The free scalar eld

Spin 0, neutral particles, e.g. 0 , described by a real scalar eld :

(1)

(x) = (x)

Property under Lorentz transformations:

U ()

x0

(x ) U ()

(x) scalar

(2)

The equation of motion, free, up to second order in derivatives (unique if local)

is called Klein-Gordon equation :
( + m2 )(x) = 0

(3)

with

~2
= t2
= t2 4
= 2
= p2 .

2: d0 Alembert operator, m2 : mass of the scalar particle

The Klein-Gordon equation can be derived out of Boosts from the rest frame
equation of motion:
(E 2 m2 )(x) = 0 unique
(4)
The most fruitful approach to Elementary Particle Physics is via the action
principle.
Lagrange density of a free scalar eld:
L(x) =

1
[ (x) (x) m2 2 (x)] .
2

(5)

Action S :
Z
S[]

=
=

d4 x L(x)
Z


1
d4 x (x) (x) m2 2 (x)
2

(6)

Action principle - variation of action is stationary:

S[] = 0

or

S
=0
(x)

with

(y)
= (4) (x y)
(x)

and

(y)
= y (4) (x y)
(x)

(7)

results in the following Euler-Lagrange equation

L
L

=0

( )

(8)

which equals the classical Klein-Gordon equation, take e.g. = (x):

( 2 + m2 )(x) = 0 .
Solutions are plane waves:
(x) = eikx

with

(9)

kx = k x

with

q
k = m , k = = ~k 2 + m2 .
2

So, there are positive and negative (!) energy solutions! (Compare Srednicki
p. 25)
General solution: linear superposition of plane waves.
Z
(x) =

d3 k 1 ikx ~
e (k) + eikx (~k) with , C
3
(2) 2

(10)

for real classical eld:

d3 k 1
(2)3 2
|
{z
}

Z
(x) =
R

d4 k
(2)4

eikx (~k) + eikx (~k)

(k2 m2 )(k0 )

with


k=

~k


.

(11)

In QFT, we replace the classical eld by operators sitting at every point in

spacetime:
(x) (x) operator in the Heisenberg picture
The expectation value h(x)i is a classical eld. As as basic recipe, one can
think of

QFT =

rel. invariance M 
2

E = m + p~

wave mechanics


2
t2

+m

=0

QM
Hilbert space, commutation rel. |0i , |~ki

Now, we want to compare Quantum Mechanics with Quantum Field Theory:

QM

Quantisation in Field Theory

J,
L

e.g. H,

Operator (acting on H.S.)

x, t), (~
x, t), A (~x, t)
(~

e.g. |i , {|l, mi}

Hilbert Space

Fock space:
vacuum, single & multiple particles states
|0i , |~
pi , |~
p, ~k, . . . i

h|H|i

Matrix elements

x, t)|0i
h 0 (~k)|(~

[x, p] = i(~)

Commutation Relations

[(~x, t), (~y , t)] = i 3 (~x ~y )

x, t)
with (~x, t) = 0L
(~
x,t) = (~

(canonical conjugated momentum)

The operator (x) obeys the Klein-Gordon equation (2 + m2 ) = 0 (as the
classical eld (x) does). In order to have a Hermitian operator we use a (k)
Z
(x) =

i
d3 k 1 h ikx ~
ikx ~
e
a
(
k)
+
e
a(
k)
(2)3 2

(12)

Inserting (12) into the canonical Commutation Relation [(~x, t), (~y , t)] results
in
h

i
a(~k), a (~k 0 )
i
h
a(~k), a(~k 0 )

(2)3 2 (3) (~k ~k 0 )

h
i
= 0 = a (~k), a (~k 0 )

Fock space
|0i: normalised vacuum state: h0|0i = 1 with
a(~k) |0i = 0 .

(13)

|0i is the lowest energy state!, i.e. a annihilates the vacuum.

Heisenberg picture (operators time-dependent, states time-in dependent):

(14)

t |0i = 0

All states are generated by applying a, a on |0i. a, a are annihilation and

creation operators, respectively.
One particle states:
|~ki = a (~k) |0i .
(15)
The states |ki are orthogonal:
=

h0| a(~k 0 )a (~k) |0i

h0| [a(~k 0 ), a (~k)] |0i

(2)3 2 (3) (~k ~k 0 )

(16)

d3 k
f (~k) a (~k) |0i
(2)3 2

(17)

hk 0 |ki =

General one-particle state:

Z
|f i =

Annihilation:
a(~k) |i is a state, where a particle with momentum k is removed from the state
|i.
Example with a general particle state |f i (see equation (17)):
Z
d3 k 0 1

= a(~k)
f (~k 0 ) a (~k 0 ) |0i
(2)3 2 0
Z
d3 k 0 1

=
f (~k 0 )
[a(~k), a (~k 0 )]
{z
}
|
(2)3 2 0

a(~k)|f >

(2)3 2 (3) (~
k~
k0 )

|0i

see (13)

(18)

2f (~k) |0i

Symmetries :
By partial integration of equation (5) one gets:
Z
S[] =

d4 x L(x) =

1
2

d4 x (x)[ m2 ](x) .

