that of the current
The current through a conductor of cross sectional
area A is given by the equation: i = JA
if the current density is constant.
r
r r
If J is not constant then: i = J dA

Spherical!
capacitor!

electric field E = V / d is generated by the capacitor charges.

In other words the electric field can store energy in empty space!

Current!

dq
i=
dt

Cylindrical!
capacitor!

discharged. Thus U =

V
s

r
we can determine the components of E
r
and thus the vector E itself

Parallel1plate!
!"
! = 4!!!
!
(! !)
capacitor!

Finding!equivalent!capacitance,!use!q=CV!to!find!
charges!and!voltage.!Capacitors!in!series!share!the!
same!charge!and!in!parallel!share!the!same!V.!

C = Cair

E =

qq
qq
q1q2
+ 2 3 + 1 3
4 o r12 4 o r23 4 o r13

Capacitance!

V
x
V
Ey =
y
s
V
Ez =
z
If we know the function V ( x, y, z )
Ex =

Electric potential energy of a system of point charges!

! =! U =

If we take s ro be the x- , y -, and z -axes we get:

Resistance !

R=

V
i

Resistivity!

L
A
r
r
J =E

R=

Thus the energy density u =

Resistivity
The resistance R of a conductor of length L
and cross sectional area A is given by the expression:
L
R=
A
is known as the resistivity of the material R is made of.
AR
L

SI unit for :

SI unit for : 1 m -1

r
r
E = J

o = o (T To )
Resistivity of metal!

!=

m2
= m
m
1
The conductivity is defined as: =

Resistivity with temp.!

P = iV

P = i2 R

P=

!
!
! ! !"

V2
R

U
V

Ideal&&&&real&emf&devices&

Current&in&a&single&loop&

In a time interval dt a charge dq = idt passes through the circuit. The battery is
doing work dW = Edq = Eiidt.i Using energy conservation we can set this amount
2

of work equal to the rate at which heat is generated on R. Eiidt = Ri dt

Ei= Ri EiiR = 0

Current!
in!series:!!!!!!!
!=

!!"!#$

Kirchhoff put the equation above in the form of a rule known as Kirchhoff's loop rule
(KLR for short)

!" = !"#!

V =E

EiiR = 0

V = E ir

!!"

KLR : The algerbraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete

traversal of any loop in a circuit is equal to zero.

KJR : The sum of the currents entering any junction is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the junction

Same!current!
through!
resistors!in&
series!

RC:&charging&a&capacitor&

Our objective is to examine the charging process as function of time.

We will write KLR starting at point b and going in the the clockwise direction.
q
dq
dq
q
+ E = 0 The current i =
E
R = 0 If we rearrange the terms
C
dt
dt
C
dq
q
we have:
R + = E This is an inhomogeneous, first order, linear differential
dt
C
equation with initial condition: q(0) = 0. This condition expresses the fact that

!! + !! = !! !

Same!voltage!
through!
resistors!in&
parallel!

iR

RC:&discharging&a&capacitor&

at t = 0 the capacitor is uncharged.

Motion&of&a&charged&particle&in&
uniform&mag.&Field&

FB = iLB

Mag.&Force&on&a&straight&wire&in&a&
uniform&mag.&Field&

Helical&Paths&

r=

mv
qB

mv
qB

qB
2 m
m T= qB

Mag.&Torque&

Mag.&Force&on&a&
current&carrying&wire.&

Cyclotron&particle&accelerator&

mv
eB
2 m
r=
f =
T=
eB
2 m
eB
Magnetic field generated by a long
straight wire
The magnitude of the magnetic field
generated by the wire at point P
located at a distance R from the wire
is given by the equation:
i
B= o
2 R

r=

r oi dsr rr
dB =
4 r 3

B=

U has a maximum value U max = + B

for = 180 (position of unstable equilibrium)

Note : For both positions the net torque = 0

U = B

Magnetic field generated by

R at its center C

Mag.&Dipole&
All currents inside the loop parallel to the thumb are counted as positive.
All currents inside the loop antiparallel to the thumb are counted as negative.
All currents outside the loop are not counted.
In this example : ienc = i1 i2

B=

o Lia ib
2 d

U = B

r
r
o
B( z ) =
2 z 3

oi
4 R

a circular wire arc of radius

Fba =

= iAB sin

net
The magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment = NiA
Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the coil
r
The sense of is defined by the right hand rule. We curl the fingers of the right hand
r
in the direction of the current. The thumb gives us the sense of . The torque can be
r
r
expressed in the form: = B sin where is the angle between and B.
r
r r
In vector form: = B
r r
The potential energy of the coil is: U = B cos = B
U has a minimum value U min = B
for = 0 (position of stable equilibrium)

B=

o i
2 r

o Ni
2 r Toroid&

B = o ni Ideal&solenoid&

Chapter 30
Inductance

Inductance

Induction and

Inductance of the solenoid

r r B = Li
L = o n l A
B = BdA cos = B dA
Self Induction
2

d
E = !B
dt

di
E = L
dt

RL circuits
E
i(t ) = 1 et /
R

i (t ) =

E t /
e
R

Mutual Induction

1 = Mi2 2 = Mi1
di
di
E1 = M 2 E2 = M 1
dt
dt

L
R

Energy stored in a magnetic field

Li 2
UB =
2
Energy density of a magnetic field

uB =

B2
2 o

Lenz's Rule
Increasing!B(ext)!causes!B(ind)!
to!point!the!opposite!dir.!
Decreasing!B(ext)!causes!B(ind)!
to!point!in!the!same!dir.!

Self!induction,!
opposite!emf!dir!
with!decrease!

Decay!of!current!

The series RCL circuit

E = Em sin t

Three Simple Circuits

i = I sin (t )
LC Oscillations
q(t ) = Q cos (t + )

I=
=

1
LC

Resonance = 0 Power in an RCL ciruit

1
LC

I res =

2
Pavg = I rms
R

Em
R

Pavg = I rms Erms cos

Gauss' Law for the magnetic field

r r
B =
B
dA = 0

Curie's Law
B
M =C
T

Ampere's law
r

B dS = i

o enc

+ o o

dE
dt

The displacement current

dE
id = o
dt

Orbital magnetic dipole moment.

e r
r
orb =
Lorb
2m
Spin magnetic dipole moment
e r
eh
r
S = S S , z =
m
4 m
Sz =

h
ehB
mS U =
2
4 m

tan =

X L XC
R

Z = R2 + ( X L X C )
I=

Damped oscillations in an RCL circuit

q(t ) = Qe Rt / 2 L cos ($t + )
1
R2
" =
2
LC 4 L

Em
Z

Magnetization
r rnet
M=
V

Em
1 #
"
R2 + % L
C &(
'

The transformer
VS
V
= P
NS NP

I S NS = I P NP