(19)

1. Invariance of S[] under orthochronous Poincare transformations

x0
0

(x )
0 0

with

x + a

(see Poincar transformation)

(20)

= (x)
=

T g = g

and

(20 + m2 )0 (x0 ) = (2 + m2 )(x) = 0

Unitary Representation: U (, a)
(x) = 0 (x0 ) = U (, a) (x0 ) U (, a)
U (, a) (x) U (, a)

= (x0 )
= (x + a)

(21)

On Fockspace:
U (, a) |0i = |0i
0
~
U (, a) a (k) U (, a) = eik a a (~k 0 )

with

k 0 = k

2. Invariance of S[] under Parity transformations

(22)

x0 = P x

with

1
1

P =

1
1

Unitary Representation
U (P ) (x) U (P )

= P (x0 )

U (P ) (~x, t) U (P )

= P (~x, t)

(23)

with intrinsic parity P = 1.

On Fockspace:
U (P ) |0i = |0i
~
U (P ) a (k) U (P ) = P a (~k)

Parity reverses 3-momentum of particle:

Scalar elds:
Pseudo scalar elds:

P = +1
P = 1

e.g. 0
Parity:

~x

p~

~
p

~x

(24)

What about Parity transformations of pseudovectors like e.g. the angular

~: L
~ = ~x p~ ?
momentum L
~ ~x p~ pseudo vector
L
~ or p~ L
~ ?
So what about e.g. ~x L
~ ~x L
~
~x L
~ ~
~ pseudoscalars
p~ L
pL

The interacting scalar eld

In this chapter some basic concepts on scattering/perturbation theory are introduced. Interaction of a real scalar eld with a static potential V (~x), e.g. a
localised potential produced by a nucleus.
Langrange density (H = H0 + H 0 ):
L(x)

= L0 (x) + L0 (x)


1
1
=
(x) m2 (x) V (~x)2 (x)
|2
{z
} | 2 {z
}
L0 (x)

L0 (x)

L0 (x)

(25)

1
= V (~x)2 (x)
2

L0 (x) is the Lagrange density of a free scalar eld. L0 (x) is the Lagrange

interaction density.
QM revisited: interaction picture
i

|ti = H 0 (t) |ti

t

H 0 is the interaction Hamiltonian.


E
T

t <
2

E
T

t >

(26)

= |ii adiabatic
= |f i

t0 =

T
2

with the solution

(27)

|ti = U (t, t0 ) |t0 i

where U (t, t0 ) describes a unitary time evolution:

Z
U (t, t0 )

= 1+

(i)
|

dt0 H 0 (t0 )
t0
{z
}

+ (i)2

t0

dt0

t0

dt00 H 0 (t0 ) H 0 (t00 ) + . . .

t0

rst order term, see prerequisites

= T exp{i

(28)

dt0 H 0 (t0 )}

t0

so that the time is ordered.

We have

U (t, t0 ) = H 0 (t)U (t, t0 )

t

(29)

Iterate (26) in its innitesimal form:

|t + ti = |ti i t H 0 (t) |ti
=

(1 i t H 0 (t)) |ti

This denes the S -Matrix:

S = lim U (t, t0 ) .
t0

(30)

t+

Back to eld theory:

Z
= d3 x L(x, t)
Z
1
=
d3 x V (~x) : (~x, t)(~x, t) :
2

H 0 (t)

(31)

where (~x, t) is a operator, which includes annihilation and creation of particles

and : : denotes normal ordering:
: a(~k) a (~k 0 ) : = + a (~k 0 ) a(~k) .

(32)

Example: transition amplitude for transition

from |ii = |~ki = a (~k) |0i at t0
to |f i = |~k0 i = a (~k0 ) |0i .

(33)

We have
Af i

= hf | S |ii = h~k0 | S |~ki

Z
= h~k0 | 1 i dt H 0 (t) + . . . |~ki
ZR
= h~k0 | 1 + i d4 x L0 (x) + . . . |~ki

Consider weak interactions:

(34)

V 2 (~x) 0 .

Then
Z
hf | S |ii = f i i

d4 x

1
V (~x) 2 h~k0 | (x) |0i h0| (x) |~ki .
2

(35)

The factor 2 in (35) stands for the two permutations of a and a, included in
(~x), which contribute. They are: a a and aa , because there is neither an
overlap between three particles and one particle nor between one and 0, the
annihilated vacuum state |0i.
Furthermore
f i

= hf | 1 |ii = h~k0 |~ki

= h0| a(~k 0 ) a (~k) |0i
=
=

h0| [a(~k 0 ), a (~k)] |0i

(2)3 2 (3) (~k ~k 0 )

(36)

The last equation follows from equation (13) on page 3.

Interpretation:
1. f i : no interaction ~k = ~k0 .
2. state ~k scatters once at V (~x) into state ~k0 .
Z
h0| (x) |~ki

= h0|

with

o
d3 k 0 1 n ik0 x ~ 0
ik0 x ~ 0
e
a
(
k
)
+
e
a(
k
)
a (~k) |0i
(2)3 2 0
h0| a = (a |0i) = 0

follows
Z
d3 k 0 1 ik0 x
e
h0| [a(~k 0 ), a (~k)] |0i
h0| (x) |~ki = h0|
(2)3 2 0
Z
d3 k 0 1 ik0 x
=
e
2 (2)3 (3) (~k ~k 0 )
(2)3 2 0

(37)

= eikx

and similarily

h~k0 | (x) |0i = eik x .

(38)

Interpretation:
Amplitudes for annihilating/ creating particles with momentum ~k/ ~k0 at spacetime point x.
We infer:
Af i

Z
0
= hf | S |ii = f i i d4 x V (~x)eik x eikx
Z

Z
00
0
0
~0 ~
= f i i dt
d3 x V (~x)ei(k k)~x ei(k k )x
=

f i 2 i (k 00 k 0 ) V (~q)

(39)

with
V (~q)

Z
=

d3 x V (~x)ei~q~x

~q = ~k ~k 0 . 3-momentum transfer

(40)

Interpretation revisited:
1. State ~k scatters at V (~x) with 'strength' V (~q) into state ~k0 where ~q = ~k~k0 .
2. Energy is conserved as k0 = k00 .
Final remark:
Relation between the scattering amplitudes in momentum space and the
form/ range of potential in space(-time):
Example:
V (~x)
V (~q)



1
1
1 ~x2
exp

2 l2
(2)3/2 l3


1
= V0 exp l2 ~q 2
2
= V0

(41)
(42)

Remark on self-interaction (and Feynman rules):

Figure 1: Feynman diagram for self-interaction.

V (~x) : (~x, t)(~x, t) :

1
: (~x, t)(~x, t)(~x, t)(~x, t) :
4!

10

(43)

1
: : |1, 2i
4!
1
h4, 3| a a a a |1, 2i 4 3 2 1
4!

4
aa
h4, 3|

Remark on complex elds:

1
(1 i 2 )
2
1
(1 + i 2 )
2

(44)

Fourier representation of :

Z
=

ipx 1
1
(a1p i a2p ) +eipx (a1p i a2p )
d
p

e
{z
}
|
2|
2
{z
}

(45)

:=ap

:=bp

with:


b p , bp0
=


a p , ap0
=
eq.

44

L0
L

In general:

(2)3 2p 3 (~
p p~0 )
(2)3 2p 3 (~
p p~0 )

= (x)( m2 )(x)
= m2

(46)
(47)

= L0 + L0
L0 = L0 [ ]

It follows that L is invariant under global U(1)-transformation of :

(x) ei (x)

(48)

with
= 0 .
(x) (x) ei
L[] L[ ei ] = L[]

(49)

j = 0 equation of motion

(50)

Noether theorem:

11

with
L

= 1 ( 2 ) 2 ( 1 )

= i [ ( ) ( )]
Z

Q =
=

=
Q =

(51)

d3 x j 0
Z
Z
hZ
i
d3 x
d
p(eipx bp + eipx ap ) dk ik0 (eikx bk eikx ak )
Z
Z
i
p
dk (eikx bk + eikx ak ) ip0 (eipx bp + eipx ap )
d
Z
d
p (ap ap bp bp )
(52)
0

Noether theorem (for internal Symmetry):

L
L

= 0 equation of motion

L
L
+



L
L
=

+





L
= 0
=

| {z }
=

and
Q =

=
Z

d3 xj 0 = +

No boundary terms.

12

d3 x i j i = 0